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(paper) Imagination in the Zhuangzii: the madman of Chu’s alternative to Confucian cultivation(2017)
- Paul J. D’Ambrosio
1. Confucius, a madman, and blinding Yang
2. Confucius, Laozi, and genuine pretending
3. Conclusion
Asian Philosophy
An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East
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질량감이 대단한 paper
다만, 장자 특정 문구 해석에 있어 구설 여지가 적지 않을 듯
(참고)
假 거짓 가, 끝날 가, 바꿀 가, 이를 격, 멀 하 1. 거짓 2. 끝나다 3. 바꾸다 4. 이르다5. 가짜
○ 知之能登假於道者也(지지능등격어도자야) 若此(약차) : 지식이 도(道)의 경지에 오름이 이와 같음. 登假의 假은 ‘격’으로 읽으며 도달하다[至]는 뜻이다(陸德明). 郭象은 오르다[登至]로 풀이했고, 成玄英도 같은 견해이다. 登假(등격)의 경우는 〈德充符〉편 ‘擇日而登假(택일이등하)’에 이미 나왔지만 ‘擇日而登假(하)’의 登假(등하)는 昇遐와 같은 의미이기 때문에 ‘하’로 읽고, 여기의 登假(등격)은 道의 경지에 오르다는 뜻으로 쓰였기 때문에 ‘격’으로 읽어야 한다. 王叔岷의 경우에도 〈德充符〉편에서는 ‘하’로 읽었고 여기의 경우는 ‘격’으로 읽어야 한다고 주장했는데 이 견해가 타당하다. ‘하’로 읽는 경우는 〈德充符〉편 ‘擇日而登假(하)’의 역주 참조. 若此의 此는 앞의 ‘登高不慄 入水不濡 入火不熱’을 받는 대명사.
○ 浸假而化予之左臂(침가이화여지좌비) 以爲雞(이위계) : 가령 나의 왼쪽 팔뚝을 서서히 변화시켜서 닭이 되게 한다면. 浸(침)은 점차의 뜻(郭象, 向秀)으로 侵의 假借字이다(王叔岷). 假는 假令의 뜻(成玄英). 林希逸은 使로 풀이했는데 같은 뜻이다.
○ 假於異物(가어이물) 託於同體(탁어동체) : 다른 사물을 빌려 한 몸에 의탁함. 다른 사물의 형체를 빌려 그와 한 몸이 된다는 뜻. 成玄英은 “여러 사물이 서로 의탁하여 함께 한 몸을 이루는 것이다[衆諸寄託 共成一身].”로 풀이했고, 曹受坤은 “다른 것들을 합쳐서 같은 것을 이루는 것이다[合異以爲同].”라고 풀이했다.
○ 擇日而登假(택일이등하) : 날짜를 가려서 아득한 곳에 올라갈 것임. 곧 언젠가는 도의 경지에 올라갈 것이라는 뜻으로, 왕태의 죽음을 도의 세계에 들어가는 것으로 표현한 것이다. 登假(하)는 昇遐와 같다. 林希逸, 羅勉道, 郭慶藩 등은 《說文解字》의 풀이에 근거하여, 假를 격(格)으로 읽고 이른다[至]는 뜻으로 보아야 한다고 주장했고, 宣穎, 奚侗, 朱桂曜, 聞一多, 王叔岷 등은 《爾雅》에 근거하여, 假를 遐(하) 또는 霞(하)로 보아야 한다고 주장했는데, 여기서는 뒤의 견해를 따랐다.
(출처 : 전통문화연구회의 동양고전종합DB(http://db.juntong.or.kr))
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莊子 內篇4 人間世(인간세)4-2無所可用(무소가용)
匠石歸,櫟社見夢曰:「女將惡乎比予哉?若將比予於又木邪。
夫柤梨橘柚,果蓏之屬,實熟則剝,剝則辱;大枝折,小枝泄。
此以其能苦其其生者也,故不終其天年而中道夭,
自掊擊於世俗者也。物莫不若是。
且予求無所可用久矣,幾死,乃今得之,為予大用。
使予也而有用,且得有此大也邪!
且也若與予也皆物也,奈何哉,其相物也?
而幾死之散人,又惡知散木?」
匠石覺而診其夢。弟子曰:「趣取無用,則為杜何邪?」
曰:「密!若無言,彼亦直寄焉,以為不知己者詬厲也。
不為杜者,且幾有翦乎?
且也彼其所保與眾異,而以義譽之,不亦遠乎!」
莊子 內篇4 人間世(인간세)9無用之用也(무용지용)
孔子適楚,楚狂接輿遊其門,曰:
「鳳兮鳳兮,何德之衰也!來世不可待,往世不可追也。
天下有道,聖人成焉,天下無道,聖人生焉。方今之時,僅免刑焉。
福輕乎羽,莫之知載!禍重乎地,莫之知避。
已乎已乎,臨人以德!殆乎殆乎,畫地而趨!
迷陽迷陽,無傷吾行!吾行卻曲,無傷吾足!」
山木自寇也,膏火自煎也。桂可食,故伐之;漆可用,故割之。
人皆知有用之用,而莫知無用之用也。
已乎已乎,臨人以德!殆乎殆乎,畫地而趨!
迷陽迷陽,無傷吾行!吾行卻曲,無傷吾足!」
莊子
孔子行年五十有一而不聞道,乃南之沛,見老聃。老聃曰:‘子來乎?吾聞子北方之賢者
也,子亦得道乎?’孔子曰:‘未得也。’老子曰:‘子惡乎求之哉?’曰:‘吾求之於度數,五
年而未得也。’老子曰:‘子又惡乎求之哉?’曰:‘吾求之於陰陽,十有二年而未得。’
老子曰:“然。使道而可獻,則人莫不獻之於其君;使道而可進,則人莫不進之於其親;
……。由中出者,不受於外,聖人不出;由外入者,無主於中,聖人不隱。名,公器也,
不可多取。仁義,先王之蘧廬也,止可以一宿而不可以久處,覯而多責。古之至人,假
道於仁,托宿於義,以游逍遙之虛,食於苟簡之田,立於不貸之圃。逍遙,無為也;苟
簡,易養也;不貸,無出也。古者謂是采真之游(Wang, 2012b, pp. 518–523).
莊子 內篇 6大宗師(대종사) 1- 2眞人(진인)
何謂真人?
古之真人,不逆寡,不雄成,不謨士。
若然者,過而弗悔,當而不自得也。
若然者,登高不慄,入水不濡,入火不熱。是知之能登假於道者也若此。
古之真人,其寢不夢,其覺無憂,其食不甘,其息深深。
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Imagination in the Zhuangzi: the madman of Chu’s alternative to Confucian cultivation
Paul J. D’Ambrosio
ABSTRACT
This paper examines the role of the imagination in the Zhuangzi. There
are many avenues through which the various types of imaginations in
the Zhuangzi could be investigated, but this paper will concentrate on
only one, namely the use of imagination to criticize Confucius’ way.
Specifically, the Zhuangzi finds Confucius’ views on virtuosity, moral
cultivation, and social roles to include exceedingly limited imagined
restrictions. The Daoist classic thereby creates (in a somewhat paradoxical
fashion) stories to inspire the imagination of its readers, with
the goal of broadening the ways in which people understand morality,
society, and themselves. Accordingly, the Zhuangzi suggests that people
can ‘zigzag’ through life, temporarily taking on different perspectives
or roles, without cultivating a corresponding sense of self.
Imagination is key for promoting this type of existential mode of
existence—what the Zhuangzi calls ‘genuine’ (zhen 真).
The Zhuangzi 莊子has long been credited as a critical resource for inspiring the
imagination in thinkers throughout the Chinese history,1 from influential philosophical
movements such as Wei-Jin period Xuanxue 玄學2 to modern writers including Lu
Xun 魯迅.3 More recently, Michael Puett, in his interpretation of the relationship
between Confucius and the Zhuangzi, sees the role of the imagination in the content
and style of the text, as well as its heuristic and hermeneutic function in the reader,
as pivotal for ‘attaining the Dao’ (Puett, 2013).4 Puett contrasts the Zhuangzi with the
Confucius of the Analects (Lunyu 論語), who, relatively speaking, emphasizes rigid and
fixed yang 陽elements of life, and with the Laozi 老子, where the complementary
softer more fluid yin 陰aspects become the focus. The Zhuangzi, Puett argues,
considers a more balanced view of the harmony between yin and yang,5 and
specifically targets Confucian cultivation projects in which people are supposed to
be resolute (zhi 志)6 in conforming to specific virtues or social roles.7 This represents
an overemphasis on yang, which, Puett says, loses sight of ‘the harmony of yin and
yang’ and ignores ‘the endless interplay of yin and yang’ (ibid). According to Puett, by
disrupting this harmony within our own bodies and in the natural and social environments
around us, ‘we literally are living in a way that makes us sick, unhappy, and
leads us to an early death, literally’ (ibid). To this I would add that this type of
disharmony chisels away at our sanity8 as well.9 In order to remain physically and
mentally healthy, the Zhuangzi asks us to, in the words of Puett,
Imagine … you living your life embracing this incredible spontaneity, this incredible generation,
then what you are doing is encouraging this endless interplay of yin and yang, if
you are doing that … there is life. And there is not just life, there is life in the most exciting
[and] expansive sense that we can imagine, or rather beyond, because of our limited human
perspective, [what] we are likely to imagine. That is what we are attaining when we are
attaining the way [Dao] (ibid).
Puett then goes on to say that attainment of the way entails not making clear plans of
action, especially not the type involved in the moral and personal cultivation advocated
by Confucius. The Zhuangzi asks us instead to remain open to different perspectives and
various aspects of social experience.
In this article, rather than attempting to define imagination or offer a definition of
how it is conceptualized in the Zhuangzi (if it even is), I want to explore its function in
that text. In other words, I will analyze the role imagination plays in the philosophy of
the Zhuangzi, and more importantly, emphasize the Zhuangzi’s criticism of Confucius’
use of imagination. I generally agree with Puett’s interpretation, but would like to
sharpen it by looking more closely at the critical role the imagination plays in critiquing
other less inclusive and potentially limiting types of imagination. To this end I agree with
Puett that the major target of the Zhuangzi here is the Analects and will juxtapose their
positions accordingly.10 The paper will thus focus specifically on the Zhuangzi’s critique
of Confucian views on social roles and moral cultivation as imposing limitations on the
imagination.
1. Confucius, a madman, and blinding Yang
Confucius is one of the favorite characters in the many invented dialogues and stories of
the Zhuangzi. The father of Confucianism wears many hats in the Daoist classic: he can
be the object of scorn and ridicule11 or praise and reverence; he is sometimes the
student of his own students, who are then mouthpieces of Daoist ideas, or conversely,
an advocate of Daoist ideas himself. But these stories are, without exception, very likely
the subject of pure imagination.12
It is perhaps without irony that Confucius appears so often in Chapter four, titled ‘In
the Human World’ (Ren Jian Shi人間世) (Ziporyn, 2009, p. 24).13 This chapter contains
three dialogues providing advice on dealing with political affairs. In the first, Confucius
reins in an overzealous Yan Hui 顏回, and in the second a commissioned envoy
approaches the Confucian sage for guidance. The final story is of a man hired to be
the tutor of a prince notorious for his nasty temperament. These episodes are all about
how to remain physically safe and mentally sane when dealing with dangerous rulers.
There are also three stories about trees, all of which are used to demonstrate how social
‘usefulness’14 is a good way to ensure that one’s life ends early (yao 夭). A description of
a ‘discombobulated’ cripple in this chapter illustrates the same point. The cripple Shu 疏
appears socially useless, like some of the trees, and is thereby able to live a pretty good
life.15 In the second to last passage of this chapter we are presented with a rather
enigmatic account of a ‘madman’ mocking Confucius:
孔子適楚,楚狂接輿游其門曰:‘鳳兮鳳兮,何如德之衰也!來世不可待,往世不可追
也。天下有道,聖人成焉;天下無道,聖人生焉。方今之時,僅免刑焉。福輕乎羽,莫
之知載;禍重乎地,莫之知避。已乎已乎,臨人以德!殆乎殆乎,畫地而趨!迷陽迷
陽,無傷吾行!吾行卻曲,無傷吾足!’ (Wang, 2012b, p. 189)
When Confucius went to Chu, the madman Jieyu wandered past his gate. He was siging
this song
Oh Phoenix! Oh Phoenix! How your Virtuosity declines!
You cannot wait for a future era, nor can you recapture the past.
When the Course is present in the world, the sage perfects himself with it.
When the course is lacking in the world, he lives his own life with it.
But in the present age, avoiding execution is the best he can do with it.
Good fortune is lighter than a feather, yet no one can carry it for long.
Trouble is heavier than the earth, yet no one can get it to drop away.
Confronting the world with your Virtuosity – let it rest, give it up!
Drawing a straight line upon this earth and then trying to walk along it – danger, peril!
The brambles and thorns, which so bewilder the sunlight, they don’t impede my steps.
My zigzag stride amid them keeps my feet unharmed (Ziporyn, 2009, p. 32)
Li Zhi 李贄(d. 1602) reads the whole of Chapter four as basically a farce. It is sarcastically
designed, according to Li, to encourage socially useful people, but ends with this
mockery of Confucius to prove that all the advice was facetiously given (cf. Fang,
2008, pp. 555–567). Li comments, ‘So all the methods described here [in this chapter]
are really just schemes for those “useful” people; the Spirit Man does not keep hold of
such things. That is why the chapter winds up with Jieyu’s ridicule of Confucius’
(Ziporyn, 2009, p. 177). While there is perhaps more to this chapter than Li Zhi
acknowledges,16 he is correct in thinking that the madman is a mouthpiece of the
Zhuangzi, and, as such, is critical of the way Confucius tried to order the world through
promoting virtuosity. We then learn from the madman that the major problem with
Confucian virtues or virtuosity is that they ask one to ‘draw a [imaginary] straight line
and then try to walk it.’ In terms of yin-yang categories, we could say that the Confucian
cultivation project, which calls for people to be zhi 志17 (‘strong willed’ or ‘resolute,’ or
‘stubborn’ according to Fu, 2012b) in their pursuit of defined virtues, is overly yang.
According to Puett, this excessively yang character is heart of the Zhuangzi’s criticism
of the Analects. By looking at specific goals and thinking ‘That is what I will be’—a
phrase that resonates with a heavy yang attitude—we ‘lose the harmony between yin
and yang…and close ourselves off from the yin’ (Puett, 2013). In fact, the madman
mentions a similar idea as well.
In the phrase mi yang mi yang 迷陽迷陽, 18 which Ziporyn translates as ‘which so
bewilder the sunlight,’ yang陽can be translated as either ‘sun’ and ‘sunlight’ or simply the
‘yang’ from yin-yang. Commenting on this sentence specifically, Guo Xiang 郭象(d. 312)
writes, ‘mi yang means something like losing yang. Losing yang [one can] go-by loneness
(ren du 任獨), undisrupted by the external, and thus one’s actions will [remain] complete’
(Wang, 2012b, p. 191). Chen Xuanying 陳玄英(d. 660) further clarifies Guo’s comment
adding, ‘One should keep to non-assertive action (wuwei 無為) [and] going-by loneness
(ren du 任獨)’ (ibid). As has been shown by Yang Lihua 楊麗華, in Guo Xiang ‘loneness’
refers a thing’s ‘natural tendencies’ (ben xing 本性)19 (Yang, 2010, p. 116). Loneness is also
explained in the second chapter of the Zhuangzi as the absence of fixed ideas about shi是
(‘that’s it,’ ‘right,’ ‘is’) and fei 非(‘that’s not it,’ ‘wrong,’ ‘is not’) (Wang, 2012b, p. 61). Being
non-assertive and going-by loneness then both refer to acting naturally, that is, the ability
to adjust to one’s ever-changing environment. This type of adjusting to concrete particulars
is essentially what the madman describes as his ‘zigzagging (qu 曲)’ along.
Chen Xuanying goes on to define the madman’s ‘zigzagging’ as a type of ‘going
along’ (cong shun 從順) that relies on ‘emptying one’s heart-ming, and going along with
the natural tendencies of things’ (xu kong qi xin, sui shun wu xing 虛空其心,隨順物性)
(Wang, 2012b, p. 191). In contrast, ‘drawing a straight line’ refers to a preconceived plan
that does not allow for as much flexibility when maneuvering through the world. And
just like this story of the madman in the Zhuangzi, the straight lines that are drawn by an
aspiring Confucian are completely imaginary. They do not refer to either one’s ‘loneness’
or the natural tendencies of things. Interestingly, Confucius himself is recorded to have
detested the drawing of lines as imaginary restrictions as well, albeit for different (yangbased)
reasons.20
In the Analects, Confucius expresses concern for students who map out what they can
and cannot do before getting started. But Confucius criticizes his students for yangbased
reasons: he is worried that people do not work hard enough, and that they draw
lines that limit their own effort. One example in the Analects records
冉求曰:‘非不[說説]子之道,力不足也。’子曰:‘力不足者,中道而廢。今女畫。’(Zhu,
2011, p. 87).
Ranyou said, ‘It is not that I do not rejoice in the way (dao 道) of the Master, but that I do
not have the strength to walk it.’
The Master said, ‘Those who do not have the strength for it collapse somewhere along the
way. But with you, you have drawn your own line before you start’ (Ames & Rosemont, 1998,
p. 106).
Here, Confucius is clearly not happy with Ranyou for drawing an imaginary line for
himself. He would rather Ranyou proceed with his effort and see how far it may carry
him, which he will not know until he breaks down and cannot go on. In line with Puett’s
description, Confucius is advocating a yang-based, strong-willed, resolute personal
character. Those who want to follow his way must be willing to risk collapse in doing
so. The problem with Ranyou’s imaginary line is, as Zhu Xi 朱熹(d. 1200) comments, that
it is ‘self-limiting (zi xian 自限)’ (Zhu, 2011, p. 87). Confucius’ point is, as Li Zehou 李澤厚
says, to ‘establish one’s will (li zhi 立志),’ which means, apparently, striving until one can
go no further (Li, 2008a, 185).
The madman’s critique of Confucius’ virtuosity, of what could be called ‘Confucius’
way,’ is essentially the same as Confucius’ criticism of Ranyou: both reject drawing
imaginary lines of self-imposed limitation. The difference lies in the degree of restriction
and the type of line being drawn. Ranyou marks off where his effort should cease in
following Confucius’ way. For the master himself this type of line should never be drawn.
One should make a constant effort until they collapse. However, from the madman’s
perspective, this effort is made along a way or line that is inherently limited and which
imposes preconceived (imagined) restrictions upon one’s response to various situations
without taking into account unforeseen variables. And it is precisely because it is
inflexible that one is liable to ‘collapse along the way.’ If one ‘zigzags’ along, there is
no point at which he/she eventually break down due to lack of strength. The madman
dismisses Confucius’ way as a predetermined line that only serves to narrow one’s
potential actions, understanding, and perception of their own self, society, and the
world.
From the madman’s perspective Confucian virtuosity does not ‘go along’ with the
natural tendencies of things. The heart-mind is filled with preconceived lines—imagined
delineations—of identity, morality, and all sorts of social norms.21 This makes Confucian
virtuosity simply too rigid. It excludes the Zhuangzi’s comparatively broader openness to
one’s variable natural tendencies and to the natural tendencies of other things in one’s
social and natural environment. It is, to use Puett’s vocabulary, ‘closed off’ and overly
infatuated with yang tendencies. But whereas for the madman Confucius’ way already
represents a limitation, Confucius is only upset about lines that limit the amount of
effort one puts into walking the line, or way. In the context of this paper we might
interpret Confucius as saying ‘imagining one’s limitations is not as good as actually
finding them.’ The same sentence could represent the madman’s position, but for the
madman it refers not to effort, but rather to virtuosity, social norms, and identity. The
imaginary lines of moral cultivation, which guide one with a resolute will, actually limit
the person’s openness to broader perspectives.
The lines that Confucian virtuosity draws are not only followed in action, but should
also be the focus of one’s mental and emotional energies. They are thus not only
patterns to follow (at the exclusion of others), but also blinders on intellectual and
emotional perceptions of the world. The Zhuangzi provides an alternative to this closedmindedness.
As Kim-Chong Chong puts it,
A … prominent aspect of the Zhuangzi is the room it gives for diverse or plural perspectives.
Many stories in the text have the effect of liberating the mind and opening up the
imagination. An important aspect of Zhuangzi’s thinking is that it calls for the recognition
of different, plural perspectives on what constitutes the good life, instead of imposing a
universal conception of it on all – no matter how well intended (Chong, 2016, pp. 131–132).
Thus we can see that the Zhuangzi criticizes the moral imagination of Confucius for its
limiting effects. The reader of the Daoist classic is then expected to broaden their
imagination, to take into account a wider array of possibilities in the world, and be
mindful of restricting themselves to an overly yang-based, pre-imagined, straight-line
way of interacting with the world and oneself.
To further understand the alternative proposed by the Zhuangzi (i.e. moving about
the world in a ‘zigzag’ manner with an empty heart-mind and ‘going along with the
natural tendencies of things’), we will turn to another imaginary story in the Zhuangzi: a
dialogue where Confucius confesses his philosophical failures to master Laozi.
2. Confucius, Laozi, and genuine pretending
In the ‘Outer Chapters’ there are seven episodes of Confucius meeting Laozi. For the
most part the Confucian sage is imagined to be asking the Daoist master for advice. A.C.
Graham, in his translation of the Zhuangzi, devotes a special chapter to these discussions
titled ‘The Dialogues of Confucian and Old Tan [Laozi]’ where he notes that there is a
long tradition in China of believing that Confucius and Laozi really did meet (Graham,
1981, pp. 128–134). The idea that Confucius sought Laozi for advice is still somewhat
popular in China, bolstered by, for example, Chen Guying’s陳鼓應adamant and elaborate
argument that such a meeting is not only plausible but may have taken place more
than once (cf. Chen 2015a, 2015b). Their meeting even made it to the big screen in the
2010 film Kongzi 孔子(‘Confucius’).
In Chapter fourteen of the Zhuangzi we find a rather long account of a dialogue
between Confucius and Laozi where the contrast between ‘zigzagging’ and ‘drawing
straight lines’ is apparent:
孔子行年五十有一而不聞道,乃南之沛,見老聃。老聃曰:‘子來乎?吾聞子北方之賢者
也,子亦得道乎?’孔子曰:‘未得也。’老子曰:‘子惡乎求之哉?’曰:‘吾求之於度數,五
年而未得也。’老子曰:‘子又惡乎求之哉?’曰:‘吾求之於陰陽,十有二年而未得。’
老子曰:“然。使道而可獻,則人莫不獻之於其君;使道而可進,則人莫不進之於其親;
… 。由中出者,不受於外,聖人不出;由外入者,無主於中,聖人不隱。名,公器也,
不可多取。仁義,先王之蘧廬也,止可以一宿而不可以久處,覯而多責。古之至人,假
道於仁,托宿於義,以游逍遙之虛,食於苟簡之田,立於不貸之圃。逍遙,無為也;苟
簡,易養也;不貸,無出也。古者謂是采真之游(Wang, 2012b, pp. 518–523).
When Confucius had lived fifty-one years and had not heard the Way, he went south to
Pei to visit Old Dan [Laozi].
‘Have you come?’ said Old Dan. ‘I hear that you are the best of the men of the north.
Have you after all found the Way?’
‘I have not found it.’
‘Where did you seek it?’
‘I sought it in measures and numbers, and in five years did not find it.’
‘Where did you seek it then’
‘I sought it in the Yin and Yang, and in twelve years did not find it.’
‘Yes. Supposing that the Way could be offered up, there is no man who would not offer
it to his lord. Supposing that the Way could be presented as a gift, there is no man who
would not present it to his parents…. If what issues from within will not be accepted
outside, the sage does not let it out; if what enters from outside is not appropriate within,
the sage does not rely on it. Names are tools for public use, one should not have too strong
preferences between them. Humaneness and duty are the grass huts of the former kings;
you may put up in them for a night, but not settle in them for long, and the longer you are
noticed in them the more will be demanded of you. The utmost men of old borrowed right
of way through humaneness, lodged for a night in duty, to roam in the emptiness where
one rambles without destination, eat in the fields of the casual and simple, stand in the
orchards where one can keep all the fruit. To ramble without a destination is Doing Nothing
[non-assertive action], to be casual and simple is to be easily nurtured, to keep all the fruit is
to let nothing out from oneself. Of old they called this roaming in which one plucks on the
genuine’. (Graham, 1981, pp. 129–130, translation slightly modified)
In this imaginary story Confucius, contrary to what someone like Ranyou might think,
has not discovered the way. He sought it in measures and numbers (which might be
a reference to the Yijing 易经) and in yin and yang, but has failed to find it. Old Dan,
or Laozi, echoes the beginning lines of the Daodejing 道德經in telling Confucius that
the way cannot be easily transmitted from person to person, that is, through language.
If it could, Laozi adds, everyone would already know it. Additionally, the
Daoist sage maintains that there must be some distinction between the inner and
outer. This same idea appears already much more explicitly in the first chapter of the
Zhuangzi, where Song Rongzi 宋榮子is praised for ‘maintaining the distinction
between the inner and outer (ding hu nei wai zhi fen 定乎內外之分),’ which is a
reference to Song’s ability not to identify himself with particular social roles or virtues
(Wang, 2012b, p. 19).22 In the passage above, the same argument is being made, but
with a particular attack on Confucian virtues. Language is central for Confucius’
‘rectification of names’ (zheng ming 正名), making it an integral part of (or even
perhaps somewhat equivalent to) moral cultivation. The Zhuangzi dismisses these
names as mere social tools that one ought not have strong preferences for, or, more
literally that one should not ‘take up’ (qu 取).23 Specifically humaneness and duty—
which in contemporary philosophical contexts we may read as ancient Chinese shorthand
for ‘Confucian morality’—are targeted as problematic. Importantly, however, the
Zhuangzi does not suggest that one should stay away from these designations
entirely. Rather one should be careful and sparing with taking them up or residing
within them.
The text then provides an incredibly suggestive depiction of how the zhi ren 至人, or
‘utmost person,’ may act temporarily in ways considered humane or dutiful by others
without identifying with virtues. In other words, the utmost person can take up
Confucian morality without cultivating their self accordingly. In this context we can
understand ‘to ramble without a destination’ as action that is not targeted at specific
goals. This echoes Pei-Jun Fu’s reading of mi yang as tao guang 韜光, a metaphor for
keeping one’s name or reputation hidden, and qu as hui ji 晦跡or ‘residing in obscurity’
in the madman’s rant (Fu, 2012a, p. 62) (see also footnote 20).
In fact, the Laozi’s description of the utmost person as ‘borrow[ing]’ (jia 假) humaneness
and ‘temporarily lodging (tuo 托) in duty’ resonates with many other parts of the
Zhuangzi (all be discussed in adequate detail here).24 Throughout the Zhuangzi this type
of ‘borrowing’ or ‘temporary lodging’ is given as a decisive characteristic of the Daoist
sage, the zhen ren 真人or ‘zhenuine25 person.’26 Guo Xiang comments on these lines
describing, ‘Changing with the times, lacking a constant trace27 [to follow as a guideline
for action] (sui shi er bian, wuchang ji ye 隨時而變,無常跡也)’ (Wang, 2012b, p. 521). In
contrast to Confucians, who follow the traces or footprints28 of sages-gone-by and
promote their way despite the changing times (e.g. through the promotion of cultivation
according to names),29 the Daoist sage ignores traces and acts in accordance to the
particulars in the environment. The sages neither cultivate virtues nor do they draw on
them as blueprints for action. In terms of Confucius’ way this type of person is much
worse than even Ranyou. At least Confucius’ disciple attempted to follow the straight
line of his master’s way. The Daoist sage, quite to the contrary, rests in morally
commendable behavior only coincidently and temporarily.
Yang Guorong 杨国荣, drawing on the distinction between ‘inner transformation (nei
hua 内化)’ and ‘outer transformation (wai hua 外化)’ in the Zhuangzi (Wang, 2012b,
p. 760) (which, coincidently, appears in an imaginary dialogue between Yan Yuan 顏淵
and Confucius), argues that the zhenuine person ‘changes externally in order not to be
in conflict with or distant to society,’ while remaining internally unchanged (Yang, 2009,
p. 205). In other words, the zhenuine person is able to act according to social roles and
norms without cultivating a corresponding notion of ‘self.’30 The zhenuine person thus
remains unharmed by either praise or ridicule, and is not attached to titles given, or roles
enacted.31 The internal transformation, or ‘harm,’ that the Zhuangzi cautions against is
directly related to a person’s imagination. Once one’s notion of social roles, moral
virtues, or appropriate actions becomes fixed they can no longer imagine a broader
array of possibilities. The inner transformation that Confucians call cultivation is actually
a way of carving one’s mind that restricts imaginative interaction with the world.
The playful way a zhenuine person borrows or lodges temporarily in what might be
considered a moral virtue or social role is a direct result of their imagination. In contrast
to Confucian line-drawing, as described in the previous section, the zhenuine person’s
imagination is not filled with blueprints or shi-fei (right–wrong) ideas. Truly, the
Zhuangzi, perhaps directly borrowing from the Daodejing, often uses ‘emptiness’ (wu
无or xu 虚) to describe Daoist sages (cf. Wang, 2012b, p. 17). Akin to emptiness in the
Daodejing, the zhenuine person’s empty imagination is constantly filled through its
various borrowings and lodgings. This is what Chen Xuanying is saying when he
describes, as quoted earlier, the madman’s ‘zigzagging’ as a type of ‘going along
(cong shun 从顺),’ that relies on ‘emptying one’s heart-ming and going along with the
natural tendencies of things (xu kong qi xin, sui shun wu xing 虚空其心,随顺物性)’
(Wang, 2012b, p. 191). Or, in the words of David Machek, the Zhuangzi suggests a type
of ‘role-playing in terms of [a] temporary structuring and re-structuring the empty, or
unstructured self’ (Machek, 2016, p. 53).32 In other words, the zhenuine person is a
genuine pretender. The emptiness of the sage (or zhenuine person) is what allows them
to genuinely (i.e. without any incongruity between the inner and outer) take on different
actions—some of which might even be labeled humane or dutiful.33 Having a relatively
unrestricted imagination is what allows the zhenuine person to zigzag thus. And by
taking on new ideas and actions in accordance with the changing times, the zhenuine
person seems, to those who assume (or imagine) a stable self or constant trace, like a
pretender. Thus, the term ‘genuine pretender,’ as a description of the Daoist sage or
zhenuine person encompasses both perspectives on someone whose imagination is
broad enough to allow them ‘to ramble without a destination […,] to be casual and
simple […and] keep all the fruit.’
3. Conclusion
In some sense the role of the imagination in the Zhuangzi is akin to the role of the
Zhuangzi in Lu Xun’s thinking. While Lu has long been understood as heavily influenced
by the Zhuangzi, recently scholars such as Liu Jianmei and Nicholas Kaldis have noted
that the ancient Daoist text is really only selectively accepted by Lu. Kaldis writes,
While there is a consensus that Lu Xun was a great fan of the Zhuang Zi, perhaps his love for
the poetic prose and mysticism therein does not indicate his approval of the Daoist
attitudes of ‘going with the flow,’ ‘wandering about freely and carelessly’ (逍遥游), and
passively acquiescing to whatever misfortunes come one’s way (Kaldis, 2014, p. 258).
To this Liu adds, ‘[The Zhuangzi’s] philosophy devoid of social responsibilities could also
be the ostensible target of criticism by Lu Xun, who was eager to play the role of the
conscience of society’ (Liu, 2016, p. 60). The Zhuangzi too is selective in its appreciation
of the imagination, but in a way that is converse to Lu (and to the Analects or Confucians
as well). While Lu was cautious about the Zhuangzi, rejecting its amoral aspects, the
Zhuangzi also reacts negatively to understandings of the imagination that limit human
thought and behavior—or, in the context of Confucius, that results in contrived moral
cultivation.
Fantastical stories and made-up dialogues show the limitations of those who imagine
themselves as such-and-such role, or who fancy relationships to be bound by particular
standards; in other words, those who imagine a need to genuinely align themselves with
fixed notions of moral virtues and social expectations. The philosophy of the Zhuangzi
suggests instead that roles can be taken on without attachment. One can act certain
ways genuinely without imagining a need for commitment to being that way (following
that line), or limiting their own self-understanding by imagining themselves as being
only that way (always toeing that line). To this end, Chapter six in the Zhuangzi begins by
defining the zhenuine person as one who manages to ‘assume appearances along with
the Dao,’ or ‘assume appearances on the way’ (deng jia yu dao登假於道).
From the perspective of those with limited imagination, the zhenuine person (zhen ren
真人) in the Zhuangzi is a pretender—not having cultivated their imagination to be
restricted to particular preset notions of moral virtues or social expectations (in the
words of the madman ‘drawing a straight line’ or to use Guo Xiang’s explanation ‘lacking
a constant trace’). However, according to the philosophy of the Zhuangzi, it is those who
charge the zhenuine person with the fault of pretending who are actually the true
pretenders. To speak with Wang Deyou 王德友, ‘What Confucianism calls acting in accordance
with the teachings of humaneness, duty, and ritual virtuous action, Zhuangzi calls
pretense (wei xing偽行)’ (Wang, 2010, p. 125). Kim-Chong Chong goes even further, writing,
‘But the concern goes beyond the claims that Confucian rites and morality are false and
artificial, that their advocates are hypocritical, and that they negate spontaneity’ (Chong,
2016, p. 82). To reiterate what was said above,34 we are left with the conclusion that the
zhenuine person of the Zhuangzi is, according to its own view, genuine, while those who
possess more limited imaginations may charge that zhenuine person as merely pretending.
The zhenuine person is, to cover both perspectives, a genuine pretender.
Michael Puett summarizes the philosophy of the Zhuangzi as ‘want[ing]35 us to think
in radically imaginative ways’ (Puett, 2013); and with Christine Gross-Loh he has written,
‘The Zhuangzi talks of those who have opened up their perspective fully’ (Puett &
Christine, 2016, p. 158). Adding to this reading, and sharpening it to some extent, this
paper argues that the type of imagination the Zhuangzi inspires is, paradoxically,
particular about being non-particular. It is like the emptiness that is constantly being
filled, as described in Chapter eleven of the Laozi. It is a type of imagination that asks the
person to dismiss imaginary limitations and maintain openness to various possibilities in
our ‘zigzagging’ world. The Daoist classic proffers ‘borrowing’ and ‘temporarily lodging
in’—or genuine pretending—as a philosophical alternative to contrived blueprints, a
determined will, stubbornness, or constant traces. This broader, unfilled imagination of
the genuine pretender is thereby the Zhuangzi’s zigzag alternative to the imaginary linedrawing
of Confucian moral cultivation.
Notes
1. For example, the word yu yan 寓言or ‘allegory’ first appears (or is invented) in the
Zhuangzi. Chin Chia His 金嘉锡even credits Zhuangzi (the historical figure and supposed
author of the Zhuangzi) with having created the first allegories in Chinese thought (Chin,
2012).
2. Li Zehou 李澤厚, who is certainly not alone in this claim, credits the Zhuangzi as being
majorly influential for Xuanxue scholars (cf. Li, 2008b, pp. 200–201). For other major
examples, see Tang Yongtong 湯用彤(1957), Tang Yijie 湯一介(2009), and Yang Lihua 楊
立華(2010).
3. This observation is widely shared, for example, see (Guo, 1992) and (Liu, 2016).
4. See also Puett and Gross- Loh’s The Path (2016, pp. 150–52).
5. Li Chenyang notes, ‘whereas Daoist harmony, particularly in the Zhuangzi, is primarily
between humanity and the natural world, Confucian sages in pursuit of harmony are
more active in taking initiatives to generate harmony within society’ (Li, 2014, p. 36).
6. ‘Resoluteness’ or ‘will’ (zhi 志) in the Analects is the key for cultivation. In 4.4, Confucius is
recorded as saying ‘If one’s will is set on humaneness then they will do nothing distasteful
(ziyue: ’gou zhiyu ren yi, wu e ye.‘ 子曰:’苟[志誌]於仁矣,無惡也。‘)’
7. Pei-Jun Fu 傅佩荣also finds the biggest difference between Confucianism and the
Zhuangzi is that Confucians (over) emphasize resoluteness (zhi 志), or, as Pei-Jun Fu also
puts it, being ‘stubborn’ (gu zhi 固執). He contrasts this mentality with the wisdom (zhi hui
智慧) of setting limits for oneself according to environmental circumstances (ziwo shexian
自我設限) in the Zhuangzi (Fu, 2012b).
8. Hans-Georg Moeller and I explore the way the Zhuangzi deals with stress and remaining
sane in more detail in Genuine Pretending: On the Philosophy of the Zhuangzi (Moeller &
D’Ambrosio, 2017).
9. This is no truer for people living today than it was for the ancient Chinese, though they
would not classify their problems with the same vocabularies. It is especially evident in
discussions of ‘emotional disturbance’ in the writings of Ji Kang 嵇康, Ruan Ji 阮籍, and
other members of the ‘Seven Worthies of the Bamboo Grove,’ as well as their use of alcohol
to preserve personal integrity (cf. Chan, 2014; Lu, 2010).
10. Whether the Zhuangzi’s discontent lays in the way the Analects was received or the text’s
philosophical content is a discussion I will not engage in here. For some, such as Yang
Guorong 楊國榮(2009) Chong Kim-Chong’s (2016), the Zhuangzi is certainly critiquing the
Analects, while others, including Chen Guying (2008) and Wang Bo 王博(2004), find many
parallels between the Zhuangzi and the Analects (in a class I attended at Peking University
in 2010 Wang Bo mentioned that he thinks the Zhuangzi and Analects are the closest pre-
Qin texts).
11. Chong Kim-Chong’s Zhuangzi’s Critique of the Confucians: Blinded by the Human is an
excellent study of the long-standing tradition of reading the Zhuangzi as providing a
staunch criticism of Confucianism (Chong, 2016).
12. I am well aware that the Zhuangzi has not always been read this way. For example,
Deborah Sommer notes the famous dialogue between Robber Zhi and Confucius was
believed to be an actual historical account during the Cultural Revolution (Sommer, 2007,
p. 8).
13. For an interesting investigation on how the Zhuangzi might see Confucius as limited by his
‘extreme’ focus on social life see Chong (2016).
14. For a further discussion of the ‘uselessness’ of these tress, especially as this uselessness
relates to social norms and expectations, see ‘The Role of a Pretending Tree: Hermits, Social
Constructs and “Self” in the Zhuangzi’ (D’Ambrosio, 2012b).
15. He gets passed over when the authorities call for troupes, and, moreover receives extra
rations of grain and firewood because of his disabilities (cf. Ziporyn, 2009, p. 31).
16. In Genuine Pretending: On the Philosophy of the Zhuangzi, Hans-Georg Moeller and I deal
directly with the ‘seriousness’ of Chapter four, discussing how it may be quite useful—even
for the useless (cf. Moeller & D’Ambrosio, 2017).
17. See the Analects 1.11, 2.4, 4.4, 4.9, 4.18, 7.6, 15.9, 18.8, and 19.6.
18. The character ‘mi 迷’ from mi yang mi yang can alternatively mean ‘infatuation,’ ‘lost in,’ or
‘confused,’ as it does in other parts of the Zhuangzi. For example, ‘getting lost in the
universe (mi huo yu yu zhou 迷惑于宇宙)’ (Wang, 2012b, p. 1042). While we do not want to
suggest that mi yang could mean ‘getting lost in’ or ‘being infatuated with’ yang, we do
think the irony of using this term was hardly unapparent to whoever wrote it.
19. Yang Lihua describes Du hua 独化, or ‘lone-transformation’ as aimed at ‘preventing people
from misunderstanding the meaning of “attaining Dao” (de dao 得道) as something
external or above the things in one’s own “natural tendencies” (ben xing 本性).’ (Yang,
2010, p. 116).
20. Pei-Jun Fu offers a different, but also convincing reading of the Madman’s rant. According
to Fu, mi yang means tao guang 韜光, which is a metaphor for keeping one’s name or
reputation hidden, and qu means hui ji 晦跡, or ‘residing in obscurity’ (Fu, 2012a, p. 62).
21. Elsewhere the Zhuangzi calls this cheng xin 成心or ‘a mind that is already made-up’ (2.4), or
ji xin 機心or ‘a calculating mind’ (12.11).
22. Cf. D’Ambrosio (2014)
23. In the second chapter of the Zhuangzi following a mind that is already made-up (drawing a
straight line and then walking it) is contrasted with ‘self-choosing’ (zi qu 自取) (Wang,
2012b, pp. 55–72).
24. Hans-Georg Moeller and I provide a more elaborate discussion of this imagery in our book
Genuine Pretending (Moeller & D’Ambrosio, 2017).
25. Robert Carleo came up with this clever ‘translation’ of zhenren 真人.
26. In the Zhuangzi there are various terms, such as zhi ren 至人, shen ren 神人, and sheng ren
圣人, which many scholars agree that all basically refer to the Daoist sage. Here I will follow
Yang Guorong 杨国荣, who, like many others, uses zhen ren as an umbrella term for any
description of a sage-like person in the Zhuangzi (Yang, 2009, p. 117). I do not mean,
however, to suggest that no differences between these concepts exist, but rather that
within the context of this paper they are not overtly significant.
27. Ji 迹, translated here as ‘trace,’ literally refers to a footprint. Thus, the line could also be read
‘Changing with the times, lacking a consistent [path of] footprints,’ which would be
philosophically in line with the madman’s ‘zig-zagging.’
28. In Guo’s philosophy ‘trace’ refers to virtues, role models, and the records of sages-gone-by.
Brook Ziporyn provides an excellent description of ‘traces’ in his The Penumbra Unbound:
The Neo-Taoist Philosophy of Guo Xiang (2003, pp. 31–51). For a discussion on the relation
between traces and knowledge, see ‘Guo Xiang on Self-So Knowledge’ (D’Ambrosio, 2016).
29. For a more detailed discussion of the problems associated with Confucians using names as
‘constant traces’ for self-cultivation in the Zhuangzi, see Fu Pei-Jun’s lecture series Fu Pei-
Jun xiang zhuangzi wen dao 向莊子問道[Asking Zhuangzi about Dao], particularly lectures
1, 7 through 9 (Fu, 2012b).
30. Guo Xiang comments on the passage Yang references, ‘The heart-mind accords with
appearance, and appearance self-transforms (zi hua 自化)’ (Wang, 2012b, p. 760). In other
words, it is neither a determined heart-mind (cheng xin 成心), which Puett is especially
critical of, nor social norms that guide the behavior of the zhenuine person.
31. For a more in-depth discussion of this point, see ‘Going Along – A Daoist Alternative to Role
Ethics’ (D’Ambrosio, 2014).
32. Interestingly, in the article quoted here, Machek directly attacks what I have called ‘genuine
pretending’ (which will be described later), taking the term to simply mean ‘pretending.’
However, much of Machek’s alternative, barring his use of ‘authenticity’ and other
Heideggerian notions (cf. D’Ambrosio, 2015; Moeller & D’Ambrosio, 2017), is actually very
much in line with genuine pretending.
33. Michael Puett and Christine Gross-Loh describe something relatively similar; they argue,
even more radically, that the Zhuangzi asks use to imagine what it would be like ‘if we
could transcend our humanity and know what is means to see the world from all perspectives’
(Puett & Christine, 2016, pp. 141–142).
34. Since genuine pretending is so often mistaken to simply mean pretending I find it
necessary to restate this distinction; I offer an apology to readers who grasped the point
the first time.
35. For more on the genuine pretender see D’Ambrosio 2012a; 2012b; 2014; Moeller and
D’Ambrosio 2017.
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