brain diet-00-semll and taste

[byungin]

다섯 가지 맛
우리가 혀를 통하여 느낄 수 있는 맛은 . 단맛, 짠맛, 신맛, 쓴맛 네 가지로 알려져 왔다. 최근에 "고기 맛 (Umami taste)"과 "튀김 맛 (Fatty acid taste)"이 추가되어, 여섯 가지의 미각으로 늘어났다. 차가움, 뜨거움, 매움, 떫음 등의 느낌은 통증 감각기를 통해서 느낀다.    
  

모든 동물들이 단맛을 좋아한다. 탄수화물은 모든 동물에게 가장 기본적인 에너지원이기 때문이다. 소금은 세포대사에 꼭 필요하기 때문에, 모든 동물이 짠맛을 좋아하게 되어 있다. 파리가 사람의 얼굴이나 팔에 앉으려고 애쓰는 것이나, 곤충들이 소변기에 붙어 있는 것이 소금을 먹기 위해서이다. 우리가 쓴맛을 싫어하는 것은, 자연에 존재하는 대부분의 독(毒)이 쓴맛이기 때문이다. 신맛은 부패한 음식에서 산(酸)이 발생하여 생긴다.  
맛을 느끼는 세포에는 이온통로가 있다. 짠맛은 나트륨 이온, 단맛은 칼륨 이온, 신맛은 수소 이온, 쓴맛은 칼슘 이온 때문이다.

맛과 냄새
Smell and taste serve to detect noxiou odors and to avoid tainted food and potential poisons aroma (Adams. 1997). Appreciation of the flavor of food depends on their aroma (Adams. 1997). Loss of smell causes the individual convinces that taste has been lost as well (Adams. 1995).

냄새
Function of smell is to detect pheromones for chemical communication between individuals, to mark territories, attract mates, bod newborn offspring go their mothers, and many other social actions (Berry 1995;1319-1320). Apocrine glands of the axilla and other parts of the body may have had such functions. The central connections fo the olfactory pathway are strongly linked with the limbic system (Berry 1995;1319-1320). Olfactory stimuli and emotional stimuli are strongly linked. An aroma can restore long-forgotten memories of complex experience (Adams R).
In rat, a continuous additon of olfactory receptor cells occurs throughout life, balanced by the degeneration of existing cells, which may only last for 2 to 3 weeks. When an animal breaths filtered air to reduce the wear and tear at the olfactory surface, individual receptor cells can stay alive for long periods, for example up to a year. Degeneration can be accelerated by increasing local stress.

Loss of smell is caused by nasal or paranasal sinus disease; rhinitis, heavy smoking, influenza, defieicney of vitamine B1 and A, and inhallation of organic solvnet or dusts (Adams. 1995). Olfactory sensation lost after influenza may take months to return (Berry 1995;1319-1320)
Certain dementing disease were found to have reduced odor recognition (Serby.1985). Olfactory hallucinations may occur in conjuction with senile dementia or late-life depression (Adams. 1995). In old age the sense of smell is typically impaired, and histological studies show that there is an age-related tendeny to loss olfactory receptor cells, the sensory surface being replace by cilliated respiratory epithelium (Berry 1995;1319-1320). The reduction in the acuity of taste and smell with aging contribute to the anorexia (Adams. 1995).
Serby M, Corwin J, Conrad P, Rotrosen J. Olfactory dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Am J Psychiatry. 1985 Jun;142(6):781-2
Adams RD, Victor M, Ropper AH. Disorders of smell and taste. In:Adams RD, Victor M, Ropper AH. ed. Principles of neurology. 6th ed. McGraw-Hill 1997; 227-236.
Berry M, Bannister LH, Standring SM. Olfactory Nerves. In: Williams L, et al. ed. Gray's anatomy. 38th ed.  Edinburgh ; New York : Churchill Livingstone 1995;1319-1320

미각
Gustatory receptors detect four main categories of tastants, salty, sweet, sour and bitter. Other taste qualities have been suggested, including metallic and umami (Japaness: delicious taste) (Berry 1995). The cells of taste buds survive for less than about 10 days (Berry 1995. p1314). Impairment of taste are caused by heavy smoking, influenza infection, defieicney of vitamine B and A, defieiency of zinc, and drugs such as amitriptyline (Adams. 1995). Taste is frequently lost over one-half of the tongue in cases of Bell's palsy (Adams. 1995). 
Berry M, Bannister LH, Standring SM. Microscopic Structure of Taste Buds. In: Williams L, et al. ed. Gray's anatomy. 38th ed.  Edinburgh ; New York : Churchill Livingstone 1995;1314

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냄새 없애는 법

Dimethylamine is a practical example of the effect of protonation. Dimethylamine, produced during the spoiling of saltwater fish, can exist in the protonated and nonprotonated forms. The nonprotonated form has only a moderate affinity for water, tends to volatilize, and contributes to the unpleasant odor. Applying acid increases the proportion of the protonated form, which is one reason people flavor fish with lemon juice or malt vinegar(Brody, 1999; 31)
Brody T. Ionization and water solubility. In;Brody T, ed. Nutritional biochemistry. 2nd ed. San Diego. Academic Press1999;31

소변냄새
The odor of urine is associatred with ammonia and several volatile acids. The odor of fresh urine is described as not unpleasant, while the offensive odor of fermented urine is described as ammoniacal. The volatile substances were separated into four major fractions:
(a) acids, (b) phenols, (c) bases, and (d) neutral substances.
The principal volatile acid was found to be benzoic acid (formed by hydrolysis of hippuric acid); hydrogen sulfide, the fatty acids up to
heptylic acid, and possibly hexahydrabenzoic acid. The principal phenols are phenol and p-cresol; other higher phenols occur in notable quantities. Methylamine and indol occur as a trace in fresh urines and in larger quantities in fermented urines. A neutral substance of urine, urinod, is the most important contributors to the odor of urine.
WILLIAM M. DEHN,  FRANK A. HARTMAN. July 18, 1914. Available URL from:http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi/jacsat/1914/36/i10/f-pdf/f_ja02187a020.pdf?sessid=6006l3

화장실 환경을 연구해온 가정용 세제 업체 존슨과 기타사토환경과학센터는 일반 가정의 좌변기에서 오줌을 눌 때 어느 정도나 튀는지를 측정했다. 남자가 서서 오줌을 누면, 바닥은 변기의 바로 앞부터 반경 40㎝, 벽은 바닥에서부터 30㎝ 높이까지 튀는 것으로 나타났다. 주택설비 업체 INAX가 지난해 주부 1030명을 대상으로 벌인 조사에선 가정의 남자수와 화장실 냄새의 상관관계가 잘 드러난다. 최고의 해결책은 앉아서 오줌을 누는 것이다.
박중언 기자. 남자의 튀는 오줌 막아라.한겨레 | 2006.12.05. Available URL from:http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/international/globaltopic/176216.html

잭 니컬슨이 주연한 영화 <어바웃 슈미트>에서 은퇴한 회사원 슈미트가 아내에 대해 늘어놓은 불평 가운데 하나다. 그래도 슈미트는 소변을 볼 때면 오만상을 쓰면서도 좌변기에 주저앉는다. 현실에도 슈미트 같은 남자들이 있을까? 물론 드물다. 하지만 주변 사람들을 위해 기꺼이 변기에 앉는 남자들이 있다. 시민단체 녹색교통운동의 정영철 간사(오른쪽)와 희망제작소의 안진걸 팀장(왼쪽)이 그런 이들이다. 최민수씨도 텔레비전 프로그램에서 “아내를 위해 앉아서 소변을 본다”고 말해 화제가 된 적이 있다.
미국에서는 이미 2000년 8월 ‘서서 소변보기에 반대하는 엄마들’(www.mapsu.org)이라는 시민단체가 설립돼 캠페인을 벌였다. 독일에서는 1980~90년대 한 텔레비전 프로그램에서 앉아서 소변보기를 홍보한 뒤, 화장실에 붙은 홍보 포스터가 익숙한 풍경이 됐다. 2002년 4월 <마이니치>가 보도한 설문조사를 보면, 일본에서는 남자의 약 15%가 앉아서 소변을 보고 있다. 임우상 연세대 의대 교수(비뇨기과)는 오히려 앉은 자세에선 배설기관의 괄약근이 쉽게 열리기 때문에, 배뇨장애를 가진 환자들 중에는 앉아서 더 쉽게 소변을 보는 경우도 있다”고 말했다.
김기태 기자.남자들이여, 앉아서 ‘일’ 봅시다. 한겨레  2006.11.27 Available URL from:http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/SERIES/81/174532.html

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Sharks and rays carry a large content of organic compounds, especially urea and trimethylamine oxide, which raise the blood's osmotic pressure to exceed slightly that of seawater. The concentration of urea in the blood of sharks is more than 100 times as high as in mammals. This is how shars and rays maintain salt and water balance.(Hickman CP, Jr,, 1998;170)
Hickman CP, Jr, Return of Fishes to the Sea. In: Hickman CP, Jr, Roberts LS, Larson A, ed. Biology of Animals. 7th ed. WCB/McGraw-Hill 1998;170.

미원
In 1908 Dr. Ikeda succeeded in extracting glutamate (or glutamic acid, an amino acid) from kombu and discovered that it was the main active ingredient in kombu. He coined the term “umami(旨味, うまみ)” to describe its taste. While umami is an invented word in Japanese, the closest English equivalent is brothy or meaty, with a connotation of savory. After identifying umami, Dr. Ikeda introduced the new seasoning monosodium glutamate, or MSG, which has a strong umami taste. It was first marketed in 1909. 
Umami is the result of the presence of glutamate plus five ribonucleotides including inosinate and guanylate. Glutamate is naturally present in some degree in most foods; inosinate and guanylate are present in many foods (inosinate is found primarily in meat, guanylate is more abundant in vegetables). Another nucleotide, adenylate, is abundant in fish and shellfish.
n 1960, further scientific research revealed how combining a glutamate with an inosinate (ribonucleotides from meat) creates the perfect umami taste.
The Nibble. Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter And... Umami?  Available URL form; http://www.thenibble.com/reviews/main/salts/umami-the-new-taste.asp?r=rss

멸치국물, 멸치젖, 토마토 케첩, 버섯
Anchovy sauce, fermentated anchovies, ketchup, MSG, steak sauce are glutamate-laden food-enhancers.
Earthy-flavored mushrooms vary by type in glutamate content, but most contain substantial amounts. The highest content is owned by the shiitake, Japan’s most popular mushroom. When mushrooms are dried, their guanylate content increases, further boosting their umami flavor. The liquid from re-hydrated dried mushrooms is very rich in umami and is widely used to make dashi and other stock.
A farm-raised tomato has a “beefy” flavor that comes from a heavy concentration of glutamates. Delicious by itself, it is used in condiment form (ketchup) and as a paste to enhance soups, stews and sauces. Tomato sauce on pasta with parmesan cheese is a double-umami hit. A pizza with tomato sauce, cheese and pepperoni, sausage, mushrooms or anchovies is a triple or a perhaps a home run, depending on the number of toppings one chooses.
The Nibble. Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter And... Umami?  Available URL form; http://www.thenibble.com/reviews/main/salts/umami-the-new-taste.asp?r=rss

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Wikipedia. Basic taste. Available URL from:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_taste

The tongue can also feel other sensations, not generally called tastes per se or included in the five human tastes.
Other sensations
4.1 Temperature
4.2 (False) coolness
4.3 Spiciness or (false) heat
4.4 Astringency
4.5 Fat
4.6 Tingly numbness

Temperature
Some sugar substitutes have strong heats of solution, as is the case of sorbitol, erythritol, xylitol, mannitol, lactitol and maltitol. Crystalline phases tend to have a positive heat of solution and thus a cooling effect. The heats of solution of the amorphous phases of the same substances are negative and cause a warm impression in the mouth.

False coolness
One can sense a cool sensation from spearmint, menthol, ethanol or camphor, which is caused by the food activating the TRP-M8 ion channel on nerve cells that signal cold.

Spiciness or false heat
The term pungent is also used for this, especially among people of Anglo-Indian ethnicity.
The heat is caused by the food activating a nerve cell ion channel called TRP-V1, which is also activated by hot temperatures.

Astringency
Some foods, such as tea or unripe fruits, contain tannins that constrict organic tissue. The best example of this is unripe persimmons, whose juice causes a very unpleasant astringent sensation on any part of the mouth it touches.
Less exact terms for the astringent sensation include: "rubbery", "hard", "styptic", "dry", "rough", "harsh" (especially for wine) and "tart" (normally referring to sourness).

Fat
This receptor called the CD36 receptor was found in mice, but probably exists among other mammals as well.

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Salt
Salt is not a flavor but more of a flavor enhancer. A pinch of salt will bring forth the flavors that are already present.

동물의 치아
Mammals are the only vertebrates that masticate. typically mammals are diphyodont--have a single deciduous milk dentition. Some are polyphyodont--have multiple replacement sets (Trichechidae-30+ molars). Toothed whales are monophyodont--have only a single set. In carnivores, condyle at the same level as tooth row, scissors-like occlusion, temporalis is the main muscle. In herbivores, condyle above the level of tooth row, occlusion of cheek teeth at same time, masseter is the main muscle.
Teeth and diet. Availabel URL from:http://users.tamuk.edu/kfjab02/Biology/Mammalogy/biology_4429_ch_4b.htm

사랑니가 퇴화하는 이유
Impacted teeth are believed to be the result of dietary changes historically associated with later developments in human cultures. Impacted teeth typically did not occur during the Stone Age due to a coarse diet that required more chewing and higher bite forces. This likely stimulated the growth of the jawbone, creating more room for wisdom teeth to erupt.
Robert Preidt. Ancient Wisdom Teeth Reveal Humans' Changing Diet: 15,000-year-old remains suggest a shift away from coarser foods. Hon news (08-MAR-2006). Available URL from:http://www.hon.ch/News/HSN/531412.html

Examining a species’ teeth under a microscope can reveal what the animal typically ate; a pitted surface implies a diet of hard and brittle foods such as nuts and seeds, while uniform scratches imply a diet of tough foods such as leaves and stems.
Australopithecus africanus lived between 3 and 2 million years ago when forests dominated Africa. When Paranthropus robustus arrived about 1 million years later, the continent had begun to dry out.  Paranthropus robustus ate hard foods and Australopithecus africanus ate tougher foods. Paranthropus robustus teeth were more pitted from hard foods like roots, tubers, nuts.
Kathryn Hansen. Human evolution: Ancient teeth tell diet secrets (News notes). Availabel URL from:http://www.agiweb.org/geotimes/oct05/NN_teethtopo.html

치아관리
Saliva usually contains high amounts of calcium and phosphate, the primary minerals found in tooth enamel. These two minerals continuously move into and out of the tooth when the tooth is bathed with saliva. Demineralization occurs if more minerals move out of the tooth than in, and remineralization occurs if more move in than out. Dental caries occurs when there is more demineralization than remineralization over an extended period of time. Acid produced by the oral bacteria decreases the plaque pH and causes demineralization. After a while, the plaque pH increases to a more neutral level and remineralization can occur. Dental erosion occurs when acidic foods and beverages dissolve the enamel of the tooth.

Dietary protein is not used by oral bacteria and helps to protect against the development of caries by acting as a buffer and reducing demineralization. A practical application would be to combine dairy foods with sweet or starchy foods, or protein-rich foods with cooked or processed starches. Dietary fat accelerates the clearance of food from the mouth, thereby reducing the exposure time of the oral bacteria to fermentable carbohydrates. Also, an adequate intake of water at the time fermentable carbohydrates are consumed can enhance oral clearance.
Frequent eating occasions promote caries development, especially if they involve constant nibbling or sipping of foods and beverages that are sources of fermentable carbohydrates. A frequent intake of cariogenic food between meals, as opposed to with meals, also increases the risk for caries. When cariogenic foods are consumed with a meal, the protein and fat in the meal can help prevent caries development.
Combine and sequence foods to promote saliva production and oral clearance. For example, combine sweet or starchy foods with protein rich foods.
Food Choices and Dietary Patterns. http://www.hersheys.com/nutrition/dental.asp

Plaque is a sticky film of bacteria. These bacteria love sugars and starches found in many foods. When you don't clean your teeth after eating, plaque bacteria use the sugar and starch to produce acids that can destroy the hard surface of the tooth, called enamel. After a while, tooth decay occurs. The more often you eat and the longer foods are in your mouth, the more damage occurs.
Limit the number of snacks that you eat. Each time you eat food that contains sugars or starches, the teeth are attacked by acids for 20 minutes or more. Futhermore, sugar stops saliva working properly. (Saliva helps keep your teeth clean).  Foods that are eaten as part of a meal cause less harm. More saliva is released during a meal, which helps wash foods from the mouth and helps lessen the effects of acids. Brush at least twice a day. Clean between your teeth daily with floss or interdental cleaners.
Most soft drink, including sports and diet drinks, contain acid. This acid erodes tooth enamel and makes it thinner and at great risk of decay.
Oral Health Topics. Available URL from:http://www.ada.org/public/topics/diet.asp

커피의 장점
A laboratory tests that showed some coffee molecules prevent adhesion of S. mutans on tooth enamel. Caffeine is not involved in the anti-adhesive properties of coffee solutions. The data from the study suggests that trigonelline, a water-soluble compound in coffee that contributes to the aroma and flavour of the beverage, “may have the major responsibility for coffee's anti-adhesive activity”.
Daglia M, et al. Antiadhesive effect of green and roasted coffee on Streptococcus mutans' adhesive properties on saliva-coated hydroxyapatite beads.
J Agric Food Chem. 2002 Feb 27;50(5):1225-9. Also available URL from:http://www.nutraingredients.com/news/ng.asp?id=34718-healthier-teeth-for

커피의 단점
The brown stain causes teeth to darken but it's most noticed on the upper front teeth of coffee drinkers. It's best to drink coffee over a short period of time and then rinse with a glass of water.  Fortunately, dental whitening is effective in removing coffee smile.
Atlanta Dental Group PC. Coffee Smile. Available URL from:http://www.atlantadentist.com/coffee_smile.html

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