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Description
Rice straw is the vegetative part of the rice plant (Oryza sativa, L.), cut at grain harvest or after. It may be burned and left on the field before the next ploughing, ploughed down as soil improver or used as a feed for livestock (Kadam et al., 2000). Rice straw is a major forage in rice-producing areas.
Distribution
Rice originates from Asia, where it has been cultivated since 6500 BC, and is now naturalized in most tropical and subtropical regions. Rice grows from 53°N in China to 35°S in Australia. The optimal growing conditions are: 20-30°C average day-temperatures with night temperature over 15°C; fertile, heavy soils; 6.5-7 pH. Most varieties ("swamp rice", "lowland rice") must be planted in stagnant water and require 200 mm rainfall/month or the equivalent amount from irrigation, whereas others ("mountain rice" or "upland rice") require less irrigation and 750 mm rainfall over a 3-4 months period with no desiccation.
Processes
Rice straw can be treated in order to improve its nutritive value. Those treatments are designed to enhance feed intake and/or digestibility. Improving digestibility may be achieved through mechanical, chemical, heat and pressure treatments.
Mechanical treatments
Chopping and grinding rice straw may reduce the time of passage in the rumen and improve feed intake (Doyle et al., 1986).
Chemical treatments
Chemical treatments (NaOH, ammonia, urea) may be hazardous to humans (NaOH is a dangerous chemical if handled wrongly) and animals (heavy urination, faster rumen washout).
NaOH treatment consists in soaking the straw in NaOH solutions, draining it and sometimes washing it after treatment. This may cause water pollution. It is also possible to spray NaOH onto the straw and then allowing it to dry.
Ammonia treatments are safer and provide nitrogen that is lacking in straw. Ammonia reduces physical strength and disrupts silicified cuticles in leaves. Ammonia treatments can increase digestibility by 31%.
Urea treatment is the easiest to apply. It can be done by smallholder farmers using plastic bags, with a 5% urea w/w solution. It can increase digestibility by 18% (Van Soest, 2006).
Heat and pressure treatments
Steam pressure: it releases acetyl groups from the hemi-cellulose, thus increasing digestibility of the rice straw.
Association of steam pressure and ammonia: this treatment has been reported to induce severe hyper-excitability in cattle (Van Soest, 2006).
Environmental impact
When rice straw is burned or ploughed under, it may cause air pollution or generate leachates. Ploughing under may also propagate fungi (Kadam et al., 2000). Feeding it to livestock reduces its environmental impact and makes the best use of rice as both an energy source and a protein provider. Cattle dung can be burned or composted to benefit from rice energy and to enrich the soil.
Rice straw is unique relative to other cereal straws in being low in lignin and high in silica. Unlike other cereal straws taller varieties of rice straws tend to be leafy while the leaves are less digested than stems. This may contribute to higher straw value with rice yield. There is genetic variation in straw quality but has not been exploited and tends to be smaller than environmental variation. Effort in plant breeding has been to develop short varieties with higher grain yield. This development has reduced straw quantity but not nutritive value. The relationship between plant genetics and silica metabolism is virtually uninvestigated, although reviews from plant physiology indicate it is a major factor.
Silica and lignin in that order are the primary limiting factors in rice straw quality. Silicon is a nutrient element which has been overlooked largely because of its assumed inertness, but also because of its geochemical abundance that so greatly exceeds its metabolic use by plants and animals. Silicon is involved in several major roles in rice: carbohydrate synthesis, grain yield, phenolic synthesis and plant cell wall protection. These vectors interact with each other to eliminate statistical association of silica and lignin with straw digestibility when varieties are compared. Yield of grain is highly related to silica content of straw, which reflects soil availability. There are no detailed studies on rice straw lignin. Most papers reporting lignin contents in rice straw have used acid-detergent lignin by either the sulfuric acid or permanganate versions. There are undoubtedly soluble phenolics in rice straw that need investigation. The effects of ammonia and urea on silica is to crack the silicified cuticular layer. Silica is not dissolved by these reagents in contrast to the action of sodium hydroxide.
Treatments on rice straw follow those applied to other lignified materials. In order of frequency of reports, urea followed by ammonia with comparatively fewer papers on sodium hydroxide, steam and pressure treatments or exploded by pressure release, and only one or two papers on acid treatments and white rot fungi. There are reports on animal supplementation and a few growth studies with young animals. Field surveys in India and the southeast Asian countries only report the use of urea, although it appears less efficient than ammonia. Farmer acceptance is related to their perceptions on costs, labor, equipment, health, safety, i.e. the exposure to ammonia vapor, economic and other social factors. The various papers reporting treatments have used animal digestion trials; a variety of in sacco, in vitro digestions with rumen organisms or cellulase, some in combination with pepsin digestion or neutral-detergent extraction. Gas production from in vitro rumen fermentation has also been used. Results are expressed mainly on dry matter basis and fewer reports on organic matter. Results are difficult to compare and standardization of procedures is badly needed. However, most treatments with ammonia and urea show some increase in digestibility and intake where measured in in vivo trials. In vitro and in sacco evaluations tend to overestimate improvement in digestibility.
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