Re:Re:Xenoestrogens(Endocrine-disrupting Chemical)에 대하여

[문형철]

beyond reason

xenoestrogen은 에스트로겐 흉내를 내는 xenohormone임

PCBs, BPA, 프탈레이트와 같은 산업화합물은 생체기관에서 에스트로겐 효과를 보임. 

Xenoestrogens[edit]

Main article: Xenoestrogen

Xenoestrogens are a type of xenohormone that imitates estrogen. Synthetic xenoestrogens include widely used industrial compounds, such as PCBs, BPA and phthalates, which have estrogenic effects on a living organism.

알킬페놀(Alkylphenols)- 노닐페놀, 옥틸페놀[edit]

Main article: Alkylphenols

Alkylphenols are xenoestrogens.^[74] The European Union has implemented sales and use restrictions on certain applications in which nonylphenols are used because of their alleged "toxicity, persistence, and the liability to bioaccumulate" but the United States Environmental Protections Agency (EPA) has taken a slower approach to make sure that action is based on "sound science".^[75]

The long-chain alkylphenols are used extensively as precursors to the detergents, as additives for fuels and lubricants, polymers, and as components in phenolic resins. These compounds are also used as building block chemicals that are also used in making fragrances, thermoplastic elastomers, antioxidants, oil field chemicals and fire retardantmaterials. Through the downstream use in making alkylphenolic resins, alkylphenols are also found in tires, adhesives, coatings, carbonless copy paper and high performance rubber products. They have been used in industry for over 40 years.

Certain alkylphenols are degradation products from nonionic detergents. Nonylphenol is considered to be a low-level endocrine disruptor owing to its tendency to mimic estrogen.^[76][77]

알킬 페놀 에톡실레이트 (Alkyl phenol ethoxylate)가 무엇인가?

이 물질은 여러 가지 용도로 사용되지만 우리에게는 흔히 세탁 및 주방 세제로 사용되는 것으로 알려져 있음. 기름과 친한 알킬 부분과 물과 친한 에톡실레이트 부분을 한 번에 가지고 있는 알킬 페녹실레이트는 기름때를 옷에서 떼어 물에 녹아 최종적으로 기름때를 제거하는 효과.

그런데 이 물질은 물에 들어가면 빨간 네모 부분이 떨어져 나가서 페놀로 변하니 그냥 알킬 페놀 에톡실레이트/알킬 페놀은 그냥 한 세트로 생각해도 문제가 없음.

알킬 페놀의 유해성은?

2006년 SBS의 "환경 호르몬의 역습"이란 다큐멘터리에서는 미국 한 동네의 여성들이 상대적으로

높은 유방암 발병률에 대한 이유를 알보았습니다. 그 동네에서 문제가 된 것이 바로 세탁 세제로 사용된 노닐 페놀입니다. 노닐 페놀은 여성 호르몬 (Estrogen)과 구조가 비슷하여 호르몬 작용에 영향을 주어 인체에 여러 가지 악영향을 끼치는 것으로 알려져 있습니다.

어떻게 하면 노출을 방지할 수 있나?

성분표에 ~ 페놀 에톡실레이트라고 쓰여있으면 사용하면 안 됩니다. 그리고 세제를 사용한 식기는 깨끗이 헹궈주는 것이 좋습니다. 또한, 2011년 그린피스의 보고서에서 알 수 있듯이 의류의 세탁 세제로 사용하는 경유가 있을 수 있습니다. 그러므로 새 옷을 사게 되면 한번 빨고 입는 것이 좋습니다.

Bisphenol A (BPA)[edit]

This section needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Endocrine disruptor" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR  (March 2016)

Main article: Bisphenol A

Bisphenol A chemical structure

Bisphenol A is commonly found in plastic bottles, plastic food containers, dental materials, and the linings of metal food and infant formula cans. Another exposure comes from receipt paper commonly used at grocery stores and restaurants, because today the paper is commonly coated with a BPA containing clay for printing purposes.^[78]

BPA is a known endocrine disruptor, and numerous studies have found that laboratory animals exposed to low levels of it have elevated rates of diabetes, mammary and prostate cancers, decreased sperm count, reproductive problems, early puberty, obesity, and neurological problems.^{[79][80][81][82]} Early developmental stages appear to be the period of greatest sensitivity to its effects, and some studies have linked prenatal exposure to later physical and neurological difficulties.^[83] Regulatory bodies have determined safety levels for humans, but those safety levels are currently being questioned or are under review as a result of new scientific studies.^[84][85] A 2011 cross-sectional study that investigated the number of chemicals pregnant women are exposed to in the U.S. found BPA in 96% of women.^[86] In 2010 the World Health Organization expert panel recommended no new regulations limiting or banning the use of bisphenol A, stating that "initiation of public health measures would be premature."^[87]

In August 2008, the U.S. FDA issued a draft reassessment, reconfirm‎ing their initial opinion that, based on scientific evidence, it is safe.^[88] However, in October 2008, FDA's advisory Science Board concluded that the Agency's assessment was "flawed" and hadn't proven the chemical to be safe for formula-fed infants.^[89] In January 2010, the FDA issued a report indicating that, due to findings of recent studies that used novel approaches in testing for subtle effects, both the National Toxicology Program at the National Institutes of Health as well as the FDA have some level of concern regarding the possible effects of BPA on the brain and behavior of fetuses, infants and younger children.^[90] In 2012 the FDA did ban the use of BPA in baby bottles, however the Environmental Working Group called the ban "purely cosmetic". In a statement they said, “If the agency truly wants to prevent people from being exposed to this toxic chemical associated with a variety of serious and chronic conditions it should ban its use in cans of infant formula, food and beverages." The Natural Resources Defense Council called the move inadequate saying, the FDA needs to ban BPA from all food packaging.^[91] In a statement a FDA spokesman said the agency's action was not based on safety concerns and that "the agency continues to support the safety of BPA for use in products that hold food."^[92]

A program initiated by NIEHS, NTP, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (named CLARITY-BPA) found no effect of chronic exposure to BPA on rats^[93] and the FDA considers currently authorized uses of BPA to be safe for consumers.^[94]

Bisphenol S (BPS)[edit]

Bisphenol S is an analog of bisphenol A. It is commonly found in thermal receipts, plastics, and household dust. Traces of BPS have also been found in personal care products.^[95] It is more presently being used because of the ban of BPA. BPS is used in place of BPA in “BPA free” items. However BPS has been shown to be as much of an endocrine disruptor as BPA.^[96]

DDT[edit]

Main article: DDT

DDT Chemical structure

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was first used as a pesticide against Colorado potato beetles on crops beginning in 1936.^[97] An increase in the incidence of malaria, epidemic typhus, dysentery, and typhoid fever led to its use against the mosquitoes, lice, and houseflies that carried these diseases. Before World War II, pyrethrum, an extract of a flower from Japan, had been used to control these insects and the diseases they can spread. During World War II, Japan stopped exporting pyrethrum, forcing the search for an alternative. Fearing an epidemic outbreak of typhus, every British and American soldier was issued DDT, who used it to routinely dust beds, tents, and barracks all over the world.

DDT was approved for general, non-military use after the war ended.^[97] It became used worldwide to increase monoculture crop yields that were threatened by pest infestation, and to reduce the spread of malaria which had a high mortality rate in many parts of the world. Its use for agricultural purposes has since been prohibited by national legislation of most countries, while its use as a control against malaria vectors is permitted, as specifically stated by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants^[98]

As early as 1946, the harmful effects of DDT on bird, beneficial insects, fish, and marine invertebrates were seen in the environment. The most infamous example of these effects were seen in the eggshells of large predatory birds, which did not develop to be thick enough to support the adult bird sitting on them.^[99] Further studies found DDT in high concentrations in carnivores all over the world, the result of biomagnification through the food chain.^[100] Twenty years after its widespread use, DDT was found trapped in ice samples taken from Antarctic snow, suggesting wind and water are another means of environmental transport.^[101] Recent studies show the historical record of DDT deposition on remote glaciers in the Himalayas.^[102]

More than sixty years ago when biologists began to study the effects of DDT on laboratory animals, it was discovered that DDT interfered with reproductive development.^[103][104]Recent studies suggest DDT may inhibit the proper development of female reproductive organs that adversely affects reproduction into maturity.^[105] Additional studies suggest that a marked decrease in fertility in adult males may be due to DDT exposure.^[106] Most recently, it has been suggested that exposure to DDT in utero can increase a child's risk of childhood obesity.^[107] DDT is still used as anti-malarial insecticide in Africa and parts of Southeast Asia in limited quantities.

Polychlorinated biphenyls[edit]

Main article: Polychlorinated biphenyls

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a class of chlorinated compounds used as industrial coolants and lubricants. PCBs are created by heating benzene, a byproduct of gasoline refining, with chlorine.^[108] They were first manufactured commercially by the Swann Chemical Company in 1927.^[109] In 1933, the health effects of direct PCB exposure was seen in those who worked with the chemicals at the manufacturing facility in Alabama. In 1935, Monsanto acquired the company, taking over US production and licensing PCB manufacturing technology internationally.

General Electric was one of the largest US companies to incorporate PCBs into manufactured equipment.^[109] Between 1952 and 1977, the New York GE plant had dumped more than 500,000 pounds of PCB waste into the Hudson River. PCBs were first discovered in the environment far from its industrial use by scientists in Sweden studying DDT.^[110]

The effects of acute exposure to PCBs were well known within the companies who used Monsanto's PCB formulation who saw the effects on their workers who came into contact with it regularly. Direct skin contact results in a severe acne-like condition called chloracne.^[111] Exposure increases the risk of skin cancer,^[112] liver cancer,^[113] and brain cancer.^[112][114] Monsanto tried for years to downplay the health problems related to PCB exposure in order to continue sales.^[115]

The detrimental health effects of PCB exposure to humans became undeniable when two separate incidents of contaminated cooking oil poisoned thousands of residents in Japan(Yushō disease, 1968) and Taiwan (Yu-cheng disease, 1979),^[116] leading to a worldwide ban on PCB use in 1977. Recent studies show the endocrine interference of certain PCB congeners is toxic to the liver and thyroid,^[117] increases childhood obesity in children exposed prenatally,^[107] and may increase the risk of developing diabetes.^[118][119]

PCBs in the environment may also be related to reproductive and infertility problems in wildlife. In Alaska it is thought that they may contribute to reproductive defects, infertility and antler malformation in some deer populations. Declines in the populations of otters and sea lions may also be partially due to their exposure to PCBs, the insecticide DDT, other persistent organic pollutants. Bans and restrictions on the use of EDCs have been associated with a reduction in health problems and the recovery of some wildlife populations.^[120]

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers[edit]

Main article: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are a class of compounds found in flame retardants used in plastic cases of televisions and computers, electronics, carpets, lighting, bedding, clothing, car components, foam cushions and other textiles. Potential health concern: PBDE's are structurally very similar to Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and have similar neurotoxic effects.^[121] Research has correlated halogenated hydrocarbons, such as PCBs, with neurotoxicity.^[117] PBDEs are similar in chemical structure to PCBs, and it has been suggested that PBDEs act by the same mechanism as PCBs.^[117]

In the 1930s and 1940s, the plastics industry developed technologies to create a variety of plastics with broad applications.^[122] Once World War II began, the US military used these new plastic materials to improve weapons, protect equipment, and to replace heavy components in aircraft and vehicles.^[122] After WWII, manufacturers saw the potential plastics could have in many industries, and plastics were incorporated into new consumer product designs. Plastics began to replace wood and metal in existing products as well, and today plastics are the most widely used manufacturing materials.^[122]

By the 1960s, all homes were wired with electricity and had numerous electrical appliances. Cotton had been the dominant textile used to produce home furnishings,^[123] but now home furnishings were composed of mostly synthetic materials. More than 500 billion cigarettes were consumed each year in the 1960s, as compared to less than 3 billion per year in the beginning of the twentieth century.^[124] When combined with high density living, the potential for home fires was higher in the 1960s than it had ever been in the US. By the late 1970s, approximately 6000 people in the US died each year in home fires.^[125]

In 1972, in response to this situation, the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control was created to study the fire problem in the US. In 1973 they published their findings in America Burning, a 192-page report^[126] that made recommendations to increase fire prevention. Most of the recommendations dealt with fire prevention education and improved building engineering, such as the installation of fire sprinklers and smoke detectors. The Commission expected that with the recommendations, a 5% reduction in fire losses could be expected each year, halving the annual losses within 14 years.

Historically, treatments with alum and borax were used to reduce the flammability of fabric and wood, as far back as Roman times.^[127] Since it is a non-absorbent material once created, flame retardant chemicals are added to plastic during the polymerization reaction when it is formed. Organic compounds based on halogens like bromine and chlorine are used as the flame retardant additive in plastics, and in fabric based textiles as well.^[127] The widespread use of brominated flame retardants may be due to the push from Great Lakes Chemical Corporation (GLCC) to profit from its huge investment in bromine.^[128] In 1992, the world market consumed approximately 150,000 tonnes of bromine-based flame retardants, and GLCC produced 30% of the world supply.^[127]

PBDEs have the potential to disrupt thyroid hormone balance and contribute to a variety of neurological and developmental deficits, including low intelligence and learning disabilities.^[129][130] Many of the most common PBDE's were banned in the European Union in 2006.^[131] Studies with rodents have suggested that even brief exposure to PBDEs can cause developmental and behavior problems in juvenile rodents^[35][132] and exposure interferes with proper thyroid hormone regulation.^[133]

Phthalates[edit]

Main article: Phthalates

Phthalates are found in some soft toys, flooring, medical equipment, cosmetics and air fresheners. They are of potential health concern because they are known to disrupt the endocrine system of animals, and some research has implicated them in the rise of birth defects of the male reproductive system.^{[41][134][135]}

Although an expert panel has concluded that there is "insufficient evidence" that they can harm the reproductive system of infants,^[136] California,^[137][138]Washington state and Europe have banned them from toys. One phthalate, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), used in medical tubing, catheters and blood bags, may harm sexual development in male infants.^[134] In 2002, the Food and Drug Administration released a public report which cautioned against exposing male babies to DEHP. Although there are no direct human studies the FDA report states: "Exposure to DEHP has produced a range of adverse effects in laboratory animals, but of greatest concern are effects on the development of the male reproductive system and production of normal sperm in young animals. In view of the available animal data, precautions should be taken to limit the exposure of the developing male to DEHP".^[139] Similarly, phthalates may play a causal role in disrupting masculine neurological development when exposed prenatally.^[140]

Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) has also disrupted insulin and glucagon signaling in animal models.^[141]

프탈레이트란 무엇인가?

프탈레이트는 정말 정말 여러 곳에 사용됨. 가장 많이 알려진 것은 플라스틱을 유연하게 만들어주는 가소제 (Plasticizer)로 사용되는 것. 특히 PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) 제품에는 정말 많이 들어감. 또한 향수나 살충제 물질을 녹이는 용매로도 사용.

프탈레이트의 유해성은?

이 물질은 대표적인 환경 호르몬으로 알려져 있으며, 생식 기능 저하, 당뇨병, 비만, 유방암들과

관련. 최근의 연구에서는 주의력 결핍 과행동 장애로 알려진 ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)와도 연관.

2000년에 Environmental Health Perspective에 발표된 논문에서는 푸에르토리코 (Puerto Rico)의 성조숙증 소녀 환자들의 혈액을 분석한 결과, 프탈레이트가 검출. 실험 참가자 중에는 불과 생후 23개월 만에 성조숙증으로 가슴이 발달한 아기도 있었음.  

어떻게 하면 노출을 방지할 수 있나?

사실 생활 중에 프탈레이트의 노출을 막기란 쉽지 않습니다.

너무 많은 곳에 사용되기 때문입니다.

우선은 플라스틱 제품 사용을

최대한 자제해 달라고 말씀드리고 싶습니다.

특히 이전에는 어린이 용품이나 장난감에

유럽 기준 4가지 프탈레이트만 주로 규제가 되어

많은 경우 규제를 받지 않던 다른 프탈레이트를

대체 물질로 사용한 것으로 알려져 있습니다.

하지만 다른 프탈레이트도

이번 환경 호르몬 리스트에 추가된 만큼

아이들이 플라스틱 제품이나 장난감을 가지고 놀 때는 주의를 하시고

입에 넣거나 빠는 행위는 반드시 금지하셔야 합니다.

마지막으로 프탈산은 매니큐어에 많이 포함되어 있으니

제품을 구매하시기 전에 반드시 성분을 확인하시고 구매하십시오.

Perfluorooctanoic acid[edit]

PFOA exerts hormonal effects including alteration of thyroid hormone levels. Blood serum levels of PFOA were associated with an increased time to pregnancy — or "infertility" — in a 2009 study. PFOA exposure is associated with decreased semen quality. PFOA appeared to act as an endocrine disruptor by a potential mechanism on breast maturation in young girls. A C8 Science Panel status report noted an association between exposure in girls and a later onset of puberty.

Other suspected endocrine disruptors[edit]

Some other examples of putative EDCs are polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins (PCDDs) and -furans (PCDFs),  polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phenol derivatives and a number of pesticides (most prominent being organochlorine insecticides like endosulfan, kepone (chlordecone) and DDT and its derivatives, the herbicide atrazine, and the fungicide vinclozolin), the contraceptive 17-alpha ethinylestradiol, as well as naturally occurring  phytoestrogens such as genistein and mycoestrogens such as zearalenone.

The molting in crustaceans is an endocrine-controlled process. In the marine penaeid shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, exposure to endosulfan resulted increased susceptibility to acute toxicity and increased mortalities in the postmolt stage of the shrimp.^[142]

Many sunscreens contain oxybenzone, a chemical blocker that provides broad-spectrum UV coverage, yet is subject to a lot of controversy due its potential estrogenic effect in humans.^[143]

Tributyltin (TBT) are organotin compounds that for 40 years TBT was used as a biocide in anti-fouling paint, commonly known as bottom paint. TBT has been shown to impact invertebrate and vertebrate development, disrupting the endocrine system, resulting in masculinization, lower survival rates, as well as many health problems in mammals.

Temporal trends of body burden[edit]

Since being banned, the average human body burdens of DDT and PCB have been declining.^{[56][144][145]} Since their ban in 1972, the PCB body burden in 2009 is one-hundredth of what it was in the early 1980s. On the other hand, monitoring programs of European breast milk samples have shown that PBDE levels are increasing.^[56][145] An analysis of PBDE content in breast milk samples from Europe, Canada, and the US shows that levels are 40 times higher for North American women than for Swedish women, and that levels in North America are doubling every two to six years.^[146][147]