|
|
의의
이 짧은 Hypothesis 논문은 현대 편두통 연구의 중요한 전환점이 되었습니다.
Mayberg MR et al. (1981/1984). Science / Ann Neurol
(Abstract 요약)
의의
한 줄 요약
“고양이 실험을 통해
삼차신경절에서 대뇌혈관 주위로 직접 신경 투사가 존재한다는 것을 증명했으며,
이는 편두통의 혈관성 두통 메커니즘을 설명하는 중요한 해부학적 증거다.”
이 논문은 현대 편두통 연구의 초석 중 하나로, 이후 CGRP 관련 연구와 치료제 개발의 토대
Moskowitz MA (1984). Annals of Neurology (인용 1,304회 – 초고인용)
Abstract 핵심 요약
1. Trigeminovascular System (삼차혈관계) 개념 정립
2. Substance P의 역할
3. Substance P의 생물학적 효과
4. 편두통 및 혈관성 두통과의 연관성
의의
이 논문은 Moskowitz의 1979 Lancet 가설과 1981 Science 실험(Mayberg et al.)을 종합하여,
Substance P를 중심으로 한 trigeminovascular system의 신경생물학적 모델을 처음으로 체계적으로 제시한
리뷰/가설 논문입니다.
현대 편두통 연구에서 CGRP가 나중에 더 중요하게 부각되었지만,
Substance P와 함께 삼차신경의 신경염증(neurogenic inflammation) 메커니즘을 설명한
초기 핵심 이론으로 평가받고 있습니다.
한 줄 요약
“삼차신경절에서 혈관으로 가는 신경섬유가
Substance P를 방출하여 혈관확장과 신경염증을 일으키며,
이것이 편두통의 혈관성 두통 메커니즘의 핵심이다.”
② 1980~1990년대: 신경펩티드 발견 + 약물 기전 (Neuropeptide era)
Uddman, Edvinsson, Moskowitz 등 (1985)
Abstract 핵심 요약
1. 주요 발견
2. Substance P와의 공존
3. 의의
한 줄 요약
“고양이 실험에서 대뇌혈관 주위 CGRP 함유 신경섬유가 삼차신경 기원이며, Substance P와 동일 섬유에서 공존한다는 것을 최초로 증명한 논문.”
Goadsby PJ et al. (1988).
실험 설계
주요 결과
결론 및 의의
한 줄 요약
“인간과 고양이에서 삼차신경절을 자극했을 때
CGRP와 Substance P가 실제로 방출된다는 것을
외경정맥 혈액에서 최초로 확인한 획기적인 연구.”
연구 역사적 의의
| CGRP 치료제 개발 역사 (편두통 중심, Timeline) CGRP(Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide)는 1980년대에 발견된 강력한 혈관확장 펩타이드로, 1979~1988년 Moskowitz, Uddman, Edvinsson, Goadsby 등의 연구를 통해 trigeminovascular system의 핵심 물질로 밝혀졌습니다. 이후 이를 표적으로 한 치료제가 개발되어 편두통 치료의 혁명을 가져왔습니다. 1. 기초 연구 및 초기 개념 (1979~2004)
CGRP 또는 그 수용체를 직접 차단하는 주사제로, 편두통 예방 목적으로 개발된 최초의 질환 특이적 치료제.
1980년대 기초연구 → 2004 Olcegepant proof-of-concept → 2018 Erenumab 첫 승인으로 이어진 40년 여정 끝에, 편두통 환자들의 삶을 크게 바꾼 CGRP 표적 치료제가 탄생 |
Buzzi MG & Moskowitz MA (1990).
Goadsby PJ & Edvinsson L (1993). Annals of Neurology (인용 1,419회 – 초고인용)
Abstract 핵심 요약
주요 실험 및 결과
의의 (Trigeminovascular Theory 발전사에서)
한 줄 요약
“삼차혈관계 활성화 시
CGRP 방출과 뇌혈류 증가를 인간·동물에서 확인하고,
sumatriptan과 DHE가 이를 억제한다는 것을 증명한 핵심 연구.”
③ 2000년대: 감작(sensitization) + CSD 연계 + CGRP 표적 치료 (Sensitization & Therapeutic era)
Strassman AM, Burstein R 등 (1996~1998).
Abstract 핵심 요약
배경
실험 방법
주요 발견
의의
한 줄 요약
“경막 신경섬유가 염증 물질에 의해 sensitization되어 미약한 기계 자극에도 강하게 반응한다는 것을 증명하며, 편두통 및 기타 두통의 기계적 과민성 기전을 설명한 Nature 논문.”
연구 목적
주요 방법
핵심 결과
의의
한 줄 요약
“경막의 화학적 자극이 말초 신경을 민감화시킬 뿐 아니라,
뇌간 중추 삼차 뉴런까지 sensitization시켜 안면·두피 과민(allodynia)을 유발한다는 것을 증명한 연구.”
Lassen LH et al. (2002).
이 연구(2002년, LH Lassen 등)는
편두통 발작 시 CGRP(Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide, 칼시토닌 유전자 관련 펩타이드) 수치가 증가한다는 점을 관찰하고,
CGRP가 편두통의 원인적(causative) 역할을 할 가능성이 있다고 제안한 중요한 논문.
핵심 내용
한 줄 요약
“편두통 발작 때 올라가는 CGRP가 실제로 편두통을 일으키는 원인일 수 있다(2002).”
이 연구는 지금도 CGRP 관련 편두통 치료제 논의에서 자주 인용되는 고전적인 논문
Bolay H et al. (2002). Nature Medicine
핵심 내용
의의
한 줄 요약
“편두통 전조의 원인인 CSD(뇌파 퍼짐)가
삼차신경을 자극해 혈관 확장과 두통을 일으킨다(2002).”
이 두 논문(Lassen & Bolay, 2002년)이 거의 동시에 나와
CGRP와 CSD-삼차신경 연결을 뒷받침하며 현대 편두통 연구의 기초를 마련
Olesen J et al. (2004). NEJM
이 논문은
2004년 NEJM에 발표된
BIBN 4096 BS (올세게판트, olcegepant)에 대한 최초의 인간 대상 임상 proof-of-concept 연구.
Jes Olesen 등 연구팀이 진행했으며,
CGRP 수용체 길항제가 급성 편두통 치료에 효과가 있다는 것을 처음으로 증명한 획기적인 연구
핵심 내용
의의
한 줄 요약
“CGRP 수용체를 막는 BIBN 4096 BS(올세게판트)가 급성 편두통 발작을 효과적으로 치료한다 — 66% vs 27% (2004, NEJM).”
이 연구는 CGRP 표적 치료제가 실제로 작동한다는 것을 세계적으로 입증하며, 현대 편두통 치료 패러다임을 바꾼 랜드마크 논문'
④ 2010년대~현재: 임상 검증 + 현대 치료 (Clinical translation)
Noseda R & Burstein R (2013). (인용 1,193회)
이 논문은
2013년 Pain 저널에 발표된 Rodrigo Noseda & Rami Burstein의 리뷰(Review) 논문으로,
편두통 병태생리를 종합적으로 정리한 중요한 총설
핵심 내용
의의
한 줄 요약
편두통은 유전적 뇌 과흥분성
→ CSD
→ 삼차신경혈관계 활성화 및 민감화
→ 두통·이상통·광공포증으로 이어지는 복합 과정이다
Pietrobon D & Moskowitz MA (2013). Annual Review of Physiology
https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00034.2015
이 논문은
2017년 Physiological Reviews에 발표된
Peter J. Goadsby 등
(Philip R. Holland, Margarida Martins-Oliveira, Jan Hoffmann, Christoph Schankin, Simon Akerman)의
대형 리뷰(Review)로,
편두통 병태생리를 ‘감각 처리 장애(disorder of sensory processing)’로 종합적으로 정리한 고전적인 총설
(약 2,300회 이상 인용).
핵심 메시지 (Abstract에서)
편두통은 뇌의 질환이며,
혈관 변화는 이차적이라는 현대적 관점을 명확히 제시합니다.
주요 구조 및 내용
의의
한 줄 요약
“편두통은 유전적 감각 처리 장애로, 뇌간·간뇌의 조절 실패 → 삼차신경혈관계 활성화 → 다단계 증상을 일으킨다(2017, Goadsby et al.).”
이 논문은 편두통 연구의 교과서적 위치에 있는 자료
Ashina M et al. (2019). The Lancet Neurology (본 논문, 인용 655회)
삼차신경과 두통 관계
저자들은 유럽 두통연맹 학교(EHF-SAS) 소속 연구자들로,
삼차신경(Trigeminal nerve, CN V)이
대부분의 두통과 안면 통증 병태생리에 핵심 역할을 한다는 점을 강조하며,
해부학·생리학·임상적 의미를 체계적으로 설명합니다.
주요 내용 요약
| 이 논문은 "Migraine and the trigeminovascular system—40 years and counting" (편두통과 삼차혈관계 — 40년의 기록)이라는 제목의 2019년 Lancet Neurology 리뷰 논문입니다. (PMC7164539, Ashina M et al.) 1979년 Moskowitz 등이 The Lancet에 제시한 trigeminovascular hypothesis(삼차혈관 가설)을 40주년 기념으로 정리한 Personal View입니다. 삼차신경(Trigeminal nerve)과 그 혈관 지배(혈관 주위 신경섬유)가 편두통 통증의 핵심 경로라는 점을 역사적·해부학적·생리학적·치료적 관점에서 종합적으로 다룹니다. CGRP 표적 치료제(항체, gepants) 개발의 이론적 기반을 명확히 보여주는 중요한 리뷰예요. 주요 내용 요약
그림 설명 (Figure) 논문에 하나의 주요 Figure가 있습니다. (Schematic overview of the trigeminovascular system)
|
그림 설명 (Figure)
논문에 주요 그림 2개가 있습니다.
Fig. 1: Schematic of the Trigeminal System (삼차신경계 모식도)
Fig. 2: Trigeminal Ganglion (TG) 해부
결론 (논문에서)
삼차신경은 두통의 공통 분모이며, TG는 BBB가 없어 약물 접근이 용이한 핵심 표적. 중추 기전과 결합해야 완전한 이해가 가능하다고 강조
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7164539/
Migraine and the trigeminovascular system—40 years and counting - PMC
Declaration of interests MA has received personal fees from Alder BioPharmaceuticals, Allergan, Amgen, Alder, Eli Lilly, Novartis, and Teva. MA also participated in clinical trials as the principal investigator for Alder, Amgen, electroCore, Novartis, and
pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Lancet Neurol
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2020 Apr 17.
Published in final edited form as: Lancet Neurol. 2019 May 31;18(8):795–804. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30185-1
Migraine and the trigeminovascular system—40 years and counting
Messoud Ashina 1, Jakob Møller Hansen 1, Thien Phu Do 1, Agustin Melo-Carrillo 1, Rami Burstein 1, Michael A Moskowitz 1
PMCID: PMC7164539 NIHMSID: NIHMS1579515 PMID: 31160203
The publisher's version of this article is available at Lancet Neurol
Abstract
The underlying causes of migraine headache remained enigmatic for most of the 20th century. In 1979, The Lancet published a novel hypothesis proposing an integral role for the neuropeptide-containing trigeminal nerve. This hypothesis led to a transformation in the migraine field and understanding of key concepts surrounding migraine, including the role of neuropeptides and their release from meningeal trigeminal nerve endings in the mechanism of migraine, blockade of neuropeptide release by anti-migraine drugs, and activation and sensitisation of trigeminal afferents by meningeal inflammatory stimuli and upstream role of intense brain activity. The study of neuropeptides provided the first evidence that antisera directed against calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and substance P could neutralise their actions. Successful therapeutic strategies using humanised monoclonal antibodies directed against CGRP and its receptor followed from these findings. Nowadays, 40 years after the initial proposal, the trigeminovascular system is widely accepted as having a fundamental role in this highly complex neurological disorder and provides a road map for future migraine therapies.
초록 (Abstract)
20세기 대부분 동안
편두통 두통의 근본 원인은 수수께끼로 남아 있었다.
1979년 《란셋》에 발표된 새로운 가설은
신경펩티드를 함유한 삼차신경의 핵심 역할을 제안했다.
이 가설은
편두통 연구 분야를 혁신적으로 변화시켰으며,
다음과 같은 주요 개념을 확립하는 데 기여했다:
경막 삼차신경 말단에서 신경펩티드가 방출되는 기전,
편두통 치료제가 신경펩티드 방출을 차단하는 작용,
경막 염증 자극에 의한 삼차 구심성 신경의 활성화 및 감작,
그리고 강렬한 뇌 활동의 상류 역할 등이다.
신경펩티드 연구를 통해
칼시토닌 유전자 관련 펩티드(CGRP)와 substance P에 대한 항혈청이
이들의 작용을 중화할 수 있다는 최초의 증거가 나왔다.
이후 CGRP와 그 수용체를 표적으로 하는 인간화 단클론항체를 이용한
성공적인 치료 전략이 개발되었다.
가설이 처음 제안된 지 40년이 지난 지금,
삼차혈관계는 이 매우 복잡한 신경학적 장애에서 근본적인 역할을 하는 것으로 널리 받아들여지고 있으며,
미래 편두통 치료의 로드맵을 제공하고 있다.
Introduction
Migraine is a highly prevalent and complex disorder characterised by an episodic, severe, often unilateral throbbing or pulsating headache associated with nausea, photophobia, phonophobia, and sometimes auras.1 Headaches are often the most troubling feature and the causes and treatments have been extensively researched.
In 1979, Moskowitz and colleagues2 introduced the trigeminovascular hypothesis of migraine in The Lancet, calling attention to a key role for the trigeminal nerve and its vasoactive neuropeptide-containing axonal projections to the meninges and its blood vessels. The model underscored the potential importance of released neuropeptides and their downstream effects after trigeminal activation. The trigeminal innervation became framed as a final common pathway for upstream headache initiation and a fundamental template for new therapeutic directions.3 Crucial to the hypothesis was emerging knowledge about the importance of vasoactive neuropeptide mediator substance P followed later by two even more potent vasoactive peptides, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP; now a proven therapeutic target) and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP).
The hypothesis was prescient because it predated both the 1981 discovery of the sensory innervation to the circle of Willis, and the identification of neuropeptide mediators within the trigeminovascular system (a term used from 1983 to describe the trigeminal–meningeal–CNS relationship).4,5 Over the ensuing decades, experimental studies provided crucial insights into the neurophysiology of migraine-related pain with therapeutic implications (eg, allodynia and peripheral and central sensitisation), coherent central mechanisms of migraine-related pain processing, and promising efforts using neuroimaging to discern the relationship between blood vessel function and migraine. These subsequent findings provided fundamental support to the 1979 trigeminal nerve hypothesis and its contributions to the intellectual underpinnings and subsequent developments regarding migraine theory and therapeutics 40 years later.
In this Personal View, we review the most notable concepts and advances that have emerged from the identification of the role of the trigeminovascular system in migraine with an emphasis on future implications and for treatment of this disorder. These include a brief review of historical developments, as well as other major developments in anatomy, neurophysiology, pharmacology, neurochemistry, human pathophysiology, and drug development, all identified using neuroimaging.
서론 (Introduction)
편두통은 매우 흔하고 복잡한 장애로,
주기적으로 발생하는 심한 편측성 맥동성 또는 박동성 두통을 특징으로 하며,
메스꺼움, 광공포증, 음공포증,
때로는 전조(aura)를 동반한다.¹
두통은 종종 가장 고통스러운 증상이며,
그 원인과 치료법은 광범위하게 연구되어 왔다.
1979년 Moskowitz와 동료들²은 《
란셋》에 편두통의 삼차혈관 가설(trigeminovascular hypothesis)을 발표하면서,
삼차신경과 그 혈관활성 신경펩티드를 함유한 축삭이 경막과 혈관으로 투사되는 역할을 강조했다.
이 모델은 삼차신경 활성화 후 방출되는 신경펩티드와 그 하류 효과의 중요성을 부각시켰다. 삼차신경 지배는 상류 두통 유발의 최종 공통 경로(final common pathway)로, 새로운 치료 방향의 기본 틀로 자리 잡았다.³
이 가설의 핵심은 당시 새롭게 부각되던 혈관활성 신경펩티드 물질인 substance P, 그리고 이후 더 강력한 두 가지 펩티드 — 칼시토닌 유전자 관련 펩티드(CGRP, 현재 입증된 치료 표적)와 뇌하수체 아데닐산 cyclase 활성화 폴리펩티드(PACAP) — 에 대한 지식이었다.
이 가설은 선견지명적이었다. 1981년 Willis 동맥환의 감각 신경 지배가 발견되기 전, 그리고 삼차혈관계(trigeminovascular system)라는 용어가 1983년에 처음 사용되기 전에 이미 제안되었기 때문이다.⁴⁵ 그 후 수십 년 동안 실험 연구들은 편두통 관련 통증의 신경생리학(예: 이질통, 말초 및 중추 감작), 편두통 통증 처리의 일관된 중추 기전, 혈관 기능과 편두통의 관계를 밝히는 신경영상 연구 등에 중요한 통찰을 제공했다. 이러한 후속 발견들은 1979년 삼차신경 가설을 강력하게 뒷받침했으며, 40년 후 편두통 이론과 치료 개발의 지적 토대를 마련하는 데 크게 기여했다.
본 Personal View에서는 삼차혈관계가 편두통에서 수행하는 역할에서 나온 가장 주목할 만한 개념과 발전을 검토한다. 특히 미래 치료 방향에 중점을 두고, 역사적 발전, 해부학, 신경생리학, 약리학, 신경화학, 인간 병태생리학, 신경영상학을 이용한 약물 개발 등 주요 발전을 다룬다.
Early findings and further development of the trigeminovascular modelAnatomy
The term trigeminovascular was introduced to encompass the immunohistochemical and neurochemical findings associated with the trigeminal pathway to pial arteries in multiple species, including humans.5,6 Further studies confirmed this new pathway and the well-known trigeminal innervation of the dura mater (table 1).4,7 In cats, upper cervical dorsal root ganglia contribute additional meningeal innervation and together these path ways provide an anatomical substrate for hemicranial pain.31 Within the meninges, the largest density of small diameter unmyelinated C-fibres and thinly myelinated Aδ-fibre axons (of trigeminal origin) are found in blood vessels. Experimental studies in humans showed that electrical or mechanical stimulation of large meningeal blood vessels are associated with headache, whereas areas remote from vessels often are not.32 In mice, dural axons of nociceptors have been observed issuing pial branches that cross the arachnoid space and suture branches that reach the periosteum and possibly some pericranial muscles. These axons establish a direct route of communication between extracranial and intracranial events that can activate nociceptors on both sides of the calvarial bones.33
삼차혈관 모델의 초기 발견과 추가 발전
(Early findings and further development of the trigeminovascular model) 해부학 (Anatomy)
‘삼차혈관계(trigeminovascular)’라는 용어는 여러 동물종(인간 포함)에서 삼차신경이 연질막(pial) 동맥으로 가는 경로와 관련된 면역조직화학적·신경화학적 발견을 포괄하기 위해 도입되었다.⁵⁶ 이후 연구에서 이 새로운 경로와 잘 알려진 경막(dura mater)의 삼차신경 지배가 확인되었다(표 1).⁴⁷
고양이 실험에서는 상부 경추 dorsal root ganglia가 경막 지배에 추가로 기여하는 것으로 밝혀졌으며, 이 두 경로가 함께 편측 두통(hemicranial pain)의 해부학적 기저를 제공한다.³¹ 경막 내에서는 삼차신경 기원의 작은 직경의 무수초 C-섬유와 얇은 수초 Aδ-섬유가 혈관 주위에 가장 밀집되어 있다.
인간 실험 연구에서는 큰 경막 혈관을 전기적·기계적으로 자극할 때 두통이 유발되지만, 혈관에서 떨어진 부위는 그렇지 않다는 것이 확인되었다.³² 쥐 실험에서는 경막 nociceptor의 축삭이 연질막 가지를 내고 지주막 공간을 가로질러 봉합(suture) 가지를 통해 골막(periosteum)과 일부 두개 외 근육까지 도달하는 것이 관찰되었다. 이 축삭들은 두개골 양쪽의 nociceptor를 활성화할 수 있는 두개 내·외 사건 간 직접적인 소통 경로를 만든다.³³
Table 1:
Major, original discoveries—the trigeminovascular system
YearBrief description
| The trigeminovascular hypothesis2 | 1979 | Proposed a pathophysiological link between migraine and the trigeminal innervation of the meninges, and a potential role for the undiscovered vasoactive neuropeptide transmitters as therapeutic targets |
| Perivascular meningeal axons project from the trigeminal ganglia4 | 1981 | Sensory innervation to the circle of Willis shown by axonal tracing techniques. Labelled cell bodies found in the ipsilateral trigeminal ganglia after horseradish peroxidase was applied to the feline middle cerebral artery |
| The neuropeptide-containing trigeminovascular system is named5 | 1983 | The trigeminovascular system is named and its first neuropeptide identified. The trigeminovascular system is now considered a functional unit on the basis of anatomy, physiology, and pathology of meningeal afferents and their central connections |
| Neuropeptide within the trigeminovasulcar system is released from meninges8 | 1983 | In vitro release of a vasoactive neuropeptide substance P from its trigeminovascular afferents by calcium-dependent mechanisms, suggesting a role as a neuromediator within the meninges |
| CGRP is released from trigeminal ganglion cells9 | 1984 | Immunoreactive CGRP is spontaneously released by cultured trigeminal ganglion cells in a calcium-dependent manner |
| CGRP and substance P coexist in the trigeminal ganglion and nerve fibres around cerebral blood vessels10 | 1985 | The presence of CGRP in cerebrovascular trigeminal innervation provides further versatility and complexity for this sensory afferent system putatively involved in the transmission of intracranial pain |
| Ergot alkaloids inhibit neuropeptide release11 | 1988 | Pharmacological evidence that ergot alkaloids inhibit neuropeptide release within meninges following electrical trigeminal stimulation. A prejunctional inhibitory receptor-driven mechanism was proposed for ergot alkaloids |
| CGRP released upon activation of the trigeminal system in humans12 | 1988 | In vivo human data showing that plasma CGRP levels are increased upon thermal coagulation of the trigeminal ganglion |
| Proof of concept for antibody targeting of neuropeptides13 | 1989 | Antisera directed against CGRP and substance P blocked the peripheral actions of released peptides in neurogenic inflammation |
| Sumatriptan inhibits neuropeptide release14 | 1990 | Pharmacological evidence that sumatriptan inhibits neuropeptide release within meninges following electrical trigeminal stimulation. A prejunctional inhibitory receptor-driven mechanism was proposed for sumatriptan |
| Migraine drugs decrease CGRP release during trigeminal stimulation15 | 1991 | Dihydroergotamine and sumatriptan decreased CGRP blood levels during electrical trigeminal ganglia stimulation |
| Migraine drugs attenuate CGRP levels during attacks16 | 1993 | Elevated CGRP blood levels during spontaneous migraine attacks are attenuated by dihydroergotamine and sumatriptan |
| Brain stem activation in spontaneous human migraine attacks17 | 1995 | During spontaneous migraine attacks, blood flow increased in cingulate, auditory, and visual association cortices (cerebral hemispheres) and in the brainstem. Increased blood flow persisted after headaches, and phonophobia and photophobia were completely relieved by sumatriptan. The findings suggest that migraine is associated with an imbalance in activity between brain stem nuclei and vascular control |
| Neuronal substrate of throbbing is revealed18 | 1996 | Dural stimulation converts peripheral trigeminovascular neurons from mechanically insensitive to mechanically hypersensitive, which explains throbbing and intensification of headache by coughing or bending over |
| Neuronal substrate of scalp tenderness and allodynia is revealed19 | 1998 | Dural stimulation produces long-lasting sensitisation of central trigeminovascular neurons in the spinal trigeminal nucleus |
| The 5-HT1F receptor modulates activity of the trigeminal system20 | 1999 | LY 344864, a selective 5-HT1F receptor agonist attenuates capsaicin provoked early-immediate gene response (c-fos expression) in the spinal trigeminal nucleus. The fact that a 5-HT1F agonist modulates activity within the trigeminovascular system suggests its potential as a drug target |
| Cephalic allodynia is unique to migraine21 | 2000 | Cephalic allodynia is unique to headaches and involves irritation of pain fibres in the dura. This symptom can take years to appear in patients. |
| A link between migraine aura and headache is identified22 | 2002 | Cortical spreading depression activates trigeminovascular afferents and promotes a series of cortical meningeal and brainstem events consistent with evoking headache |
| CGRP triggers migraine in humans23 | 2002 | Intravenous infusion of CGRP triggers migraine attacks without aura in patients with migraine |
| Proof of concept for CGRP-targeted treatment24 | 2004 | Olcegepant, a small molecule CGRP receptor antagonist, shows clinical efficacy in an acute clinical trial with 34 migraine patients |
| PACAP triggers migraine in humans25 | 2009 | Intravenous infusion of PACAP dilates extracerebral arteries and triggers migraine attacks without aura in patients |
| The link between migraine aura and headache is further explored26 | 2010 | Cortical spreading depression leads to long-lasting activation of nociceptors that innervate the meninges |
| Evidence for a meningeal contribution to migraine pain27 | 2011 | CGRP-induced migraine headache is associated with ipsilateral dilation of extracerebral and intracerebral arteries. Constrictions of the extracerebral middle meningeal artery (but not intracerebral arterial constriction) parallels a reduction in headache intensity |
| Simple arterial dilatation is not the cause of migraine pain28 | 2013 | Spontaneous migraine attacks were not accompanied by extracerebral arterial dilatation, or substantial intracerebral dilatation overall. In the few vessels showing enlarged diameters, dilatation persisted even after relief from headache by sumatriptan. These results shifted the focus to peripheral and central pain pathways rather than simple arterial dilatation |
| Anti-CGRP monoclonal antibodies are effective in the prevention of episodic migraine29 | 2014 | This trial showed clinical efficacy and safety, suggesting that anti-CGRP monoclonal antibodies might be a viable therapy for prevention of episodic migraine |
| Meningeal contribution to migraine pain is further explored30 | 2019 | Cilosazol-induced migraine is associated with mild dilation of the middle meningeal artery on the headache side. Hence, dilation of this artery could serve as a surrogate marker for activation of dural perivascular nociceptors, indicating a meningeal site of migraine headache |
5-HT=hydroxytryptamine (serotonin). CGRP=calcitonin gene-related peptide. PACAP=pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide
In cats and rodents, trigeminal ganglion neurons projecting to the meninges send central axons that reach trigeminovascular neurons in the spinal trigeminal nucleus, where they converge on neurons that receive additional input from the periorbital skin and pericranial muscles (figure).10,34,35 Axonal projections of 2nd-order trigeminovascular neurons convey pain signals to multiple nuclei in the brainstem, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and thalamus.37 These projections might mediate autonomic (nausea, vomiting, yawning, lacrimation, urination), affective (anxiety, irritability), and hypothalamic-regulated functions related to keeping homoeostasis (loss of appetite, fatigue).38 Relay trigeminovascular thalamic neurons projecting widely (eg, to the somatosensory, insular, auditory, visual, and olfactory cortices) contribute to the specific nature of migraine pain and the many cortically mediated symptoms in migraine. These include transient symptoms of allodynia, phonophobia, photophobia, and osmophobia.39
Figure: Schematic overview of the trigeminovascular system.
Adapted from Burstein et al.36 Thalamic trigeminovascular neurons project to a wide array of cortical areas that mediate symptoms associated with migraine, such as transient amnesia and cognitive decline, phonophobia, photophobia, and expressive aphasia. Inputs to SpV arise from meningeal dural blood vessels and pial blood vessels (not shown). Green: projections from SpV. Blue: thalamo-cortical projections. Yellow: afferent projections from meningeal blood vessels. Orange: afferent projections from cervical dorsal root ganglions.Peach: efferent projections to meningeal blood vessels. Au=Auditory cortex. ECT= ectorhinal cortex. Ins=insular cortex. LP=lateral posterior thalamic nucleus. M1=primary motor cortex. M2=secondary motor cortex. PAG=periaqueductal gray. PB=parabrachial nucleus. Po=posterior. PtA=parietal association cortex. Pul=pulvinar. RS=retrosplenial cortex. S1=primary somatosensory cortex. S2=secondary somatosensory cortex. SpV=spinal trigeminal nucleus. SSN=superior salivatory nucleus. V1=primary visual cortex. V2=secondary visual cortex. VPM=ventral posteromedial
Because pathways conveying migraine headaches involve both peripheral and CNS components, deciphering this association is complex. Under circumstances such as cortical-spreading depress ion, intense neuroglial activity in grey matter activates signaling cascades that could, in turn, discharge adjacent meningeal trigeminovascular axons. The brain, via spinal trigeminal nucleus inputs and rostral structures, processes and integrates transmitted information to generate migraine headache. Hence, the same organ that processes incoming signals relevant to the generation of headache also depolarises trigeminovascular afferents.
Neurophysiological mechanisms
Migraine aura is the clinical manifestation of cortical spreading depression (CSD).3,40 The aura is characterised by a propagating wave of cellular excitability that is followed by a long period of hyperpolarisation and a consequent headache that is thought to be initiated at least partly by introduction of inflammatory molecules and CGRP to the dura.41
In rodents, CSD initiates delayed and immediate activation of trigeminovascular neurons in the trigeminal ganglion and spinal trigeminal nucleus. Such activation patterns appear similar to the delayed and immediate onset of headache after aura in patients.26,42 These findings support the view that the initiation of headache depends on activation of meningeal nociceptors at the origin of the trigeminovascular pathway. Neuropeptide-induced dural neurogenic inflammation and mast cell degranulation might play a role in the activation or sensitisation of dural nociceptors.43 When activated in the altered molecular environment, peripheral trigeminovascular neurons become sensitised, and in turn, sensitize second and third order trigeminovascular neurons in the spinal trigeminal nucleus and the thalamus.38,44 Intensification of headache when bending over is the manifestation of peripheral sensitisation, whereas cephalic and extracephalic allodynia is the manifestation of sensitisation of trigeminovascular neurons in the spinal trigeminal nucleus and the thalamus.21
Triptans are a class of selective serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT1B) receptor agonists used to treat acute migraine. They disrupt communications between peripheral and central trigeminovascular neurons and are more effective in aborting migraine when given early—before the development of central sensitisation—providing further support to the notion that meningeal nociceptors drive the initial phase of the headache.45 Sumatriptan binds to 5-HT1B receptors in the brain that are associated with known CNS-related adverse events such as dizziness and somnolence, but it is unclear if this CNS binding is relevant for sumatriptan’s therapeutic effect in migraine.46 Further support for disrupted communication is found in studies showing that two peripherally acting drugs, onabotulinumtoxinA and anti-CGRP monoclonal anti bodies (mAbs), effectively prevent migraine in patients by inhibiting the activation and sensitisation of different classes of peripheral meningeal nociceptors. OntabotulinumtoxinA inhibits C fibres, but not Aδ-type meningeal nociceptors.47 Anti-CGRP monoclonal antibodies inhibit thinly myelinated (Aδ) but not unmyelinated (C) meningeal nociceptors.48
Neuropeptides
Three powerful vasodilating peptides are found within trigeminal afferents innervating the meninges (substance P, CGRP, and PACAP). The tachykinin substance P, discovered in 1931, is widely distributed in both the PNS and CNS, including the cranial vasculature, ganglia, and trigeminal sensory afferents.49 Preclinical experiments showed that substance P is widely implicated in pain transmission.50 Substance P resides in small diameter ganglion cells and co-exists to a great extent with CGRP in small unmyelinated fibres.10 Unilateral lesions of the trigeminal ganglia (or sectioning of its meningeal branches) decrease substance P in ipsilateral large cephalic blood vessels.5,51 These findings provided evidence that substance P is released into surrounding tissues from perivascular axons derived from the trigeminal nerve.43 However, as only a minority of trigeminal ganglion cells projecting to the meninges contain substance P, the presence of additional sensory neuromediators within the trigeminovascular system was suspected.7
CGRP, discovered in 1982, was the second neuropeptide to be identified in the trigeminovascular system, with effects in vascular tissues similar to those observed with substance P. CGRP is one of the most potent vasodilators of intracranial blood vessels, elicits a greater vasodilation than substance P, and its depletion leads to a decrease in the diameter of the ipsilateral arterial lumen.10,16 CGRP is found in perivascular trigeminal sensory afferents, and fibres containing CGRP are especially abundant in the walls of the cerebral arteries of the circle of Willis.52 Similar to substance P, CGRP is released by stimulation of meningeal afferents, and calcium - dependent release of CGRP in cultured trigeminal ganglion cells supported its role as an extracellular modulator.9,53 The findings are consistent with in vivo data from a study of nine patients with trigeminal neuralgia and five cats, which showed that plasma CGRP concentrations are increased during thermocoagualation of the trigeminal ganglion in humans and during electrical stimulation of the trigeminal gang lion in cats.12 Electrical stimulation of the trigeminal ganglion releases neurokinin A, substance P, and CGRP simultaneously, suggesting that substance P is not alone in modulating trigeminal pathways.54 Additional data are required to clarify this point; however, the importance of CGRP in migraine and to the human trigeminovascular system was shown by the success of strategies to block the effect of CGRP, whereas a substance P receptor blocker was not effective in clinical trials. Despite the negative outcome, the latter trials were the first to test a bench-to-bedside approach to therapy, did not depend upon a vascular smooth muscle mechanism, and focused on products contained within and released from the trigeminovascular system. The progression of targeting one peptide to the next was then systematically approached by the pharmaceutical industry. Their differing success underscores the need to better understand why selectively blocking one neuromediator and not another effectively treats migraine or why targeting CGRP appears more useful for mitigating headache than it does other visceral or somatic pains.55
PACAP, discovered in 1989, exists in two bioactive forms.56 PACAP is found in trigeminal nerve fibres around cerebral blood vessels.56 Furthermore, it can be found in the trigeminal ganglia, the sphenopalatine, and the trigeminal nucleus caudalis.56 Similar to CGRP, PACAP plasma concentrations increase during electrical stimulation of the trigeminal ganglion and superior sagittal sinus.57,58 However, PACAP concentrations decrease in both plasma and the trigeminal ganglion during dural application of inflammatory substances, perhaps reflecting responses to the nature of different stimuli.56 The clinical importance of PACAP is still primarily hypothesis driven as results of drug trials targeting PACAP and its receptor are pending.
Receptor subtypes
The 5-HT1B/1D/1F receptor subtypes are widespread in the trigeminovascular system. In 1988, a clinical trial59 reported a possible benefit from a novel 5-HT1-ike receptor agonist GR43175 (nowadays known as sumatriptan) for treatment of acute migraine. The same year, pharmacological experiments revealed that ergot alkaloids block neuropeptide release in the meninges following electrical trigeminal stimulation, a finding later replicated for sumatriptan.11,15 Both triptans and ergot alkaloids reduced elevated CGRP plasma concentrations during electrical trigeminal stimulation in rats.15 Taken together, these experimental studies provided the first pharmacological evidence for a prejunctional site of drug activity that coupled serotonin receptor subtypes to inhibition of neuropeptide release, now considered the most coherent therapeutic mechanism for ergots and triptans. These findings directed research away from vascular smooth muscle and towards targeting released trigeminal neuropeptides and their receptors.60
Preclinical discoveries showed that the 5-HT1B/1D subtypes reduce substance P and CGRP release in the trigeminal ganglion and trigeminal nucleus. Furthermore, using other experimental paradigms, 5-HT1 agonists also induce vasoconstriction in intracranial arteries.61 The 5-HT1D receptor subtype plays a possible role in inhibiting CGRP release from trigeminal neurons.62 The 5-HT1F receptor subtype also resides in the trigeminal gang-lion, trigeminal nucleus caudalis, and cerebral vessels; however, unlike the other subtypes, the 5-HT1F receptor subtype does not induce vasoconstriction.63
Substance P binds to the G-protein coupled receptors neurokinin-1 (NK), NK2, and NK3, with highest affinity for NK1 located in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, the locus coeruleus, and the raphe nucleus.49 Following substance P release, NK1 receptors are activated in the endothelium and cause vasodilation, mast cell degranulation, and plasma protein leakage. NK1 receptor antagonists inhibit substance P-induced vasodilation of pial arteries in vivo.49 However, changes in vascular tone evoked by elec trical stimulation of the trigeminal ganglion are unaffected by NK1 receptor antagonists.64 Hence, receptors and neurotransmitters other than NK1 and substance P are pivotal in evoking neurogenic vasodilation.
The CGRP receptor complex is found in the trigeminal ganglion in all investigated species.65 Although CGRP is expressed in C-fibres, receptor components are found in the thicker Aδ-ibres. Furthermore, receptor components are found in neurons of the trigeminal ganglion. Stimulation of the CGRP receptor increases intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) by activating adenylate cyclase.66 CGRP is also a ligand for the amylin receptor.66 The potential role of the amylin receptor in migraine is unknown.
PACAP binds to several G-protein coupled receptors including pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide type I receptor (PAC1), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide receptor 1 (VPAC1), and VPAC2, which results in increased intracellular cAMP concentra tions.56 The mRNA of these receptors is found in several structures including the trigeminal ganglia and otic ganglia, and all three receptors are found in cerebral and cranial blood vessels. The VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors mediate vasodilation and mast cell degranulation, whereas the PAC1 receptor is involved in multiple biological processes.56 Notably, the released contents from mast cell degranulation activate C-fibres innervating the dura mater.67 Furthermore, a PAC1 receptor antagonist attenuates nociception in models of inflammatory and chronic pain, emphasising its role in nociception.68,69 Central activation of the PAC1 receptor appears to mediate the effects of PACAP on central trigeminovascular neurons.70
Neurogenic inflammation
Plasma extravasation and vasodilation are both important components of the neurogenic inflammatory response, and substantial additional evidence suggests a role for other signaling markers of inflammation in migraine.71 Neurogenic inflammation develops because of release of sensory neuropeptides such as substance P and CGRP from innervating fibres, and this release of neuropeptides might also occur in extracranial pain sensitive structures.71,72 Studies focused on the dura mater, a structure that contains vessels outside of the blood–brain barrier, and perivascular nerves and mast cells, showed that chemical and electrical stimulation induces plasma extravasation in the dura mater but not the brain, which remains protected behind the blood–brain barrier.73 Administration of indometacin, acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), ergotamine tartrate, dihydroergotamine, or triptans blocked neuro genic extra vasation in the dura mater in animal models, as did substance P receptor antagonists.14,74,75 The same studies implicated prejunctional mechanisms and pep tide release inhibition by ergot alkaloids and triptans. Several substance P receptor antagonists blocked plasma protein extravasation in preclinical models.49 However, human clinical trials were ineffective when testing oral and intravenous administration of a substance P receptor antagonist, which indicated that substance P-induced neurogenic inflammation is not sufficient to explain human migraine headache; nevertheless, it could be a useful biomarker indicative of a meningeal inflammatory response.49
However, the CGRP-induced neurogenic vasodilation component of inflammation could be more clinically relevant than is substance P-induced vasodilation. Although neuropeptide release from sensory fibres is getting increasing attention in neuroimmune modulation, research on tissues suggests that the role of neuropeptide release in pain generation remains to be elucidated. Despite these uncertainties, models of neurogenic inflammation provided the data to support pursuing new therapeutic targets (eg, the 5-HT1F receptor subtype) as well as the therapeutic use of monoclonal antibodies.76 Antisera directed against CGRP and substance P blocked the peripheral actions of these peptides, which was a discovery predating that of the efficacy of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies in migraine by 30 years.13
Clinical imaging evidence for trigeminovascular migraine mechanisms
Results from neuroimaging studies have given novel insights into migraine pathophysiology. Although the aura has been notoriously difficult to study, aura-like episodes with corresponding regional blood flow changes consistent with CSD follow carotid puncture.77 Blood flow studies and fMRI studies during spontaneous and evoked visual auras confirm and extend these aura findings77 and reveal spatial and temporal changes in blood oxygen level-dependent signals characteristic of CSD in preclinical models.78,79
Regarding headache, simple vasodilation does not appear to explain the complex phenotype long considered to be the cause of migraine pain. For example, conflicting results were reported using magnetic resonance angiography of the middle meningeal artery, perhaps because of timing variations from attack onset. Results ranged from no dilatation, to ipsilateral dilatation on the pain side, and to dilatation in the early phase followed by bilateral dilatation.27,30,80 By contrast, spontaneous attacks are accompanied by intracranial but not extracranial arterial dilatation,28 and the magnitude of the dilation is minimal. From these studies, it appears unlikely that middle meningeal artery dilation generates migraine pain. Instead, observed changes in vessel diameter could reflect changes in the chemical milieu of the perivascular space and autonomic pain-related reflexes.22
Neuroimaging studies confirm the involvement of trigemi nal structures in migraine. PET studies show increased blood flow in the pons (a surrogate for activation) both during spontaneous attacks and those induced by glyceryl trinitrate.17,81 Lowered basal spinal trigeminal nucleus activity was shown outside of migraine attacks in patients with migraine compared with controls (healthy volunteers who did not have a history of migraine), and this basal level of activity increased at closer timepoints to an episode of migraine.82 Studies in humans also showed increased hypothalamic activity before spontaneous attacks (one patient monitored for 30 consecutive days) and in the premonitory phase of attacks induced by glyceryl trinitrate.83,84 Furthermore, spontaneous migraine attacks were associated with altered functional coupling between the hypothalamus with the spinal trigeminal nucleus the day before and during onset of the attacks.84
Development of drug targets
Putative mechanisms and targets identified in preclinical experiments require translation and at least partial validation in a human model, because migraine could be a uniquely human experience. However, spontaneous attacks are difficult to identify and investigate, especially at their onset. To overcome this challenge, a human model was developed in which migraine attacks were provoked by administering substances to patients with a history of migraine. Attacks, though painful, are fully reversible, making experimentally induced migraine an acceptable model for studying the complex pathophysiological events that occur during a migraine attack.85
In this human model, CGRP, PACAP, or drugs that target downstream signaling cascades following neuropeptide receptor engagement (presumably in proximity to the trigeminovascular pathways) cause typical migraine headaches after infusion. 60–70% of patients experience attacks after infusion of CGRP or PACAP.85 Higher attack rates (>80%) can be observed following administration of phosphodiesterase 3 and 5 inhibitors, implicating the second messengers cAMP and cyclic guanosine mono phosphate. Amplification of both second messengers could suggest a shared target such as modulation of an ion channel (eg, KATP channels).85,86 These studies further emphasise the role of neuropeptides as crucial mediators of migraine and potential drug targets for mechanism-based migraine treatment (table 2).
Table 2:
Drugs used to treat or prevent migraine with putative sites of action
Year of introduction for clinical useAcute or preventive drugForms of administrationType of drugMechanism of actionPossible sites of action
| Ergotamines* | 1926 | Acute | Intravenous; nasal spray; oral | 5-HT1B,1D,1F receptor agonist | Inhibits peptide release | Prejunctional receptors |
| Triptans | 1991 | Acute | Nasal spray; oral; sublingual; subcutaneous | 5-HT1B,1D/1F receptor agonist | Disrupt communication between peripheral and central trigeminovascular neurons | Prejunctional receptors; presynaptic inhibition at the dorsal horn |
| OnabotulinumtoxinA | 2010 | Preventive | Intramuscular; subcutaneous | Cleaves intracellular SNARE proteins | Cleaves SNAP25 and prevents adhesion of synaptic vesicles to the cell surface membrane, resulting in inhibition of neuropeptides or neurotransmitter release, and insertion of new receptors | Unmyelinated C-class trigeminovascular meningeal nociceptors; unmyelinated C-class cervicovascular extracranial nociceptors |
| Monoclonal antibodies† | 2018 | Preventive | Subcutaneous; intravenous | CGRP-receptor antagonist | Neutralises circulating neuropeptides (or peptide receptor blockade) | Trigeminal ganglion; meningeal nociceptors |
| Ditans‡ | Not yet introduced | Acute | Oral | 5-HT1F receptor agonist | Inhibits peptide release | Central sites and peripheral prejunctional receptors |
| Gepants§ | Not yet introduced | Acute and preventive | Oral | CGRP-receptor antagonist | Peptide receptor blockade | Trigeminal ganglion; meningeal nociceptors; spinal trigeminal nucleus |
5-HT=hydroxytryptamine (serotonin). SNARE=soluble NSF attachment protein receptor. CGRP=calcitonin gene-related peptide. PACAP=pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide.
*
Ergotamines are non-selective for 5-HT and are active at adrenergic and other receptor sites.
†
Anti-PACAP38 monoclonal antibodies are in pre-clinical development and will be administered subcutaneously. Anti-PAC1 receptor antibodies are awaiting public results from phase II trials.
‡
The first ditan (lasmiditan) is expected to be approved by the US Food and Drugs Administration in 2019.
§
The first gepants (rimegepant and ubrogepant) are expected to be approved by the US Food and Drugs Administration in 2019 or 2020.
Since the introduction of the triptans, other drug classes with equivalent clinical efficacy but that do not induce vasoconstriction have been sought for treatment of acute migraine. Candidates include agonists at the 5-HT1F receptor that is expressed on trigeminovascular afferents. One of these agonists, lasmiditan, showed a therapeutic effect similar to sumatriptan in a phase 3 randomised multicenter study with 1856 patients with migraine.87 A high frequency of CNS-related adverse events, such as dizziness and somnolence, suggests that this drug (unlike most triptans) penetrates and possibly targets receptors in the brain. However, these adverse effects are unlikely to hinder a future approval of the drug.
The first drug specifically targeting CGRP was the small molecule CGRP receptor antagonist, olcegepant. Although the drug was never commercialised because it is poorly absorbed via oral administration and had limitations when adminstered intravenously, a proof of concept study with 34 patients with migraine showed that 71% of attacks treated with the highest dose resulted in complete relief of symptoms.24 Nowadays, other gepants (atogepant, rimegepant, and ubrogepant) might be nearing use in clinical practice because phase 3 trials for acute migraine attacks and phase 2 trials for preventive treatment are ongoing. Anti-CGRP mAbs have been approved by both the Food and Drug Administration and European Medical Agency and are highly effective and well tolerated; however, 30–40% of patients do not respond to mAbs.88
The site of action of gepants and mAbs is probably outside of the blood–brain barrier (similar to the ergot alkaloids and triptans) as they do not readily cross it. Possible sites of action include meningeal nociceptors and cells and other targets within the trigeminal ganglion.48,89 Two mAbs against PACAP (ALD1910 [preclinical stage]) and against PAC1 receptor (AMG-301 [phase II trial, NCT03238781]) are being developed and tested.
Conclusion and future research
Fundamental insights and discoveries to understand migraine pathophysiology have led to the emergence of new therapies and targets. However, as in most drug discovery research, the road from bench to bedside has not been straightforward. The time from concept to bedside drug therapy can be more than 30 years, which holds true for therapeutic developments in migraine coming to fruition—2019 will mark the 40-year anniversary of the first publication of the trigeminovascular hypothesis.90
The original trigeminovascular hypothesis successfully anticipated the therapeutic importance of identifying and targeting for therapy neuromediators within a final common pathway transmitting pain signals for headache; offered a more coherent understanding of triptan and ergot action also relevant to the role of released neuropeptides; reinforced the notion that clinically effective drugs do not require blood–brain barrier penetration; provided novel concepts concerning activation and sensitisation of trigeminal afferents by meningeal inflammatory stimuli as well as by intense endogenous brain activity; and emphasised the trigeminal nerve as a target for substances originating within the circulation or released from the brain that trigger headache.
The final common migraine pathway continues as an exciting avenue for discovery and as a vehicle to resolve pressing unanswered questions, such as the exact molecular mechanisms responsible for the initation of migraine attack. Future studies will aim to define the role of candidate mutations or polymorphisms that better inform about the initiating or suppressing mechanisms within the trigeminovascular system that lead to headache. Potential research avenues for clinically useful drugs might be found among ion channels ex pressed on trigeminovascular afferents or in meningeal tissues (eg, transient receptor potential vanilloid family, acid-sensing ion channels, potassium channels). Finally, future studies will investigate other aspects of migraine pathogenesis including the role of inflammation as well as vascular factors—eg, endothelial dysfunction.
Drugs targeting key signaling pathways in the trigeminovascular system will continue to transform clinical practice, thus supporting the development of mechanism-based migraine treatment. The hypothesis published in The Lancet in 1979 changed the research direction and focus at that time and was undoubtedly the first important building block upon which migraine research nowadays is based. With the emergence of new tools and technologies to study pain and neurovascular mechanisms, we anti cipate that the next 40 years will bring keystone discoveries to better understand and treat this enigmatic disorder.
Search strategy and selection criteria.
We identified articles published in English through searches of PubMed, Science Direct, Ovid Medline, Embase, and OVID, with use of the search term “trigeminovascular system”. No publication date restrictions were applied. We also identified papers from the authors’ own files and from references cited in relevant articles. We emphasised original and first to publish research and the references were chosen to reflect the laboratory credited with those original discoveries. Reviews were chosen when space did not permit a more comprehensive treatment of a topic or when limited space did not permit coverage of areas relevant to migraine but not necessarily of immediate importance to developments related to the trigeminovascular system. We generated the final reference list on the basis of articles’ relevance to the topic of this Personal View.
Footnotes
Declaration of interests
MA has received personal fees from Alder BioPharmaceuticals, Allergan, Amgen, Alder, Eli Lilly, Novartis, and Teva. MA also participated in clinical trials as the principal investigator for Alder, Amgen, electroCore, Novartis, and Teva. MA also serves as an associated editor of Cephalalgia, associated editor of the Journal of Headache and Pain, is President-elect of the International Headache Society, and General Secretary of the European Headache Federation. RB has received grant support for his studies on migraine pathophysiology from Teva, Allergan, Dr Reddy, and Trigemina; he also serves as a consultant to Alder Biopharm, Allergan, Amgen, Autonomic Technologies, Avanir, Biohaven, Depomed, Dr Reddy, Electrocore, Johnson and Johnson, Neurolief, Percept, Pernix, Strategic Science and Technologies, Teva, Theranica, and Trigemina. RB and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center hold a provisional patent on the use of narrow band green light for the treatment of photophobia in migraine. MAM serves as a consultant for Pear Therapeutics and NeuroTrauma Sciences. JMH, TPD and AM-C declare that they have no competing interests.
References
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