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Location | Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan |
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Coordinates | 27°19′45″N 68°08′20″E / 27.32917°N 68.13889°E / 27.32917; 68.13889Coordinates: 27°19′45″N 68°08′20″E / 27.32917°N 68.13889°E / 27.32917; 68.13889 |
Type | Settlement. |
Area | 250 ha (620 acres)[1] |
History | |
Founded | 26–25th century BCE |
Abandoned | 19th century BCE |
Cultures | Indus Valley Civilisation |
Official name | Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro |
Criteria | Cultural: ii, iii |
Reference | 138 |
Inscription | 1980 (4th session) |
Area | 240 ha |
Mohenjo-daro (/moʊˌhɛndʒoʊ ˈdɑːroʊ/; Sindhi: موئن جو دڙو, meaning 'Mound of the Dead Men';[2][3] Urdu: موئن جو دڑو [muˑənⁱ dʑoˑ d̪əɽoˑ]) is an archaeological site in the province of Sindh, PakistanIndus Valley Civilisation, and one of the world's earliest major cities, contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Minoan Crete, and Norte ChicoUNESCO World Heritage Site[4] The site is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration.[5]
The city's original name is unknown. Based on his analysis of a Mohenjo-daro seal, Iravatham Mahadevan speculates that the city's ancient name could have been Kukkutarma ("the city [-rma] of the cockerel [kukkuta]").[6] Cock-fightingpoint of diffusion[7]
Mohenjo-daro, the modern name for the site, has been variously interpreted as "Mound of the Dead Men" in Sindhi, and as "Mound of Mohan" (where Mohan is Krishna[3][8]
Mohenjo-daro is located west of the Indus River in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan, in a central position between the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra RiverPleistocene ridge in the middle of the flood plain of the Indus River Valley, around 28 kilometres (17 mi) from the town of Larkana[9] The ridge was prominent during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization, allowing the city to stand above the surrounding flood, but subsequent flooding has since buried most of the ridge in silt deposits. The Indus still flows east of the site, but the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed on the western side is now dry.[10]
Mohenjo-daro has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) with extremely hot summers and mild winters. The highest recorded temperature is 53.5 °C (128.3 °F), and the lowest recorded temperature is −5.4 °C (22.3 °F). Rainfall is low, and mainly occurs in the monsoon season (July–September).
hideClimate data for Mohenjo-daro | |||||||||||||
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Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 29.4 (84.9) | 36.5 (97.7) | 45.5 (113.9) | 48.5 (119.3) | 53.5 (128.3) | 51.7 (125.1) | 47.6 (117.7) | 46.0 (114.8) | 43.5 (110.3) | 49.5 (121.1) | 39.2 (102.6) | 30.6 (87.1) | 53.5 (128.3) |
Average high °C (°F) | 24.8 (76.6) | 26.2 (79.2) | 32.1 (89.8) | 38.7 (101.7) | 43.8 (110.8) | 44.2 (111.6) | 40.9 (105.6) | 38.7 (101.7) | 37.5 (99.5) | 35.2 (95.4) | 30.5 (86.9) | 24.8 (76.6) | 34.8 (94.6) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 16.0 (60.8) | 17.0 (62.6) | 22.7 (72.9) | 28.8 (83.8) | 33.9 (93.0) | 35.8 (96.4) | 34.4 (93.9) | 32.8 (91.0) | 31.1 (88.0) | 26.7 (80.1) | 21.1 (70.0) | 16.0 (60.8) | 26.4 (79.4) |
Average low °C (°F) | 7.3 (45.1) | 7.9 (46.2) | 13.3 (55.9) | 18.9 (66.0) | 24.0 (75.2) | 27.4 (81.3) | 27.9 (82.2) | 27.0 (80.6) | 24.7 (76.5) | 18.2 (64.8) | 11.8 (53.2) | 7.3 (45.1) | 18.0 (64.3) |
Record low °C (°F) | −5.4 (22.3) | −4.0 (24.8) | 2.2 (36.0) | 3.0 (37.4) | 13.0 (55.4) | 15.6 (60.1) | 18.4 (65.1) | 18.0 (64.4) | 14.5 (58.1) | 0.0 (32.0) | −1.0 (30.2) | −4.0 (24.8) | −5.4 (22.3) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 2.6 (0.10) | 5.8 (0.23) | 3.4 (0.13) | 2.9 (0.11) | 2.2 (0.09) | 2.5 (0.10) | 39.9 (1.57) | 26.6 (1.05) | 6.6 (0.26) | 0.4 (0.02) | 0.9 (0.04) | 6.3 (0.25) | 100.1 (3.95) |
Average precipitation days | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 1.9 | 1.4 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 6.6 |
Source: PMD (1991–2020) [11] |
Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BCE.[12] It was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization,[13] which developed around 3,000 BCE from the prehistoric Indus culture. At its height, the Indus Civilization spanned much of what is now Pakistan and North India, extending westwards to the Iranian border, south to Gujarat in India and northwards to an outpost in BactriaLothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi[14] When the Indus civilization went into sudden decline around 1900 BCE, Mohenjo-daro was abandoned.[12][15]
The ruins of the city remained undocumented for around 3,700 years until R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India, visited the site in 1919–20 identifying what he thought to be a Buddhist stupaKashinath Narayan Dikshit in 1924–25, and John Marshall[16] In the 1930s major excavations were conducted at the site under the leadership of Marshall, D. K. Dikshitar and Ernest MackayMortimer Wheeler and his trainee, Ahmad Hasan DaniGeorge F. Dalesweathering[4] A dry core drilling conducted in 2015 by Pakistan's National Fund for Mohenjo-daro revealed that the site is larger than the unearthed area.[17]
Mohenjo-daro has a planned layout with rectilinear buildings arranged on a grid plan[18] Most were built of fired and mortared brickmud-brickhectares[19] The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History offers a "weak" estimate of a peak population of around 40,000.[20]
The sheer size of the city, and its provision of public buildings and facilities, suggests a high level of social organization.[21] The city is divided into two parts, the so-called Citadel and the Lower City. The Citadel – a mud-brick mound around 12 metres (39 ft) high – is known to have supported public baths, a large residential structure designed to house about 5,000 citizens, and two large assembly halls. The city had a central marketplace, with a large central well. Individual households or groups of households obtained their water from smaller wells. Waste water was channeled to covered drains that lined the major streets. Some houses, presumably those of more prestigious inhabitants, include rooms that appear to have been set aside for bathing, and one building had an underground furnace (known as a hypocaust[citation needed]
In 1950, Sir Mortimer Wheeler identified one large building in Mohenjo-daro as a "Great Granary". Certain wall-divisions in its massive wooden superstructure appeared to be grain storage-bays, complete with air-ducts to dry the grain. According to Wheeler, carts would have brought grain from the countryside and unloaded them directly into the bays. However, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer[15] Close to the "Great Granary" is a large and elaborate public bath, sometimes called the Great Bathbitumen[citation needed]
Mohenjo-daro had no series of city walls, but was fortified with guard towers to the west of the main settlement, and defensive fortifications to the south. Considering these fortifications and the structure of other major Indus valley cities like Harappa
The location of Mohenjo-daro was built in a relatively short period of time, with the water supply system and wells being some of the first planned constructions. [23] With the excavations done so far, over 700 wells are present at Mohenjo-daro, alongside drainage and bathing systems.[24] This number is unheard of when compared to other civilizations at the time, such as Egypt or Mesopotamia, and the quantity of wells transcribes as one well for every three houses.[25] Because the large number of wells, it is believed that the inhabitants relied solely on annual rainfall, as well as the Indus River's course remaining close to the site, alongside the wells providing water for long periods of time in the case of the city coming under siege.[26] Due to the period in which these wells were built and used, it is likely that the circular brick well design used at this and many other Harappan sites are an invention that should be credited to the Indus civilization, as there is no existing evidence of this design from Mesopotamia or Egypt at this time, and even later.[27] Sewage and waste water for buildings at the site were disposed of via a centralized drainage system that ran alongside the site's streets.[28] These drains that ran alongside the road were effective at allowing most human waste and sewage to be disposed of as the drains tool the waste most likely toward the Indus River.[29] It is theorized that the job of keeping the pipes clean and from getting piled up was either a job for slaves, or captured enemy soldiers, with others who believe it was a paid job for citizens of the city.[30]
The city also had large platforms perhaps intended as defense against flooding.[21] According to a theory first advanced by Wheeler, the city could have been flooded and silted over, perhaps six times, and later rebuilt in the same location.[31] For some archaeologists, it was believed that a final flood that helped engulf the city in a sea of mud brought about the abandonment of the site.[32] Gregory Possehl[32] Instead of a mud flood wiping part of the city out in one fell swoop, Possehl coined the possibility of constant mini-floods throughout the year, paired with the land being worn out by crops, pastures, and resources for bricks and pottery spelled the downfall of the site.[33]
Numerous objects found in excavation include seated and standing figures, copper and stone tools, carved seals, balance-scales and weights, gold and jasper[35] Many bronze and copper pieces, such as figurines and bowls, have been recovered from the site, showing that the inhabitants of Mohenjo-daro understood how to utilize the lost wax technique[36] The furnaces found at the site are believed to have been used for copperworks and melting the metals as opposed to smelting. There even seems to be an entire section of the city dedicated to shell-working, located in the northeastern part of the site.[37] Some of the most prominent copperworks recovered from the site are the copper tablets which have examples of the untranslated Indus script[38] While the script has not been cracked yet, many of the images on the tablets match another tablet and both hold the same caption in the Indus language, with the example given showing three tablets with the image of a mountain goat and the inscription on the back reading the same letters for the three tablets.[39] Pottery and terracotta sherds[40] These heaters, or braziers, were ways to heat the house while also being able to be utilized in a manner of cooking or straining, while others solely believe they were used for heating.[40] Many important objects from Mohenjo-daro are conserved at the National Museum of India in Delhi and the National Museum of Pakistan in KarachiBritish MuseumArchaeological Survey of India[41]
Discovered by John Marshall in 1931, the idol appears to mimic certain characteristics that match the Mother Goddess[42] Sculptures and figurines depicting women have been observed as part of Harappan culture and religion, as multiple female pieces were recovered from Marshall's archaeological digs.[42] These figures were not categorized correctly, according to Marshall, meaning that where they were recovered from the site is not actually clear. One of said figures, pictured below, is 18.7 cm tall and is currently on display at the National Museum of Pakistan[42] The fertility and motherhood aspects on display on the idols is represented by the female genitalia that is presented in an almost exaggerated style as stated by Marshall, with him inferring that such figurines are offerings to the goddess, as opposed to the typical understanding of them being idols representing the goddess's likeness.[42] Because of the figurines being unique in terms of hairstyles, body proportions, as well as headdresses and jewelry, there are theories as to who these figurines actually represent.[42] Shereen Ratnagar[42]
A bronze[43] and about 4,500 years old, was found in 'HR area' of Mohenjo-daro in 1926; it is now in the National Museum, New Delhi[43] In 1973, British archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler described the item as his favorite statuette:
"She's about fifteen years old I should think, not more, but she stands there with bangles all the way up her arm and nothing else on. A girl perfectly, for the moment, perfectly confident of herself and the world. There's nothing like her, I think, in the world."
John Marshall[44] The archaeologist Gregory Possehl[43]
In 1927, a seated male soapstonepriests or monarchsfillettrefoil[45]
A seal discovered at the site bears the image of a seated, cross-legged and possibly ithyphallicyogiShiva
Sir Mortimer Wheeler was especially fascinated with this artifact, which he believed to be at least 4,500 years old. The necklace has an S-shaped clasp with seven strands, each over 4 ft long, of bronze-metal bead-like nuggets which connect each arm of the "S" in filigree[citation needed]
An initial agreement to fund restoration was agreed through the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Paris
Country | Contribution US$ |
---|---|
Australia | $62,650.00 |
Bahrain | $3,000.00 |
Cameroon | $1,000.00 |
Egypt | $63,889.60 |
Germany | $375,939.85 |
India | $49,494.95 |
Iraq | $9,781.00 |
Japan | $200,000.00 |
Kuwait | $3,000.00 |
Malta | $275.82 |
Mauritius | $2,072.50 |
Nigeria | $8,130.00 |
Saudi Arabia | $58,993.63 |
Sri Lanka | $1,562.50 |
Tanzania | $1,000.00 |
Preservation work for Mohenjo-daro was suspended in December 1996 after funding from the Pakistani government and international organizations stopped. Site conservation work resumed in April 1997, using funds made available by the UNESCO. The 20-year funding plan provided $10 million to protect the site and standing structures from flooding[46]
Currently the site is threatened by groundwater salinity[5][47]
The Mohenjo-daro site was further threatened in January 2014, when Bilawal Bhutto Zardari of the Pakistan People's PartyPunjab University warned that such activity was banned under the Antiquity ActSindh High Court[48][49] The festival was held by PPP at the historic site, despite all the protest by both national and international historians and educators.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Mohenjo-daro. |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mohenjo-daro. |
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