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Jiandao

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Jiandao

Chinese name

Traditional Chinese:

間島

Simplified Chinese:

间岛

Transliterations
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin:	Jiāndǎo
- Wade-Giles:	Chien-tao

Japanese name

Kanji:

間島

Transliterations
- Romaji:	Kantō

Korean name

Hangul:

간도

Hanja:

間島

Transliterations
- Revised   Romanization:	Gando
- McCune-   Reischauer:	Kando

Jiandao, known in Korean as Gando, refers to the land between the Tomun and the Yalu rivers, situated in present day Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces of China. The original Chinese name of Jiandao is Jiajiang (Simplified Chinese 假江, Traditional Chinese 假江).

Another way to define Gando was provided by the Japanese in early 1900s. An expanding Japanese empire claimed the Korean territory of Gando and ethnic Koreans living in this region should be placed under its influence.

Most of the region defined by Japan in early 1900s as Gando is currently part of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, a part of Jilin Province in the northeast of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The area of the prefecture is approximately 42,000 square kilometers in size and home to about 840,000 ethnic Koreans. ^[1]

In China, Yanbian (延边, 延邊; Yenbyen 옌볜, or Yŏnbyŏn 연변 in Korean) is the name used, and Jiandao is not used, due to its association with Japanese occupation. North Korea and South Korea recognize the region as a historical part of Korea.^[2]

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[edit] History

Different states and tribes succeeded each other in ruling the area during ancient times. These included the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo and Balhae. Goguryeo was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea and controlled northern Korea and southern Manchuria. Balhae (Ch. Bohai) was a state that existed in the area during the Tang Dynasty in China and the Unified Silla Period in Korea. China emphasizes Balhae's temporary tributary relationship to the Tang, while Korea claims that Balhae was a extension of Goguryeo founded by its people after Goguryeo's fall in 668.

Balhae was destroyed by the Khitan Liao Dynasty in 926, and annexed in 936. For the next nine to ten centuries the region was administered by the Liao Dynasty(Khitans), Jin Dynasty(Jurchens), Yuan Dynasty(Mongols), Ming Dynasty and finally, the Qing Dynasty, which was established by natives of Manchuria. Qing Dynasty eventually replaced Ming Dynasty and succeeded in unifying China after establishing tributary relations with the Joseon Dynasty in Korea.

In 1712, the border between Qing and Joseon was formally demarcated. For years, Qing officials did not allow people to move to Manchuria, as it always believed that should a Han majority government rise again in China, the Manchu royalty can flee to this area and retain a strong base to recover control in China. Joseon officials also did not allow its subjects to move to Manchuria. These governmental regulations with the general marshy nature of the area left these lands north of Tumen river relatively undeveloped and was sparsely populated by Manchu tribes and ethnic Koreans for a long time. By the late 19th century, migration to Gando by Koreans intensified to flee famine and poverty in the south. Even more migration occurred when Japan invaded Korea in 1894.

After the Russo-Japanese war, Japan began to formally annex Korea. In 1905, the Korean Empire became a protectorate of Japan, effectively losing diplomatic rights and became a part of imperial Japan in 1910. In the early 20th century, Korean immigration to Manchuria steadily increased, either fleeing from Japanese rule, or encouraged to develop the land. Korean immigrants were a valuable source of labor and agricultural skill in the region.

In the meantime, Japan began to expand into Manchuria. One of the region the Japanese targeted was Gando (known in Chinese as Jiandao). Gando included the territories between the Tomun and the Yalu rivers as identified in the Qing and Josen boundary agreements and stele at the base of Mt. Baekdu. With the annexation of Korea, all Koreans became citizens of imperial Japan, and according to the Japanese Korean population in Gando were in effect Japanese citizes, and therefore be subjected to Japanese Jurisdiction and law.

The Japanese first infiltrated Gando in April of 1907 to collect information and data. On August 7th, 1907, Japanese troops occupied Gando and called Qing China to settle the "Gando Issue" which was much disputed between Josen and Qing.

In the Gando Convention of 1909, Japan recognized territorial claims of the Qing over Gando after the Chinese foreign ministry issued a thirteen-point refutation statement regarding its supposedly-rightful ownership. The treaty also contained provisions for the protection and rights of ethnic Koreans under Chinese rule. Nevertheless there were large Koreans settlements and the area remained under significant Japanese influence.

Despite the agreement, Koreans in Gando continued to be a source of friction between the Chinese and Japanese governments. Japan maintained that all ethnic Koreans were Japanese nationals, subject to Japanese jurisdiction and law, and demanded rights to patrol and police the area. The Qing and newly established local Chinese governments insisted on its territorial sovereignty over the region.^[3]

After the Mukden Incident, the Japanese military occupied Manchuria. Between 1931 to 1945, Manchuria was under the control of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state. Gando became a province of Manchukuo. This period initiated a new wave of Korean immigration, as the Japanese government actively encouraged (or forced) Korean settlement in order to colonize and develop the region. The region also became a focus for anti-Japanese militant resistance by Koreans. After World War II and the liberation of Korea, many Korean expatriates in the region moved back, but a significant majority still remained in Manchuria; descendants of these people form the Korean ethnic minority in China today.

The area is now the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in Jilin province.

[edit] Boundary claims

Korean claims over Gando stem from the original Sino-Korean boundary agreement.

After several attempts by the Kangxi Emperor to negotiate the issue, in 1712, the Joseon of Korea and Qing of China agreed to delineate the boundaries of the two countries at the Yalu and Tomun Rivers. The Qing delegation was led by Mukedeng, and the Joseon delegation was led by Pak Kwon, and the two held a joint commission to survey and demarcate the boundaries between the two states. Efforts were taken to locate the sources of the Yalu and Tumen rivers at Baekdu Mountain. Owing to Pak's age, they agreed for Mukedeng's team to ascend the summit alone. Mukedeng's team quickly identified the source of the Yalu, but identification for the Tumen proved more complicated. At last a spot was decided, and a stele was erected as a boundary marker. Over the next year, a fence was built to demarcate the areas where the Tumen river ran underground.

Pak Kwon was instructed by the Joseon government to retain all territory south of the Yalu and Tumen rivers, a goal he accomplished. However, Korean officials lamented the loss of areas north of the river and criticized Pak Kwon for not accompanying Mukedeng to the summit. The territorial claims stem from the territories held by the ancient Korean kingdoms ofGoguryeo and Balhae as well as the contemporary boundaries of the Josen. For the next 150 years the border remained uncontentious. Cross-border movements were forbidden, and was punishable by death after trespassers were detained and repatriated back to their respective countries.

In the 1870s the Qing government reversed its policy of prohibiting entry to Manchuria, and began allowing Han Chinese settlers into the territory in response to growing Russian encroachment. The area around Gando was opened up to settlement in 1881, but Chinese settlers quickly discovered Korean farming communities already settled in the area. Despite the decreed punishment, severe droughts in northern Korea motivated Korean farmers to seek new lands. The border did not become a bone of contention again until almost 150 years later—the second moment pointed out in Chang Chiyon’s work. In the 1870s Qing authorities began to open Manchuria, shut off from Han migration since the earliest years of the dynasty. In various stages between 1878 and 1906 the entire expanse of Manchuria opened to settlement; the Tumen River valley received its first Han settlers in 1881. When these Qing settlers arrived, however, they discovered that many Korean communities were already established in the region.

The Korean population argued that they were actually already in Korean territory, as defined by the boundary agreements between Joseon and Qing. The Yalu (鴨綠) River boundary is of little dispute, but the interpretation of the Tomun River boundary 土門 (토문) causes problems. The name of the river itself originates from the Jurchen word tumen, meaning "ten thousand". The official boundary agreement in 1712 identified the Tumen river using the characters 土門 (pinyin:tǔmen) for the phonetic transcription. However, the modern Tumen River is written as 圖們 (pinyin:túmen) in modern Chinese and as 豆滿 (두만) "Duman" in both modern Korean and Japanese. Koreans claim that the "Tumen" referred to in the treaty is a tributary of the Songhua River. Under this interpretation, Gando is part of Korean territory.^[4]

This confusion arises as the two names sound identical, and neither name is actually of Chinese origin. The two rivers can be seen in the following map from the period. Korean claims are based on maps that show separate "Duman" and "Tomen" rivers, as supported by modern satellite surveillance. Tomun river, the modern tributary of the Songhua River has been dry since, although the prints of the river is very clearly visible.

• Satellite view of same location; Baekdu Mountain, Lake Tianchi, and the Tumen River are visible
• Satellite view of the Songhua river and Baekdu Mountain, for comparison purposes

This interpretation of the boundary was Joseon official policy. O Yunjung, a Korean official appointed to review the claims made by the farmers and investigate the sources of the river, declared that the region did not belong to China. Joseon and Qing officials met in 1885 and 1887 to resolve the dispute, but with little result. Korean officials suggested on starting from the stele and tracing the river downwards, while Qing officials proposed starting at the mouth of the Tumen River and moving upstream.^[5] From 1905 onwards, Korea came under the influence and control of Japan and was unable to effectively protect their rights from Qing.

After liberation of Korea in 1945, Koreans believed that Gando should be given to Korean rule, but the military control by United States of America in the south and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in the north hindered any unified Korean claim to the territory. The chaos of the Korean War and the geopolitical situation of the Cold War effectively diminished any opportunity for Koreans to appropriate the Gando issue. In 1962, North Korea, with China as its most valuable client and economic lifeline, signed a boundary treaty with People's Republic of China setting the Korean boundary at Yalu and Tumen, foregoing territorial claims to Gando. South Korea meanwhile has maintained the fact that Gando is a part of Korea.

Today, South Korea still addresses the Gando issue and recognizes Gando as Korean territory. There are occasional arguments over historical interpretation, this issue arouses much emotion and official interest on the part of {{South Korea]]and relations between China and South Korea is rather tense concerning the territorial issue, while general relationship continues to be warm.

In 2004 the South Korean government issued a statement to that it recognizes that the Gando Convention was null and void. The resultant controversy and strong negative reaction from the PRC led to a partail retraction of the statement, although the South Korean government's position has not changed.

South Koreahopes that under a unified Korea, the treaties signed by North Korea can be deemed null, allowing the unified Korea to actively seek regress for Gando. However, the current political situation make reunification a distant goal. Also, some scholars claims that China's actions to incorporate the history of Goguryeo and Balhae into Chinese history is an effectively pre-emptive move to squash any territorial disputes that might rise regarding Gando before a unified Korea can claim such or the Korean ethnic minority in the Gando region hopes to become a part of Korea.

[edit] Images

The following were made by western missionaries and defines how the contemporary border was understood, by both Chinese, Korean, and neutral westerners surveying the region.

The following map is a map of Roman Catholic Apostolic vicariates during the early 20th century. At this time, Korea is divided under three Apostolic vicariates; Seoul (originally Corea erected in 1831 by Pope Gregory XVI, Daegu erected in 1911 by Pope Pius X, and Wonsan erected in 1920 by Pope Benedict XV, which, as can be seen in the map, extends throughout both eastern Manchuria, including Gando, as well as northern Korea. This is taken as proof that eastern Manchuria is "Korean".

[edit] References

1. ^ Yanbian, Jiling, China.
2. ^ China puts Korean spat on the map. Asia Times (2004-08-19). Retrieved on 2007-11-11.
3. ^ Erik W. Esselstrom (2000). "Rethinking the Colonial Conquest of Manchuria: The Japanese Consular Police in Jiandao, 1909–1937". Modern Asian Studies 39: 39-75. 
4. ^ Schmid, pg. 227 Their position centered on an interpretation of the stele erected by Mukedeng more than two centuries earlier. The farmers contended that they had never crossed any boundary and were in fact within Joseon territory. The first Tumen River delineated the northernmost extreme of Choson jurisdiction, while a second Tumen River flowed within Choson territory. Qing authorities mistakenly believed the two rivers were one and the same, the petition suggested, only because Chinese settlers had falsely accused the Korean farmers of crossing the border. In fact their homes were between the two rivers, meaning that they lived inside Choson boundaries. The way to substantiate their claims, they urged, was to conduct a survey of the Mt. Paektu stele, for the stele alone could determine the boundary.
5. ^ Schmid, pg. 227-228 At this time O Yunjung, who later became a famous reform official, was appointed as special inspector for the Northwest. Upon receiving his appointment, O informed the king in wonderful Confucian rhetoric that the farmers would “naturally return” as they learned of the king’s sagely virtue, but when he arrived at the frontier, he quickly learned sagely virtue was no match for land. He immediately heard the complaints of the farmers. In response, O undertook two investigations, the first to verify the position and text of the Mt. Baekdu stele, the second to ascertain the sources of the river. The results of these efforts sufficiently confirmed the position of the farmers and Joseon official policy, and O, in an audience at court, confidently reasuured the king of Joseon's rights to these lands. “That these lands are not the lands of China,” he stated, “is most clear." By 1885 and 1887, when Joseon and Qing delegates met along the border to survey the local topography with the hope of ending the disagreement, the Joseon negotiators had adopted the interpretation of the stele as the basis of their negotiating stance. Start at the stele, they told their Qing counterparts, and trace the river downward from this point. The Qing side rejected this emphasis on the stele. Instead, the opposite method of locating the border was suggested: start at the mouth of the Tumen River and trace the river upstream. A number of surveys were conducted, but more accurate information on the local topography did little to soften the opposing positions on determining the boundary.

[edit] External links

Hyun Ok Park (2000). "Korean Manchuria:The Racial Politics of Territorial Osmosis". The South Atlantic Quarterly 99 (1): 193-215.  Andre Schmid (2000). "Looking North toward Manchuria". The South Atlantic Quarterly 99 (1): 219-240.