|
|
PMCID: PMC7147972 NIHMSID: NIHMS1578211 PMID: 31806905
The publisher's version of this article is available at Nat Med
Abstract
Although intermittent increases in inflammation are critical for survival during physical injury and infection, recent research has revealed that certain social, environmental and lifestyle factors can promote systemic chronic inflammation (SCI) that can, in turn, lead to several diseases that collectively represent the leading causes of disability and mortality worldwide, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and autoimmune and neurodegenerative disorders. In the present Perspective we describe the multi-level mechanisms underlying SCI and several risk factors that promote this health-damaging phenotype, including infections, physical inactivity, poor diet, environmental and industrial toxicants and psychological stress. Furthermore, we suggest potential strategies for advancing the early diagnosis, prevention and treatment of SCI.
초록 (Abstract)
신체 손상이나 감염 시 생존을 위해 간헐적인 염증 증가는 필수적이지만,
최근 연구에 따르면 특정 사회적·환경적·생활습관 요인들이
전신 만성 염증 (systemic chronic inflammation, SCI) 을 촉진할 수 있으며,
이는 전 세계 장애와 사망의 주요 원인인 여러 질환으로 이어진다.
이러한 질환으로는
심혈관 질환, 암, 당뇨병, 만성 신장 질환, 비알코올성 지방간 질환, 자가면역 질환 및 신경퇴행성 장애 등이 포함된다.
본 Perspective에서는
SCI의 다단계 기전과 이 건강에 해로운 표현형을 촉진하는
여러 위험인자(감염, 신체 활동 부족, 불량 식이, 환경 및 산업 독성물질, 심리적 스트레스 등)를 설명한다.
또한 SCI의 조기 진단, 예방, 치료를 발전시킬 수 있는
잠재적 전략을 제안한다.
One of the most important medical discoveries of the past two decades has been that the immune system and inflammatory processes are involved in not just a few select disorders, but a wide variety of mental and physical health problems that dominate present-day morbidity and mortality worldwide1–4. Indeed, chronic inflammatory diseases have been recognized as the most significant cause of death in the world today, with more than 50% of all deaths being attributable to inflammation-related diseases such as ischemic heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and autoimmune and neurodegenerative conditions5. Evidence is emerging that the risk of developing chronic inflammation can be traced back to early development, and its effects are now known to persist throughout the life span to affect adulthood health and risk of mortality6–8. In this Perspective, we describe these effects and out-line some promising avenues for future research and intervention.
지난 20년간 가장 중요한 의학적 발견 중 하나는
면역계와 염증 과정이 몇몇 특정 질환뿐만 아니라,
오늘날 전 세계적으로 주요한 이환율과 사망률을 차지하는
다양한 정신적·신체적 건강 문제에 관여한다는 것이다¹⁻⁴.
실제로 만성 염증성 질환은
현재 세계에서 가장 중요한 사망 원인으로 인정되며,
전 세계 사망의 50% 이상이
허혈성 심장 질환, 뇌졸중, 암, 당뇨병, 만성 신장 질환, 비알코올성 지방간 질환 (NAFLD), 자가면역 및 신경퇴행성 질환 등
염증 관련 질환으로 인한 것이다⁵.
만성 염증 발병 위험은
초기 발달 단계까지 거슬러 올라갈 수 있으며,
그 영향은 이제 생애 전 기간에 걸쳐 지속되어
성인기 건강과 사망 위험에 영향을 미친다는 것이 알려져 있다⁶⁻⁸.
본 Perspective에서는 이러한 영향과 미래 연구 및 개입을 위한 유망한 방향을 설명한다.
Inflammation
Inflammation is an evolutionarily conserved process characterized by the activation of immune and non-immune cells that protect the host from bacteria, viruses, toxins and infections by eliminating pathogens and promoting tissue repair and recovery2,9. Depending on the degree and extent of the inflammatory response, including whether it is systemic or local, metabolic and neuroendocrine changes can occur to conserve metabolic energy and allocate more nutrients to the activated immune system9–12. Specific biobehavioral effects of inflammation thus include a constellation of energy-saving behaviors commonly known as “sickness behaviors,” such as sadness, anhedonia, fatigue, reduced libido and food intake, altered sleep and social-behavioral withdrawal, as well as increased blood pressure, insulin resistance and dyslipidemia10,13.These behavioral changes can be critical for survival during times of physical injury and microbial threat14.
A normal inflammatory response is characterized by the temporally restricted upregulation of inflammatory activity that occurs when a threat is present and that resolves once the threat has passed9,13,15. However, the presence of certain social, psychological, environmental and biological factors has been linked to the prevention of resolution of acute inflammation and, in turn, the promotion of a state of low-grade, non-infective (that is, ‘sterile’) systemic chronic inflammation (SCI) that is characterized by the activation of immune components that are often distinct from those engaged during an acute immune response13,16.
Shifts in the inflammatory response from short- to long-lived can cause a breakdown of immune tolerance9,15 and lead to major alterations in all tissues and organs, as well as normal cellular physiology, which can increase the risk for various non-communicable diseases in both young and older individuals1,9–11,15,17–21. SCI can also impair normal immune function, leading to increased susceptibility to infections and tumors and a poor response to vaccines22–25. Furthermore, SCI during pregnancy and childhood can have serious developmental consequences that include elevating the risk of non-communicable diseases over the life span7,8,26,27.
염증 (Inflammation)
염증은 진화적으로 보존된 과정으로, 면역 및 비면역 세포의 활성화를 특징으로 하며, 숙주를 세균, 바이러스, 독소, 감염으로부터 보호하고 병원체를 제거하며 조직 수복과 회복을 촉진한다²⁹. 염증 반응의 정도와 범위(전신적 또는 국소적)에 따라 대사 및 신경내분비 변화가 발생하여 대사 에너지를 보존하고 활성화된 면역계에 더 많은 영양소를 할당한다⁹⁻¹². 따라서 염증의 구체적인 생물행동적 효과로는 “병든 행동(sickness behaviors)”으로 불리는 에너지 절약 행동 군집이 나타나는데, 이는 슬픔, 쾌감 상실, 피로, 성욕 및 식욕 감소, 수면 변화, 사회적·행동적 철수 등을 포함하며, 혈압 상승, 인슐린 저항성, 이상지질혈증도 동반된다¹⁰¹³. 이러한 행동 변화는 신체 손상이나 미생물 위협 시 생존에 매우 중요하다¹⁴.
정상적인 염증 반응은 위협이 존재할 때
일시적으로 염증 활성이 상향 조절되고,
위협이 사라지면 해소되는 특징을 가진다⁹¹³¹⁵.
그러나
특정 사회적·심리적·환경적·생물학적 요인들이 존재하면 급성 염증의 해소가 방해받아,
저등급·비감염성(즉, ‘무균성’) 전신 만성 염증 (SCI) 상태가 촉진된다.
이는 급성 면역 반응 시 관여되는 것과
종종 다른 면역 구성 요소의 활성화를 특징으로 한다¹³¹⁶.
염증 반응이 단기에서 장기로 전환되면 면역 관용(immune tolerance)이 붕괴되고¹⁵,
모든 조직과 장기, 정상 세포 생리학에 주요 변화를 초래하여
젊은이와 노인 모두에서 다양한 비전염성 질환 위험을 증가시킨다¹⁹⁻¹¹¹⁵¹⁷⁻²¹.
| 이 리뷰는 염증이 단순히 "억제"되는 것이 아니라 적극적으로 "해소"되는 과정을 통해 만성 질환(예: 관절염, 동맥경화, 폐 섬유증)을 치료할 수 있다는 새로운 패러다임을 제시합니다. Furman et al. (2019)의 SCI 개념을 보완하며, 해소 실패가 "frustrated resolution"으로 이어져 만성 염증을 초래한다고 제안. 초록 (Abstract) 요약 염증 dysregulation은 다양한 질환의 핵심 병리 과정. 전통적 치료는 pro- 또는 anti-inflammatory 경로를 조절하나 효과가 제한적. 최근 염증 해소(resolution) 경로에 대한 이해가 약리적 조작 기회를 제공 — 이는 보완적(또는 우월한) 치료 전략. 리뷰는 해소 생물학의 최신 상태를 논의하며, translational research의 기회와 도전을 강조. 주요 내용 구조 (Main Sections) 1. 서론 (Introduction)
그림의 시각적 구조와 흐름
Death & Clearance
1. Leukocyte death (백혈구 사멸)
하지만 죽은 세포 자체는 염증을 유발할 수 있으므로, 제거되지 않으면 문제가 됩니다. 2. Efferocytosis (죽은 세포 포식)
죽은 세포를 청소하면서 동시에 해소 신호를 적극적으로 보내는 '두 번째·활성 단계'입니다. 5. Resolution 중 Macrophage Phenotypes
해소(resolution) 단계와 post-resolution 단계에서 monocyte/macrophage의 역할은 전통적인 M1/M2 이분법을 넘어 phase-specific plasticity (단계별 가소성)를 강조. 이는 염증 해소가 단순히 세포 제거가 아니라 adaptive immunity 형성과 장기 tissue immunity를 위한 active bridge 과정임을 보여줍니다. 1. Resolution 후 monocyte/macrophage 다양성 (Diversity after resolution)
(다양한 표현형: LY6Chi MDMs, DCs, F4/80 int macrophages, resident macrophages)이 공존 → lymph node expansion + memory T/B lymphocyte 증가 동반 (adaptive immunity establishment). 2. Plasticity: M1/M2가 아닌 phase-specific phenotypes
6. Pro-Resolution Pathways 타겟팅
|
SCI는
정상 면역 기능을 손상시켜 감염 및 종양에 대한 취약성을 증가시키고 백신 반응을 저하시킨다²²⁻²⁵.
또한 임신기 및 아동기 SCI는 심각한 발달적 결과를 초래하여
생애 전 기간 동안 비전염성 질환 위험을 높인다⁷⁸²⁶²⁷.
Systemic chronic inflammation and non-communicable disease risk
Although they share some common mechanisms, the acute inflammatory response differs from SCI (Table 1). Most notably, the acute inflammatory response is typically initiated during times of infection via an interaction between pattern recognition receptors expressed on innate immune cells and evolutionarily conserved structures on pathogens, called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The acute inflammatory response can also be activated by damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that are released in response to physical, chemical or metabolic noxious stimuli—that is, ‘sterile’ agents—during cellular stress or damage2. Following infection, production of molecules such as lipoxins, resolvins, maresins and protectins then contribute to the resolution of inflammation28,29.
전신 만성 염증과 비전염성 질환 위험
공통 기전을 일부 공유하지만,
급성 염증 반응은 SCI와 다르다 (Table 1 참조).
가장 두드러진 차이는
급성 염증 반응이
주로 감염 시 innate 면역 세포에 발현된 pattern recognition receptors와 병원체의 진화적으로 보존된 구조인
pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) 간 상호작용으로 시작된다는 점이다.
급성 염증 반응은
또한 세포 스트레스나 손상 시 물리적·화학적·대사적 유해 자극(즉, ‘무균성’ 요인)에 의해 방출되는
damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs)에 의해 활성화될 수 있다².
감염 후에는 lipoxins, resolvins, maresins, protectins 등의 분자가
염증 해소에 기여한다²⁸²⁹.
Table 1 |.
Acute inflammation versus systemic chronic inflammation
Acute inflammationSystemic chronic inflammation
| Trigger | PAMPs (infection), DAMPs (cellular stress, trauma) | DAMPs (‘exposome’, metabolic dysfunction, tissue damage) |
| Duration | Short-term | Persistent, non-resolving |
| Magnitude | High-grade | Low-grade |
| Outcome(s) | Healing, trigger removal, tissue repair | Collateral damage |
| Age-related | No | Yes |
| Biomarkers | IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, CRP | Silent—no canonical standard biomarkers |
DAMP, damage-associated molecular pattern;
PAMP, pathogen-associated molecular pattern.
In contrast, SCI is typically triggered by DAMPs in the absence of an acute infectious insult or activation of PAMPs30–32. SCI often increases with age30, as indicated by studies showing that older individuals have higher circulating levels of cytokines, chemokines and acute phase proteins, as well as greater expression of genes involved in inflammation1,19,30. Moreover, SCI is low-grade and persistent (as the name suggests) and ultimately causes collateral damage to tissues and organs over time, such as by inducing oxidative stress1,4,9,19.
The clinical consequences of SCI-driven damage can be severe and include increased risk of the metabolic syndrome, which includes the triad of hypertension, hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia33,34; type 2 diabetes33; NAFLD33,35; hypertension1; cardiovascular disease (CVD)18,19; chronic kidney disease19; various types of cancer17; depression21; neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases4,12,20; osteoporosis11,36 and sarcopenia19 (Fig. 1). Empirical evidence that inflammation plays a role in disease onset or progression is strongest for metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes and CVD. Indeed, it has long been known that patients with autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis that are characterized by systemic inflammation have insulin resistance, dyslipidemia and hypertension, and that they have higher rates of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes and CVD (particularly ischemic heart disease and str oke)10,12,37–39. Moreover, the inflammatory biomarker high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP) is a predictor of cardiovascular events in men and women40. In a recent meta-analysis of data from more than 160,000 people across 54 long-term prospective studies, higher levels of circulating CRP were associated with a relative increase in risk for both coronary heart disease and CVD mortality41.
반면
SCI(만성 저등급 전신 염증)는
일반적으로 급성 감염이나 PAMP(병원체 관련 분자 패턴)의 활성화 없이
DAMP(손상 관련 분자 패턴)에 의해 유발됩니다30–32.
SCI는 나이가 들수록 증가하는 경향이 있으며30,
연구에 따르면 고령자는 사이토카인, 케모카인, 급성기 단백질의 순환 수준이 더 높고,
염증 관련 유전자 발현도 더 증가합니다1,19,30.
또한 SCI는
저등급(low-grade)이면서 지속적(persistent)인 특징을 가지며(이름이 암시하듯),
장기적으로 조직과 장기에 부수적인 손상을 일으킵니다.
예를 들어 산화 스트레스를 유도하는 방식으로요1,4,9,19.
SCI로 인한 손상의 임상적 결과는 매우 심각할 수 있으며, 다음 질환들의 위험 증가를 포함합니다:
염증이
질환 발병이나 진행에 관여한다는 실증적 증거는
특히 대사증후군, 제2형 당뇨병, 심혈관 질환에서 가장 강력합니다.
실제로
오랜 기간 전신 염증을 특징으로 하는 자가면역 질환(예: 류마티스 관절염) 환자들은
인슐린 저항성, 이상지질혈증, 고혈압을 보이며,
대사증후군·제2형 당뇨병·심혈관 질환(특히 허혈성 심장 질환과 뇌졸중)의 발생률이
더 높은 것으로 잘 알려져 있습니다10,12,37–39.
또한 염증 바이오마커인 고감도 C-반응성 단백(hs-CRP)은
남녀 모두에서 심혈관 사건을 예측하는 지표로 사용됩니다40.
최근 54개의 장기 전향적 연구에 참여한 16만 명 이상의 데이터를 종합한 메타분석에서,
순환 hs-CRP 수치가 높을수록 관상동맥 심장 질환 및 심혈관 질환 사망 위험도가
상대적으로 증가하는 것으로 나타났습니다41.
Fig. 1 |. Causes and consequences of low-grade systemic chronic inflammation.
Several causes of low-grade systemic chronic inflammation (SCI) and their consequences have been identified. As shown on the left, the most common triggers of SCI (in counter-clockwise direction) include chronic infections, physical inactivity, (visceral) obesity, intestinal dysbiosis, diet, social isolation, psychological stress, disturbed sleep and disrupted circadian rhythm, and exposure to xenobiotics such as air pollutants, hazardous waste products, industrial chemicals and tobacco smoking. As shown on the right, the consequences of SCI (in clockwise direction) include metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), cardiovascular disease, cancer, depression, autoimmune diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, sarcopenia, osteoporosis and immunosenescence.
저등급 전신 만성 염증(systemic chronic inflammation, SCI)의 여러 원인과 그 결과가 확인되었습니다.
왼쪽 그림에 나타난 바와 같이,
SCI의 가장 흔한 유발 요인(반시계 방향으로)은
만성 감염, 신체 활동 부족, (내장) 비만, 장내 미생물 불균형(dysbiosis), 식이,
사회적 고립, 심리적 스트레스, 수면 장애 및 일주기 리듬 교란, 그리고
공기 오염물질·위험 폐기물·산업 화학물질·흡연과 같은 제노바이오틱스(xenobiotics) 노출을 포함합니다.
오른쪽 그림에 나타난 바와 같이,
SCI의 결과(시계 방향으로)는
대사증후군, 제2형 당뇨병, 비알코올성 지방간 질환(NAFLD), 심혈관 질환,
암, 우울증, 자가면역 질환, 신경퇴행성 질환, 근감소증(sarcopenia), 골다공증,
면역노화(immunosenescence)를 포함합니다.
The most compelling evidence for an association between SCI and disease risk comes from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that have tested drugs or biologics that target specific pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. In a recent meta-analysis of eight RCTs that included a total of 260 participants, anti-TNF-α inhibitor therapy was found to significantly reduce insulin resistance in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and to improve their insulin sensitivity42. The risk for developing Alzheimer’s disease was also significantly lower among patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with the TNF-α inhibitor etanercept43. In addition, a recent double-blind RCT of the IL-1β inhibitor canakinumab that assessed more than 10,000 adults with a history of myocardial infarction and elevated circulating CRP levels showed that patients treated with canakinumab subcutaneously every 3 months had lower rates of nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke and CVD death compared with those treated with a placebo, despite having no change in LDL cholesterol, which is a risk factor for CVD. In this trial, canakinumab-treated patients also exhibited a lower likelihood of unstable angina leading to urgent revascularization44.
Along similar lines, a recent study of more than 160,000 people from North Glasgow found that a combination of the inflammatory markers CRP (>10 mg/L; HR 2.71, P < 0.001), albumin (>35 mg/L; HR 3.68, P < 0.001) and neutrophil count (HR 2.18, P < 0.001) predicted all-cause mortality over 8 years, in addition to mortality due to cancer, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease45.
SCI와 질환 위험 간 연관성에 대한 가장 설득력 있는 증거는
특정 프로염증성 사이토카인(예: 인터루킨(IL)-1β 및 종양괴사인자(TNF)-α)을
표적으로 하는 약물이나 생물학적 제제를 테스트한 무작위 대조 시험(RCT)들에서 나옵니다.
류마티스 관절염 환자 260명을 포함한 8개의 RCT에 대한 최근 메타분석에서,
항-TNF-α 억제제 치료가 인슐린 저항성을 유의하게 감소시키고
인슐린 감수성을 개선하는 것으로 나타났습니다42.
또한 류마티스 관절염 환자에서
TNF-α 억제제 에타너셉트(etanercept) 치료를 받은 경우
알츠하이머병 발병 위험이 유의하게 낮아졌습니다43.
이와 유사하게,
심근경색 병력과 순환 CRP 수치가 상승한 1만 명 이상의 성인을 대상으로 한
카나키누맙(canakinumab, IL-1β 억제제)의 최근 이중맹검 RCT에서,
3개월마다 피하 주사로 카나키누맙을 투여받은 환자들은
위약군에 비해 비치명적 심근경색, 비치명적 뇌졸중, 심혈관 질환 사망률이 낮았습니다.
이는
LDL 콜레스테롤(심혈관 질환 위험 인자)의 변화가 없었음에도 불구하고
나타난 결과였습니다.
또한
카나키누맙 치료군에서는
불안정 협심증으로 인한 긴급 혈관재형성술 필요성이 낮았습니다44.
유사한 맥락에서,
북 글래스고(North Glasgow) 지역 16만 명 이상을 대상으로 한 최근 연구에서는
염증 마커인 CRP(>10 mg/L; HR 2.71, P < 0.001),
알부민(>35 mg/L; HR 3.68, P < 0.001),
호중구 수(HR 2.18, P < 0.001)의 조합이
8년 동안 전체 사망률뿐만 아니라 암, 심혈관 및 뇌혈관 질환으로 인한 사망률을 예측하는 것으로 나타났습니다45.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4346265/
| 이 연구는 Glasgow Inflammation Outcome Study (GIOS) 의 일부로, 대규모 지역 코호트에서 전신 염증 지표 (CRP, albumin, neutrophil count 등)가 모든 원인 사망(all-cause mortality) 을 독립적으로 예측한다는 것을 보여줍니다. 이는 암 환자 중심의 기존 GPS를 일반 인구·비암 환자로 확장한 중요한 연구로, Furman et al. (2019)의 SCI (systemic chronic inflammation)가 사망 위험의 공통 driver라는 주장과 잘 맞아떨어집니다. 1. 배경 및 목적 (Introduction)
고감도 CRP (>3 mg/L), albumin (<35 g/L), neutrophil count (>7.5 × 10⁹/L)를 조합한 염증 기반 스코어가 all-cause mortality를 강력히 예측하며, cancer·CVD·cerebrovascular mortality에도 유용. 이는 염증이 다양한 사망 원인의 공통 driver임을 시사하며, 다른 코호트 검증 필요. Furman et al. (2019)과의 연계 이 연구는 SCI (저등급 지속 염증)가 사망 위험을 높인다는 Furman의 주장을 대규모 실증 데이터로 뒷받침합니다. hs-CRP >3 mg/L가 proxy로 사용된 점, 조합 스코어가 multi-morbidity 예측에 유용하다는 점이 SCI의 common soil hypothesis를 강화합니다. |
Biomarkers for systemic chronic inflammation
Despite evidence linking SCI with disease risk and mortality45, there are presently no standard biomarkers for indicating the presence of health-damaging chronic inflammation. Studies have shown that canonical biomarkers of acute inflammation predict morbidity and mortality in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies and may thus be used to index age-related SCI46. This approach has notable limitations, though. For example, early work by Roubenoff and colleagues showed that in monocytes from ambulatory individuals, levels of IL-6 and IL-1Ra (but not IL-1β or TNF-α) increased with age47. However, no difference in IL-1 and IL-6 expression has been found between young and older individuals when the health status of older individuals is strictly controlled48,49.
Additionally, a recent study examined levels of 18 endogenous and ex vivo-stimulated inflammatory markers in 41 healthy volunteers of different ages across the life span. Results revealed that unstimulated levels of IL-12p70 in women and CRP in men were associated with older age, whereas no effects were found for IL-1β, IFN-α or TNF-α50. Therefore, evidence exists that greater inflammatory activity is associated with older age, but this is not true of all inflammatory markers, and it is possible that these associations are due at least in part to increases in chronic ailments and frailty that are frequently associated with age rather than to biological aging itself.
To address limitations associated with assessing only a few select inflammatory biomarkers, some researchers have employed a multi-dimensional approach that involves assaying large numbers of inflammatory markers and then combining these markers into more robust indices representing heightened inflammatory activity. In one such study, researchers used principal component analysis to identify pro- and anti-inflammatory markers and an innate immune response that significantly predicted risk for multiple chronic diseases (CVD, kidney disease and diabetes), in addition to mortality51.
More recently, a multi-omics approach has been applied to examine links between SCI and disease risk. The researchers followed 135 adults longitudinally and conducted deep molecular profiling of participants’ whole-blood gene expression, termed the transcriptome; immune proteins—for example, cytokines and chemokines—termed the immunome; and cell subset frequencies, such as CD8+ T cell subsets, monocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, B cells and CD4+ T cell subsets. This enabled the researchers to construct a high-dimensional trajectory of immune aging (IMM-AGE) that described individuals’ immune functioning better than their chronological age. This new metric in turn accurately predicted all-cause mortality, establishing its potential future use for identifying at-risk patients in clinical settings52. These types of integrative, multi-level approaches to characterizing SCI are promising, but this work is still in its infancy and much more research is needed to identify best practices for selecting and analyzing SCI-related biomarkers in order to yield the most useful and predictive information for quantifying age-related disease risk.
전신 만성 염증의 바이오마커
SCI가 질환 위험 및 사망률과 연관된다는 증거가 있음에도45,
현재 건강을 해치는 만성 염증의 존재를 나타내는 표준 바이오마커는 없습니다.
연구들에 따르면 급성 염증의 대표 바이오마커들이
횡단면 및 종단 연구에서 이환율과 사망률을 예측하므로,
연령 관련 SCI를 지표화하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다46.
그러나 이 접근법에는 뚜렷한 한계가 있습니다.
예를 들어 Roubenoff 등의 초기 연구에서
보행 가능한 개인의 단핵구에서 IL-6와 IL-1Ra 수준(단 IL-1β나 TNF-α는 아님)이
나이와 함께 증가하는 것으로 나타났습니다47.
그러나
고령자의 건강 상태를 엄격히 통제했을 때
젊은이와 고령자 간 IL-1 및 IL-6 발현 차이는 발견되지 않았습니다48,49.
또한 최근 연구에서는
전 생애에 걸친 다양한 연령의 41명 건강한 자원자를 대상으로
18개의 내인성 및 자극 유도 염증 마커 수준을 조사했습니다.
결과적으로 여성에서는 IL-12p70의 비자극 수준, 남성에서는 CRP가 고령과 연관되었으나 IL-1β, IFN-α, TNF-α에는 효과가 없었습니다50. 따라서 염증 활성 증가가 고령과 연관된다는 증거는 존재하지만, 모든 염증 마커에 해당되는 것은 아니며, 이러한 연관성은 생물학적 노화 자체보다 나이와 흔히 동반되는 만성 질환 및 허약(frailty) 증가에 기인할 가능성이 적지 않습니다.
몇 가지 선택된 염증 바이오마커만 평가하는 한계를 극복하기 위해
일부 연구자들은 다차원적 접근법을 사용했습니다.
즉 다수의 염증 마커를 측정하고
이를 결합하여 염증 활성 증가를 나타내는 보다 견고한 지표를 만드는 것입니다.
한 연구에서는 주성분 분석(principal component analysis)을 활용해 프로염증성 및 항염증성 마커와 선천 면역 반응을 식별하였고, 이는 심혈관 질환, 신장 질환, 당뇨병 등 다중 만성 질환 위험 및 사망률을 유의하게 예측했습니다51.
더 최근에는
다중 오믹스(multi-omics) 접근법이
SCI와 질환 위험 간 연관성을 탐색하는 데 적용되었습니다.
연구자들은 135명의 성인을 종단적으로 추적하며,
전혈 유전자 발현(트랜스크립톰),
면역 단백질(사이토카인·케모카인 등, 이뮤노톰),
세포 하위 집단 빈도(CD8+ T 세포 하위 집단, 단핵구, 자연살해(NK) 세포, B 세포, CD4+ T 세포 하위 집단 등)를
심층 분자 프로파일링했습니다.
이를 통해 연구자들은
IMM-AGE(면역 노화)라는 고차원적 면역 노화 궤적을 구성하였으며,
이는 연령보다 개인의 면역 기능을 더 잘 설명했습니다.
이 새로운 지표는
전체 사망률을 정확하게 예측하여
임상 환경에서 위험 환자를 식별하는 미래 잠재력을 입증했습니다52.
이러한 통합적·다단계적 SCI 특성화 접근법은 유망하지만,
아직 초기 단계이며 연령 관련 질환 위험을 정량화하기 위해
SCI 관련 바이오마커를 선택·분석하는 최적의 방법을 찾기 위해서는 훨씬 더 많은 연구가 필요합니다.
Sources of systemic chronic inflammation
The SCI state in older individuals is thought to be caused in part by a complex process called cellular senescence, which is characterized by an arrest of cell proliferation and the development of a multifaceted senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP)53. A prominent feature of this phenotype is increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and other pro-inflammatory molecules from cells53. Senescent cells expressing this phenotype can in turn promote a multitude of chronic health conditions and diseases, including insulin resistance, CVD, pulmonary arterial hypertension, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, emphysema, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, macular degeneration, osteoarthritis and cancer54,55.
How senescent cells acquire the SASP is not fully understood, but existing research points to a combination of both endogenous and non-endogenous social, environmental and lifestyle risk factors. Among the known endogenous causes of this phenotype are DNA damage, dysfunctional telomeres, epigenomic disruption, mitogenic signals and oxidative stress56. The non-endogenous contributors are thought to include chronic infections57, lifestyle-induced obesity58, microbiome dysbiosis59, diet60, social and cultural changes61,62 and environmental and industrial toxicants63. The fact that differences exist in the extent to which older adults exhibit SCI52,64 is thought to be indicative of inter-individual differences in exposure to these and other related pro-inflammatory factors, although studies documenting within-person associations between these risk factors and SCI are limited.
Nevertheless, differences in non-communicable diseases associated with SCI are evident across cultures and countries. Most prominently, SCI-related disease rates have increased dramatically for both older and younger individuals living in industrialized countries who follow a Western lifestyle but are relatively rare among individuals in non-Westernized populations who adhere to diets, lifestyles and ecological niches that more closely resemble those present during most of human evolution65–71. Furthermore, dietary and lifestyle habits, as well as exposure to a variety of different pollutants, can increase oxidative stress, upregulate mitogenic signaling pathways and cause genomic and epigenomic perturbations8,60,62,63 that can induce the SASP. Further evidence for a role of lifestyle in the development of chronic inflammation comes from a study of 210 healthy twins between 8 and 82 years old, which found that non-heritable factors are the strongest contributors to differences in chronic inflammation across individuals72 and that exposure to environmental factors, which have been collectively called the exposome, are the main drivers of SCI. Simply put, the exposome refers to a person’s lifelong exposure to physical, chemical and biological elements, starting from the prenatal period onward73.
Chronic infections.
The effect of lifelong infections caused by cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, hepatitis C virus and other infectious agents on SCI and immune dysregulation remains controversial74–78. In terms of aging, chronic infection with cytomegalovirus has been associated with the so-called immune risk phenotype that has been predictive of early mortality in several longitudinal studies79. Furthermore, chronic infection with HIV causes premature aging of the immune system and is associated with early cardiovascular and skeletal changes57, with such effects being attributed in large part to the accumulation of senescent CD8+ T cells that produce increased levels of pro-inflammatory mediators80.
Although several studies have reported associations between chronic infections and autoimmune diseases, certain cancers, neurodegenerative diseases and CVD, chronic infections appear to interact synergistically with environmental and genetic factors to influence these health outcomes76,77,81. Indeed, humans coevolved with a variety of viruses, bacteria and other microbes82, and while chronic infections appear to contribute to SCI, they are not likely the primary driver. For instance, populations of hunter-gatherers and other existing non-industrialized societies such as the Shuar hunter-gatherers of the Ecuadorian Amazon83,84, Tsimané forager-horticulturalists of Bolivia68, Hadza hunter-gatherers from Tanzania67, subsistence agriculturalists from rural Ghana85 and traditional horticulturalists of Kitava (Papua New Guinea)86—all of whom are minimally exposed to industrialized environments but highly exposed to a variety of microbes—exhibit very low rates of inflammation-related chronic disease and substantial fluctuations in inflammatory markers that do not increase with age65,67,68,83,86.
Lifestyle, social and physical environment.
Individuals in the populations mentioned above have relatively short life expectancies on average, which means that some die before showing signs of advanced aging. However, the relative absence of SCI-related health problems in these populations has not been attributed to genetics or to having a shorter life expectancy, but rather to lifestyle factors and the social and physical environments the people inhabit66. Their lifestyles, for example, are characterized by higher levels of physical activity67,71,87, diets composed mainly of fresh or minimally processed food sources66,88,89, and less exposure to environmental pollutants66. In addition, individuals living in these environments generally have circadian rhythms that are more closely synchronized with diurnal fluctuations in sunlight exposure90 and the social stressors they experience are different from those typically present in industrialized environments91.
These social and environmental characteristics are believed to have predominated during most of hominin evolutionary history until industrialization66,82,89. Industrialization conferred many benefits, including social stability; reduced physical trauma; access to modern medical technology; and improved public health measures, such as sanitation, quarantine policies and vaccination, all of which significantly decrease infant mortality rates and increase average life expectancy66. However, more recently, these changes also caused radical shifts in diet and lifestyle, resulting in living circumstances that are very different from the ones that shaped human physiology for most of evolution. This is believed to have created an evolutionary mismatch in humans—characterized by an increasing separation from their ecological niche—and this mismatch, in turn, has been hypothesized to be a major cause of SCI65,66,82,89,92.
Physical activity.
Industrialization is thought to have caused a significant overall decrease in physical activity. One study showed that, worldwide, 31% of individuals are considered physically inactive—defined as not meeting the minimum international recommendations for regular physical activity—with levels of inactivity being higher in high-income countries than in low-to-middle-income countries93. In the United States, these numbers are even higher, with approximately 50% of American adults being considered physically inactive94.
Skeletal muscle is an endocrine organ that produces and releases cytokines and other small proteins, called myokines, into the bloodstream. This occurs particularly during muscle contraction and can have the effect of systemically reducing inflammation95. Low physical activity, therefore, has been found to be directly related to increased anabolic resistance96 and levels of CRP and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in healthy individuals97, as well as in breast cancer survivors98 and patients with type 2 diabetes99. These effects can, in turn, promote several inflammation-related pathophysiologic alterations, including insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, endothelial dysfunction, high blood pressure and loss of muscle mass (sarcopenia)100, that have been found to increase risk for a variety of conditions, including CVD, type 2 diabetes, NAFLD, osteoporosis, various types of cancer, depression, dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, in individuals who are chronically inactive95,100.
Consistent with these effects, there is strong evidence for an association between physical inactivity and increased risk for age-related diseases and mortality. A recent meta-analysis of studies with cohorts from Europe, the United States and the rest of the world that included 1,683,693 participants found that going from physically inactive to achieving the recommended 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity per week was associated with lower risk of CVD mortality by 23%, CVD incidence by 17%, and type 2 diabetes incidence by 26% during an average follow-up period of 12.8 years101. Moreover, data from 1.44 million participants across several prospective cohort studies revealed that, as compared to individuals exhibiting high levels of leisure-time physical activity (≥90th percentile), those who were physically inactive (≤10th percentile) had a greater risk (>20%) of developing several cancers, including esophageal adenocarcinoma; liver, lung, kidney, gastric cardia and endometrial cancers; and myeloid leukemia, even after adjusting for multiple major risk factors such as adiposity and smoking status (except for lung cancer)102. Likewise, a meta-analysis of ten studies and 23,345 older adults (70 to 80 years old) who were followed for 3.9–31 years found that individuals meeting the minimum international physical activity recommendations had a 40% lower risk of Alzheimer’s disease as compared to their physically inactive counterparts103.
Finally, physical inactivity can increase individuals’ risk for various non-communicable diseases because it is linked to obesity100 and, in particular, excessive visceral adipose tissue (VAT), which is a significant trigger of inflammation104–106. VAT is an active endocrine, immunological and metabolic organ composed of various cells (including immune cells, such as resident macrophages) that expands mostly through adipocyte hypertrophy, which can lead to areas of hypoxia and even cell death, resulting in activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, increased production of reactive oxygen species, and release of DAMPs (for example, cell-free DNA). These events can induce the secretion of numerous pro-inflammatory molecules, including adipokines, cytokines (for example, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α), and chemokines (especially monocyte chemoattractant protein-1) by adipocytes, endothelial cells and resident adipose tissue immune cells (for example, macrophages)105–108. This in turn leads to the infiltration of various immune cells in the VAT, including monocytes, neutrophils, dendritic cells, B cells, T cells and NK lymphocytes, and a reduction in T regulatory cells, thereby amplifying inflammation, which can eventually become prolonged and systemic in some individuals106–109.
Furthermore, TNF-α and other molecules can cause adipocyte insulin resistance, which increases lipolysis, with the resulting spillover of lipids into other organs, such as the pancreas and liver, where they can contribute to beta-cell dysfunction, hepatic insulin resistance and fatty liver106. Hence, visceral obesity accelerates aging and increases risk for cardiometabolic, neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases, as well as several types of cancer19,104,106,110–112. These dynamics are known to occur in adults and can promote age-related disease risk, but they first emerge during childhood26. The childhood obesity epidemic might thus be playing a key role in promoting inflammation and age-related disease risk worldwide113.
Microbiome dysbiosis.
Obesity may also lead to SCI through gut microbiome-mediated mechanisms114. For example, studies conducted in moderately obese Danish individuals without diabetes115 and in severely obese French women116 found changes in gut microbiota composition and microbial gene richness that were correlated with increased fat mass, pro-inflammatory biomarkers and insulin resistance. Furthermore, in older adults, changes in the gut microbiota seem to influence the outcome of multiple inflammatory pathways59.
Obesity, which is strongly linked to changes in the gut microbiome, has also been associated with increased intestinal paracellular permeability and endotoxemia114,117. Moreover, the latter is a suspected cause of inflammation through activation of pattern recognition receptors, such as Toll-like receptors, in immune cells and of inflammation-mediated metabolic conditions such as insulin resistance118. Interestingly, serum concentrations of zonulin, a protein that increases intestinal permeability, appear to be elevated in obese children and adults117,119, and in persons with type 2 diabetes118, NAFLD, coronary heart disease, polycystic ovary syndrome, autoimmune diseases and cancer117. More recently, elevated serum zonulin concentrations have been found to predict inflammation and physical frailty120.
More broadly, it has been hypothesized that a complex balance exists in the intestinal ecosystem that, if disrupted, can compromise its function and integrity and in turn cause low-grade SCI59. It may thus be important to identify possible triggers of dysbiosis and intestinal hyperpermeability, which could potentially include the overuse of antibiotics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and proton-pump inhibitors121,122; lack of microbial exposure induced by excessive hygiene and reduced contact with animals and natural soils, which is a very recent phenomenon in human evolutionary history82,123; and diet123 (see below).
Diet.
The typical diet that has become widely adopted in many countries over the past 40 years is relatively low in fruits, vegetables and other fiber- and prebiotic-rich foods66,123–125 and high in refined grains124, alcohol126 and ultra-processed foods125, particularly those containing emulsifiers127. These dietary factors can alter the gut microbiota composition and function123,127–130 and are linked to increased intestinal permeability129–131 and epigenetic changes in the immune system129 that ultimately cause low-grade endotoxemia and SCI129–131. The influence of diet on inflammation is not confined to these effects, though. For example, orally absorbed advanced glycation and lipoxidation end-products that are formed during the processing of foods or when foods are cooked at high temperatures and in low-humidity conditions are appetite increasing and are linked to overnutrition and hence obesity and inflammation132. Furthermore, high-glycemic-load foods, such as isolated sugars and refined grains, which are common ingredients in most ultra-processed foods, can cause increased oxidative stress that activates inflammatory genes133.
Other dietary components that are thought to influence inflammation include trans fatty acids134 and dietary salt. For example, salt has been shown to skew macrophages toward a pro-inflammatory phenotype characterized by the increased differentiation of naive CD4+ T cells into T helper (TH)-17 cells, which are highly inflammatory, and decreased expression and anti-inflammatory activity of T regulatory cells135. In addition, high salt intake can cause adverse changes in gut microbiota composition, as exemplified by the reduced Lactobacillus population observed in animals and humans fed high-salt diets135. This specific population is critical for health as it regulates TH17 cells and enhances the integrity of the intestinal epithelial barrier, thus reducing systemic inflammation135. Consistent with the expected health-damaging effects of consuming foods that are high in trans fats and salt, a recent cohort study of 44,551 French adults who were followed for a median of 7.1 years found that a 10% increase in the proportion of ultra-processed food consumption was associated with a 14% greater risk of all-cause mortality136.
Several other nutritional factors can also promote inflammation and potentially contribute to the development of SCI. These factors include deficiencies in micronutrients, including zinc137 and magnesium138, which are caused by eating processed or refined foods that are low in vitamins and minerals, and having suboptimal omega-3 levels139, which impacts the resolution phase of inflammation. Longchain omega-3 fatty acids—especially eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid—modulate the expression of genes involved in metabolism and inflammation139. More importantly, they are precursors to molecules such as resolvins, maresins and protectins that are involved in the resolution of inflammation28,29. The main contributors to the growing worldwide incidence of low omega-3 status are a low intake of fish and high intake of vegetable oils that are high in linoleic acid, which displaces omega-3 fatty acids in cell membrane phospholipids140,141. In turn, various RCTs have shown that omega-3 fatty acid supplementation reduces inflammation142–144 and may thus have health-promoting effects141–144.
Evidence linking diet and mortality is robust. For example, an analysis of nationally representative health surveys and diseasespecific mortality statistics from the National Center for Health Statistics in the United States showed that the dietary risk factors associated with the greatest mortality among American adults in 2005 were high dietary trans fatty acids, low dietary omega-3 fatty acids, and high dietary salt145. In addition, a recent systematic analysis of dietary data from 195 different countries identified poor diet as the main risk factor for death in 2017, with excessive sodium intake being responsible for more than half of diet-related deaths146.
Finally, when combined with low physical activity, consuming hyperpalatable processed foods that are high in fat, sugar, salt and flavor additives147 can cause major changes in cell metabolism and lead to the increased production (and defective disposal) of dysfunctional organelles such as mitochondria, as well as to misplaced, misfolded and oxidized endogenous molecules30,60,148. These altered molecules, which increase with age19,30, can be recognized as DAMPs by innate immune cells, which in turn activate the inflammasome machinery, amplify the inflammatory response1,30,60 and contribute to a biological state that has been called “inflammaging,” defined as the “the long-term result of the chronic physiological stimulation of the innate immune system” that occurs in later life30. As proposed, inflammaging involves changes in numerous organ systems, such as the brain, gut, liver, kidney, adipose tissue and muscle19, and it is driven by a variety of molecular-age-related mechanisms that have been called the “Seven Pillars of Aging”55—namely, adaptation to stress, epigenetics, inflammation, macromolecular damage, metabolism, proteostasis and stem cells and regeneration.
식이(Diet)
지난 40년 동안 많은 국가에서 널리 채택된 전형적인 식이는
과일, 채소 및 기타 섬유질·프리바이오틱스가 풍부한 식품이 상대적으로 적고66,123–125,
정제 곡물124, 알코올126, 초가공 식품(특히 유화제 함유 식품)127이 높은 특징을 보입니다.
이러한 식이 요인들은
장내 미생물 군집의 구성과 기능을 변화시킬 수 있으며123,127–130,
장 투과성 증가129–131 및 면역계의 후성유전적 변화129를 유발하여
궁극적으로 저등급 내독소혈증(endotoxemia)과 SCI를 일으킵니다129–131.
그러나
식이가 염증에 미치는 영향은 이러한 효과에만 국한되지 않습니다.
예를 들어,
식품 가공 과정이나 고온·저습도 조건에서 조리될 때 형성되는
체내 흡수되는 고급당화종말산물(advanced glycation end-products) 및
지질산화종말산물(lipoxidation end-products)은
식욕을 증가시키며 과영양, 따라서 비만과 염증과 연관됩니다132.
또한
대부분의 초가공 식품에 흔히 들어가는 고혈당부하 식품(예: 분리당, 정제 곡물)은
산화 스트레스를 증가시켜 염증 유전자 활성화를 유발할 수 있습니다133.
염증에 영향을 미친다고 여겨지는 다른 식이 성분으로는
트랜스 지방산134과 식이염(salt)이 있습니다.
예를 들어
염분은 대식세포를 프로염증성 표현형으로 왜곡시키며,
이는 naive CD4+ T 세포가 고도로 염증성인 T helper(TH)-17 세포로 분화되는 증가와
T 조절 세포의 발현 및 항염증 활성 감소를 특징으로 합니다135.
또한 고염 섭취는
장내 미생물 군집 구성에 부정적인 변화를 일으킬 수 있으며,
고염 식이를 섭취한 동물과 인간에서 Lactobacillus 군집 감소가 관찰된 바 있습니다135.
truth reflex 근육검사) 고염식이는 염증을 악화시킨다
---> no
이 특정 군집은
TH17 세포를 조절하고 장 상피 장벽의 무결성을 강화하여 전신 염증을 줄이는 데 중요합니다135.
트랜스 지방과 염분이 높은 식품 섭취의 예상되는 건강 손상 효과와 일치하게,
중앙값 7.1년 동안 추적 관찰된 44,551명의 프랑스 성인을 대상으로 한 최근 코호트 연구에서
초가공 식품 소비 비율이 10% 증가할 때마다
전체 사망 위험도가 14% 더 높아지는 것으로 나타났습니다136.
염증을 촉진하고 SCI 발달에 잠재적으로 기여할 수 있는
다른 영양 요인들도 여러 가지 있습니다.
이러한 요인으로는
비타민·미네랄이 부족한 가공·정제 식품 섭취로 인한
아연137 및 마그네슘138 결핍,
그리고 염증 해소 단계에 영향을 미치는 최적 이하의 오메가-3 수준139 등이 포함됩니다.
장쇄 오메가-3 지방산—특히 에이코사펜타엔산(eicosapentaenoic acid)과 도코사헥사엔산(docosahexaenoic acid)—은
대사 및 염증 관련 유전자 발현을 조절합니다139.
더 중요하게는,
이들은 염증 해소에 관여하는 resolvins, maresins, protectins와 같은 분자의 전구체입니다28,29.
전 세계적으로 오메가-3 상태 저하가 증가하는 주요 원인은
생선 섭취 부족과 세포막 인지질에서 오메가-3 지방산을 대체하는 리놀레산이 높은
식물성 기름 섭취 증가입니다140,141.
이에 따라 여러 RCT에서
오메가-3 지방산 보충이 염증을 감소시키는 것으로 나타났으며141–144,
따라서 건강 증진 효과를 가질 수 있습니다141–144.
식이와 사망률 간 연관성에 대한 증거는
강력합니다.
예를 들어
미국 국립보건통계센터의 국가대표 건강 조사 및 질환별 사망 통계를 분석한 결과,
2005년 미국 성인에서 가장 큰 사망 위험과 관련된 식이 위험 요인은
높은 식이 트랜스 지방산, 낮은 식이 오메가-3 지방산, 높은 식이염이었습니다145.
또한 195개국 식이 데이터를 대상으로 한 최근 체계적 분석에서 2017년 사망의 주요 위험 요인으로 불량 식이가 확인되었으며, 과도한 나트륨 섭취가 식이 관련 사망의 절반 이상을 차지했습니다146.
마지막으로,
낮은 신체 활동과 결합될 때
지방·당·염·향미 첨가물이 높은 고기호성(hyperpalatable) 가공 식품 섭취147는
세포 대사에 큰 변화를 일으켜 기능 장애 미토콘드리아 같은 비정상 세포 소기관의 생산 증가(및 불량한 제거)를 초래하며,
잘못 배치되거나 잘못 접히거나 산화된 내인성 분자도 증가시킵니다30,60,148.
나이와 함께 증가하는19,30 이러한 변형된 분자들은
선천 면역 세포에 의해 DAMP(손상 관련 분자 패턴)로 인식되어
inflammasome 기작을 활성화하고
염증 반응을 증폭시키며1,30,60,
후기 생애에 발생하는 “선천 면역계의 만성적 생리적 자극의 장기적 결과”로 정의되는
“inflammaging(염증노화)”이라는 생물학적 상태에 기여합니다30.
제안된 바와 같이 inflammaging은
뇌, 장, 간, 신장, 지방 조직, 근육 등
수많은 장기계의 변화를 포함하며19,
“노화의 일곱 기둥(Seven Pillars of Aging)”55—즉 스트레스 적응, 후성유전학(epigenetics), 염증, 거대분자 손상(macromolecular damage), 대사(metabolism), 단백질 항상성(proteostasis), 줄기세포 및 재생(stem cells and regeneration)—이라 불리는 다양한 분자-연령 관련 기전에 의해 주도됩니다.
Social and cultural changes.
In addition to physical inactivity and diet, the industrial revolution and modern era have ushered in changes in social interactions and sleep quality59,91 that can promote SCI149,150 and insulin resistance151, in turn increasing risk for obesity, type 2 diabetes, CVD and all-cause mortality150–154. Moreover, psychological stressors that are persistently present in some contemporary work environments, such as those characterized by high job demand and low control, can cause physiologic changes155 that disrupt the ability for glucocorticoids to effectively down-regulate inflammatory activity due to decreased sensitivity caused by chronic elevation in cortisol, leading in turn to SCI and poor health156.
Another core feature of modern society that has occurred very recently in human evolutionary history is increased exposure to artificial light, especially the blue spectrum, at atypical biologic times157–159. Exposure to blue light, especially after sundown, increases arousal and alertness at night and thus causes circadian rhythm disruption158,159, which in turn promotes inflammation160, and is a risk for multiple inflammation-related diseases157,159. As an example, night-shift work has been found to increase risk for the metabolic syndrome and is suspected of being a causal factor in obesity, type 2 diabetes and CVD, as well as in breast, ovarian, prostate, colorectal and pancreatic cancer157.
Environmental and industrial toxicants.
The rapid rise in urbanization over the past 200 years8 brought with it an unprecedented increase in humans’ exposure to various xenobiotics, including air pollutants, hazardous waste products and industrial chemicals that promote SCI8,161. Each year, an estimated 2,000 new chemicals are introduced into items that individuals use or ingest daily, including foods, personal care products, prescription drugs, household cleaners and lawn care products (see https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov). The concomitant increase in the estimated contribution of environmental chemicals to human disease burden162 has prompted a shift toward data generation using high-throughput screening to investigate the effect of industrial toxicants on cellular pathways, which has been supported by initiatives like the US Federal Tox21 Program, and toward the adoption of translational systems-toxicology approaches for integrating diverse data streams to better understand how chemicals affect human health and disease outcomes163. The Tox21 Program has tested more than 9,000 chemicals using more than 1,600 assays and has demonstrated that numerous chemicals to which people are commonly exposed greatly alter molecular signaling pathways that underlie inflammation and inflammation-related disease risk164. These chemicals include phthalates, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, bisphenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and flame retardants165.
These compounds and others promote inflammatory activity via multiple mechanisms. For example, they can be cytotoxic8,162, cause oxidative stress or act as endocrine disruptors, starting in utero8. These chemicals are thus suspected of playing a causal role in hormone-dependent cancers, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, CVD, allergy and asthma, and autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases8,162,166. Tobacco smoking, which remains a worldwide health problem, is yet another source of xenobiotics that has been associated with a variety of inflammation-related diseases167.
Developmental origins of systemic chronic inflammation
The origins of SCI can also be viewed from a developmental perspective. For example, it is well established that childhood circumstances significantly impact metabolic and immune responses later in life, which in turn promote SCI in adulthood8,26,27,168,169. Childhood obesity, for instance, is strongly associated with major changes in adipose tissue and metabolic dysfunction that cause metabolism-related-SCI, or so-called metainflammation26. Because obese children often become obese adolescents and adults26, the risk of developing a pro-inflammatory phenotype also frequently persists into adulthood among individuals who were obese as children.
Another example of SCI being influenced by early life circumstances comes from epidemiologic studies showing that greater microbial exposure in infancy is associated with reduced risk of chronic inflammation in adulthood8,168, as predicted by the hygiene, or ‘old friends’, hypothesis82. Additionally, there is evidence that exposure to psychological stress early in life—for example, in the form of abuse, neglect, maltreatment, bullying or living in a low socioeconomic environment—can heighten neural responses to threat that can upregulate inflammatory activity170, alter immuno-competence and lead to SCI throughout the lifecycle27,169.
Further back in the developmental trajectory are data showing that the immune system is programmed during the prenatal period171 and is affected by epigenetic changes induced by maternal environmental exposures (for example, infectious agents, diet, psychological stress and xenobiotics) during intrauterine life and even before conception, when paternal factors may also have an epigenetic effect26,128,171. Together, these effects create the potential for the intergenerational transmission of risk for SCI. In this model (Fig. 2), SCI and disease risk are hypothesized to be perpetuated transgenerationally. In short, maternal inflammation during pregnancy172,173 is believed to pass an inflammatory ‘code’ through epigenetic modifications to the offspring, who will exhibit elevated risk for SCI in childhood and adulthood and therefore be more likely to suffer from a wide variety of inflammation-related health problems, including obesity7, CVD7, cancer174 and neurological illness175, among others, only to again pass this risk on to their own offspring.
전신 만성 염증의 발달 기원
SCI의 기원은
발달적 관점에서 볼 수도 있습니다.
예를 들어,
어린 시절 환경이 성인기 후반의 대사 및 면역 반응에 상당한 영향을 미치며,
이는 결국 성인기 SCI를 촉진한다는 사실이 잘 확립되어 있습니다8,26,27,168,169.
예를 들어
소아 비만은
지방 조직의 주요 변화와 대사 기능 장애를 강하게 유발하여 대사 관련 SCI,
즉 소위 metainflammation(대사염증)을 일으킵니다26.
비만 아동은 종종 비만 청소년 및 성인으로 이어지기 때문에26,
어린 시절 비만이었던 개인들에서 프로염증성 표현형 발달 위험도
성인기까지 지속되는 경우가 많습니다.
어린 시절 환경이 SCI에 영향을 미친다는 또 다른 예는 역학 연구에서 나오는데,
유아기 동안 미생물 노출이 많을수록
성인기 만성 염증 위험이 감소한다는 결과입니다8,168.
이는
위생 가설(hygiene hypothesis) 또는
‘오랜 친구(old friends)’ 가설82에서 예측되는 바와 일치합니다.
또한,
어린 시절 심리적 스트레스 노출(예: 학대, 방치, 학대, 왕따, 낮은 사회경제적 환경 생활 등)이
위협에 대한 신경 반응을 높여 염증 활성을 상향 조절하고170,
면역 능력을 변화시켜 생애 주기 내내 SCI를 유발할 수 있다는 증거도 있습니다27,169.
발달 궤적을 더 거슬러 올라가면,
태아기 동안 면역계가 프로그래밍된다는 데이터가 있습니다171.
이는 자궁 내 생활 동안(그리고 심지어 수태 이전에도)
산모의 환경 노출(예: 감염원, 식이, 심리적 스트레스, 제노바이오틱스)에 의해 유발되는
후성유전적 변화에 영향을 받습니다26,128,171.
아버지 요인도
후성유전적 영향을 미칠 수 있습니다.
이러한 효과들이 합쳐져
SCI 위험의 세대 간 전파(intergenerational transmission) 가능성을 만듭니다.
이 모델(Fig. 2)에서
SCI와 질환 위험은 세대를 넘어 지속적으로 유지된다고 가정합니다.
간단히 말해,
임신 중 산모의 염증172,173은 후성유전적 변형을 통해 자손에게 염증 ‘코드’를 전달한다고 믿어지며,
이로 인해 자손은 어린 시절과 성인기 SCI 위험이 높아져
비만7, 심혈관 질환(CVD)7, 암174, 신경 질환175 등
다양한 염증 관련 건강 문제를 겪을 가능성이 커집니다. 그
리고 이 위험은
다시 그들의 자손에게 전달되는 악순환이 반복됩니다.
Fig. 2 |. The maternal exposome and low-grade systemic chronic inflammation.
Maternal lifestyle and environmental exposures—collectively referred to as the exposome—include diet, physical activity, psychological stress and exposure to various xenobiotics, such as pollutants and smoking during intrauterine life. These factors in turn can influence the programming of the immune system of the offspring, potentially leading to a more pro-inflammatory phenotype later in life. Relevant factors, including environmental factors such as poor access to healthy food, housing insecurity, psychological stress and polluted air, lead to a mother giving birth to a fetus with epigenetic marks that increase the child’s risk for obesity, low-grade SCI and its associated consequences in adolescence and adulthood.
산모의 생활습관 및 환경 노출—총칭하여 엑스포좀(exposome)이라 함—은
자궁 내 생활 동안의
식이, 신체 활동, 심리적 스트레스, 그리고 오염물질과 흡연 등
다양한 제노바이오틱스(xenobiotics) 노출을 포함합니다.
이러한 요인들은 차례로
자손의 면역계 프로그래밍에 영향을 미쳐,
나중에 더 프로염증성 표현형(pro-inflammatory phenotype)을 나타낼 가능성을 높일 수 있습니다.
건강한 식품 접근성 부족, 주거 불안정, 심리적 스트레스, 오염된 공기와 같은
환경 요인을 포함한 관련 요인들은
산모가 염증 관련 후성유전적 표지(epigenetic marks)를 가진 태아를 출산하게 만들어,
해당 아동이 청소년기와 성인기에
비만, 저등급 SCI 및 그로 인한 연관된 결과(합병증)에 대한 위험을 증가시킵니다.
Chronic inflammation and the immune response to acute challenges
Despite the observation that SCI generally increases with age, a majority of older adults experience a down-regulation of components of the immune response that leads to an increased susceptibility to viral infections and weakened responses to vaccines. This apparent paradox (Fig. 3) can be explained by several mechanisms.
만성 염증과 급성 도전에 대한 면역 반응
SCI가 일반적으로 나이와 함께 증가한다는 관찰에도 불구하고,
대부분의 고령자는 면역 반응 구성 요소의 하향 조절(down-regulation)을 경험하여
바이러스 감염에 대한 취약성이 증가하고
백신에 대한 반응이 약화됩니다.
이 명백한 역설(Fig. 3)은 여러 기전에 의해 설명될 수 있습니다.
Fig. 3 |. Inflammatory model of immunosenescence and chronic disease.
This proposed model associates elevated baseline phosphorylated signaling proteins (for example, phosphorylated STAT (pSTAT) levels) with cellular unresponsiveness and chronically elevated inflammatory activity. The model involves an elevation of baseline pSTAT levels and its association with hallmark phenomenon of immunosenescence, an increased pro-inflammatory environment, unresponsive cells and a clinical impact on immune response. (Adapted with permission from ref.22, Elsevier.)
이 제안된 모델은 기저선(baseline)에서 상승된 인산화 신호 단백질(예: 인산화된 STAT, pSTAT 수준)을 세포의 무응답성(unresponsiveness) 및 만성적으로 상승된 염증 활성과 연관짓습니다. 이 모델은 기저선 pSTAT 수준의 상승과 면역노화(immunosenescence)의 특징적 현상, 증가된 프로염증 환경, 무응답 세포, 그리고 면역 반응에 대한 임상적 영향 간의 연관성을 포함합니다. (ref.22, Elsevier의 허가를 받아 적응.)
Specifically, elevated SCI can lead to a basal low-grade constitutive activation of various signaling pathways, such as the Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK–STAT) system in leukocytes, which results in a weakened acute response to multiple stimuli in immune cells from older adults with chronic inflammation due to reduced fold-increase in the levels of phosphorylation of these proteins after cell stimulation22. Elevated SCI has also been shown to predict hyporesponsiveness to the hepatitis B vaccine in humans24. Additionally, there is evidence that certain inflammatory biomarkers, such as CRP, are inversely correlated with older adults’ response to other vaccines, such as the herpes zoster vaccine23. Interestingly, this also seems to be true for younger individuals. Among adolescents, for example, those who respond well to typhoid vaccination have been found to exhibit lower concentrations of CRP than non-responders in adulthood25. In sum, this research helps to explain the pro-inflammatory/antiviral skewing that occurs as individuals age. This work also suggests that exposure to an inflammatory environment early in life is an important determinant of multiple aspects of an individual’s immuno-phenotype in adulthood.
구체적으로,
상승된 SCI는
다양한 신호 경로의 기저 저등급 지속적 활성화(constitutive activation)를 유발할 수 있으며,
백혈구에서 Janus kinase/신호 전달 및 전사 활성화 인자(JAK–STAT) 시스템이 대표적입니다.
이는
만성 염증을 가진 고령 성인의 면역 세포에서 여러 자극에 대한 급성 반응이 약화되는 결과를 초래합니다.
이는
세포 자극 후 이러한 단백질의 인산화 수준의 fold-increase(증가 배수)가
감소하기 때문입니다22.
| 단백질의 인산화 수준(특히 phosphorylated STAT, pSTAT)에서 fold-increase (증가 배수, 변화 배수) 가 감소하는 현상은 만성 염증(SCI)과 노화 관련 면역노화(immunosenescence)의 핵심 기전 중 하나. 이는 Furman et al. (2019)의 Figure 3 모델과 Shen-Orr et al. (2016, Cell Systems)의 연구에서 잘 설명되는 "ceiling effect" (천장 효과) 로 요약됩니다. 아래에 단계별로 기전을 자세히 설명하겠습니다. 1. 정상 상태 (젊은 시기 또는 급성 염증 시)
3. 결과: 세포 무응답성 (unresponsiveness / hyporesponsiveness)
만성 염증 → baseline pSTAT constitutive 상승 → signaling pathway가 이미 포화 → 자극 시 추가 인산화(fold-increase)가 거의 없어짐 → 세포 무응답성 → 면역 기능 저하 + 만성 염증 지속의 악순환. 이 기전은 inflammaging의 핵심 역설을 가장 잘 설명하는 모델 중 하나 |
상승된 SCI는
인간에서 B형 간염 백신에 대한 저반응성(hyporesponsiveness)을 예측하는 것으로도 나타났습니다24.
또한 특정 염증 바이오마커(예: CRP)는
고령자의 다른 백신(예: 대상포진 백신)에 대한 반응과 역상관관계를 보인다는 증거가 있습니다23.
흥미롭게도
이는 젊은 연령층에서도 마찬가지로 관찰됩니다.
예를 들어
청소년기에서 장티푸스 백신에 잘 반응하는 사람은
성인기 CRP 농도가 비반응자보다 낮은 것으로 밝혀졌습니다25.
요약하자면, 이 연구들은 개인이 나이 들면서 발생하는 프로염증/항바이러스 편향(pro-inflammatory/antiviral skewing)을 설명하는 데 도움이 됩니다. 또한 생애 초기에 염증 환경에 노출되는 것이 성인기 개인의 면역 표현형(immuno-phenotype)의 여러 측면을 결정하는 중요한 요인임을 시사합니다.
Future directions
Considered together, this body of research provides converging evidence that SCI is associated with increased risk for developing a variety of chronic diseases that dominate present-day morbidity and mortality worldwide and that cause enormous amounts of human suffering. At the same time, there are several key avenues that could be pursued to help strengthen this work and translate this research into effective strategies for improving human health.
First, there is a clear need for additional studies that collect data on multiple factors affecting SCI to form a more comprehensive picture of how exposures and experiences identified at different levels of analysis combine to affect SCI and inflammation-related disease risk. Second, the field sorely needs robust integrative biomarkers of SCI that go beyond combining a few canonical biomarkers of acute inflammation. Existing biomarkers, which have primarily included CRP, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, have been useful for demonstrating that inflammatory activity is related to disease and mortality risk, but these markers provide only limited mechanistic information (given the enormous complexity of the inflammatory response) and they do not address anti-inflammatory regulatory pathways that may also be relevant for influencing inflammation-related disease risk. Future research should thus focus on additional biomarkers that have been found to have substantial variability across individuals, such as CD8+ T cell subsets, monocytes, NK cells, B cells and CD4+ T cell subsets176. This work should also include molecular, transcriptional and proteomic markers of SCI, which have only been examined in limited ways to date177. Constructing biomarkers that integrate information from a variety of different data sources and levels of analysis to represent inflammatory activity and immune regulation and dysregulation would be particularly useful, as would applying multi-omics approaches, computational modeling and artificial intelligence to study how SCI-related mechanisms both change and predict changes in clinical status within individuals over the life span178.
Third, given the difficulty associated with experimentally manipulating factors such as diet, sleep and stress levels that affect inflammation, a majority of studies conducted thus far have collected inflammatory biomarker data under basal conditions in which the immune system is not challenged. This is a sensible starting place, but such research does not provide any information regarding biological reactivity or recovery (for example, from infection or psychological or physiological stress), which may ultimately be most useful for understanding individual differences in inflammation-related disease risk3,179. Finally, although many of the SCI-promoting factors that we have described herein are at least partly modifiable—including physical inactivity, poor diet, night-time blue light exposure, tobacco smoking, environmental and industrial toxicants exposure and psychological stress—the number of studies that have successfully targeted these risk factors and shown corresponding reductions in SCI levels is limited. This has occurred despite the fact that the association between inflammation and chronic disease is now widely recognized and that healthcare systems are buckling due to the enormous cost of treating a worldwide population that is heavily burdened by SCI-related chronic health problems. Therefore, the time to start seriously studying how to prevent and treat SCI-related disease risk in both children and adults is now.
In conclusion, we have a long way to go before we fully understand the role that SCI plays in disease risk, biological aging and mortality. For example, no study to date has assessed the entire human exposome over the entire developmental trajectory, starting in utero (for example, by measuring maternal exposures, type of delivery and early-life nutrition) and continuing into adulthood (for example, by assessing social and cultural processes, xenobiotic exposures, individual lifestyle habits, lifelong antibiotic use, vaccinations, infectious diseases and social-psychological stressors). Moreover, only a few studies have investigated how modifying SCI-related processes may benefit human health or longevity. As a result, although SCI is a highly modifiable process in principle, additional research, initiative and investment are needed before we fully realize the potential benefits associated with targeting inflammation to improve human health.
미래 방향(Future directions)
이러한 연구들을 종합적으로 고려할 때,
SCI가 전 세계적으로 현재 주요 이환율과 사망률을 차지하는 다양한 만성 질환 발병 위험 증가와 연관되어 있으며,
이는 막대한 인간 고통을 초래한다는 수렴적 증거를 제공합니다.
동시에 이 연구를 강화하고 인간 건강 개선을 위한 효과적인 전략으로 전환하기 위해
추구할 수 있는 몇 가지 핵심 방향이 있습니다.
첫째, SCI에 영향을 미치는 여러 요인에 대한 데이터를 수집하는 추가 연구가 필요합니다. 이는 서로 다른 분석 수준에서 확인된 노출과 경험들이 어떻게 결합되어 SCI와 염증 관련 질환 위험에 영향을 미치는지에 대한 보다 포괄적인 그림을 그리는 데 필수적입니다.
둘째, SCI의 견고한 통합 바이오마커가 절실히 필요합니다. 이는 몇 가지 대표적인 급성 염증 바이오마커(주로 CRP, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α)를 단순히 결합하는 것을 넘어서는 것입니다. 이러한 기존 마커들은 염증 활성이 질환 및 사망 위험과 관련 있음을 입증하는 데 유용했으나, 염증 반응의 엄청난 복잡성으로 인해 기전적 정보는 제한적이며, 염증 관련 질환 위험에 영향을 미칠 수 있는 항염증 조절 경로를 다루지 못합니다. 따라서 미래 연구는 개인 간 상당한 변이를 보이는 추가 바이오마커(예: CD8+ T 세포 하위 집단, 단핵구, NK 세포, B 세포, CD4+ T 세포 하위 집단)176에 초점을 맞춰야 합니다. 또한 지금까지 제한적으로만 조사된 SCI의 분자적·전사적·단백질체적 마커177도 포함해야 합니다. 다양한 데이터 소스와 분석 수준의 정보를 통합하여 염증 활성 및 면역 조절/이상(dysregulation)을 나타내는 바이오마커를 구성하는 것이 특히 유용할 것이며, 다중 오믹스 접근법, 계산 모델링, 인공지능을 적용하여 SCI 관련 기전이 생애 주기 동안 개인 내에서 어떻게 변화하고 임상 상태 변화를 예측하는지를 연구하는 것도 중요합니다178.
셋째, 식이, 수면, 스트레스 수준 등 염증에 영향을 미치는 요인을 실험적으로 조작하기 어려운 점을 고려할 때, 지금까지 대부분의 연구는 면역계가 도전받지 않는 기저 조건(basal conditions)에서 염증 바이오마커 데이터를 수집했습니다. 이는 합리적인 출발점이지만, 이러한 연구는 생물학적 반응성(biological reactivity)이나 회복(recovery)(예: 감염, 심리적·생리적 스트레스로부터)에 대한 정보를 제공하지 못합니다. 이는 결국 개인 간 염증 관련 질환 위험 차이를 이해하는 데 가장 유용할 수 있습니다3,179.
마지막으로, 본문에서 설명한 SCI 촉진 요인들(신체 활동 부족, 불량 식이, 야간 블루라이트 노출, 흡연, 환경·산업 독성물질 노출, 심리적 스트레스 등)의 상당수는 적어도 부분적으로 수정 가능합니다. 그러나 이러한 위험 요인을 성공적으로 표적으로 삼아 SCI 수준 감소를 입증한 연구는 제한적입니다. 이는 염증과 만성 질환 간 연관성이 이제 널리 인정되고 있으며, SCI 관련 만성 건강 문제로 크게 부담을 받는 전 세계 인구를 치료하는 데 막대한 비용이 들고 의료 시스템이 위기에 처해 있음에도 불구하고 일어난 일입니다. 따라서 어린이와 성인 모두에서 SCI 관련 질환 위험을 예방하고 치료하는 방법을 본격적으로 연구할 때가 지금입니다.
결론적으로,
SCI가 질환 위험, 생물학적 노화, 사망률에 미치는 역할을 완전히 이해하기까지는 아직 갈 길이 멉니다.
예를 들어,
지금까지 태아기(산모 노출, 분만 방식, 초기 영양 등)부터 시작해
성인기(사회·문화적 과정, 제노바이오틱스 노출, 개인 생활습관, 평생 항생제 사용, 예방접종, 감염 질환, 사회심리적 스트레서 등)까지
전체 인간 엑스포좀(exposome)을 평가한 연구는 없습니다.
또한
SCI 관련 과정을 수정하는 것이
인간 건강이나 장수에 어떤 이점을 줄 수 있는지 조사한 연구도 소수에 불과합니다.
결과적으로
SCI는 원칙적으로 매우 수정 가능한 과정이지만,
염증을 표적으로 삼아 인간 건강을 개선하는 데 따른 잠재적 이점을 완전히 실현하기 위해서는
추가 연구, 주도적 노력, 투자 등이 필요합니다.
Acknowledgements
This work was made possible by support from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Buck Institute for Research on Aging to D.F., the National Institute on Aging, Glenn and SENS Foundations, and the Buck Institute for Research on Aging to J.C.; the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Agreement (074-02-2018-330) and Horizon 2020 Framework Programme (634821, PROPAG-AGING) and JPco-fuND (ADAGE) to C.F.; the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of Aging, NIH to L.F.; the MRC (UK) and Wellcome Trust to D.W.G.; NIH grant (R01 DK104344) to A.F.; the European Research Commission (PHII-669415), Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro (Projects IG 19014, 5×1000 9962 and 21147), Fondazione Cariplo, and Italian Ministry of Health to A.M.; NIH grant (P01 AG036695) to T.A.R.; the National Institute on Aging and UCLA AIDS Institute to R.B.E.; the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and Fondos FEDER (PI15/00558 and PI18/00139) to A.L.; and a Society in Science-Branco Weiss Fellowship, NARSAD Young Investigator Grant 23958 from the Brain & Behavior Research Foundation and NIH grant (K08 MH103443) to G.M.S. This work represents the opinion of the authors and does not reflect official NIH policy.
Footnotes
Peer review information Hannah Stower was the primary editor on this article and managed its editorial process and peer review in collaboration with the rest of the editorial team.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
References
|
|