법적으로나 국제적으로나 오스트리아와 터키 사이의 1739년 베오그라드 조약은 동부 체르케시아(카바르다)의 독립을 인정하는 조항이었다. 러시아 제국과 오스만 제국 모두 이를 인정했고, 당시 강대국들은 이 조약을 목격했다. 1814 년에서 1815 년 사이에 개최 된 비엔나 회의는 또한 체르케시아의 독립을 인정하도록 규정했습니다. 1837년에 체르케스 지도자들은 유럽 국가들에 서한을 보내 법적 인가를 요청했습니다. 그 후 영국은 체르케시아를 인정했습니다. [19][20] 그러나 러시아-체르케스 전쟁 동안 러시아 제국은 체르케시아를 독립 지역으로 인정하지 않았고 이 지역에 대한 통제권이나 소유권이 없음에도 불구하고 반란군 점령하에 있는 러시아 땅으로 취급했습니다. [21] 러시아 장군들은 체르케스인들을 종족 이름이 아니라 "산악인", "도적", "산 쓰레기"라고 불렀다. [21][22]
체르케스어와 체르케스어(/sərˈkæsiənz/sər-KASS-ee-ənz)라는 단어는 논쟁의 여지가 있는 Cherkess라는 단어에서 라틴어로 표기된 외래어입니다. [27][28] 한 가지 견해는 그 뿌리가 투르크어에서 유래했으며 이 용어는 체르케스인의 성공적인 전투 관행을 설명하는 "머리 자르기" 또는 "전사 킬러"를 의미한다는 것입니다. [29] 이 용어가 "길을 막는 사람"을 의미하는 몽골어Jerkes에서 유래했다고 주장하는 사람들이 있습니다. [19][30] 어떤 사람들은 이 지역의 고대 그리스 이름인 시라케스에서 유래했다고 믿는다. 또 다른 견해에 따르면, 그 기원은 페르시아어입니다.
코카서스와 지리적으로 가까운 언어에서 원주민은 원래 체르케시아에 대한 다른 이름을 가지고 있었지만 러시아의 영향으로 이름은 체르케시아 / 체르케시아로 정착되었습니다. 이 언어를 인용하는 많은 세계 언어에서 동일하거나 유사합니다.
체르케스인들은 "체르케스"라는 용어를 사용하지 않으며, 그들의 나라를 Адыгэ Хэку (Adıgə Xəku) 또는 Адыгей (Adıgey)라고 부른다.
1427년에서 1453년 사이, 이날 대왕은 모든 체르케스 공국을 정복하고 자신을 체르케스의 대공으로 선언했다. 그의 죽음 이후, 키르케시아는 다시 분열되었다. [35]
키르케스의 영향력 있는 공국들은 정기적으로 만나 대공(Пщышхо)을 선출했는데, 유일한 조건은 왕자가 이날 대왕의 후손을 추적할 수 있다는 것이었습니다. 그러한 연구소의 존재는 외국 소식통에 의해 확인됩니다. 외국 관찰자들의 눈에는 대공이 체르케스인들의 왕으로 여겨졌다. [36] 그러나 개별 부족은 크게 자치적이었고 칭호는 대부분 상징적이었습니다. 1237 년 도미니카 수도사 인 Richard와 Julian은 헝가리 대사관의 일원으로 Circassia와 Taman 반도에 위치한이 나라의 주요 도시 Matrega를 방문했습니다. 마트레가에서 대사관은 대공으로부터 좋은 환영을 받았습니다. [37]
14세기와 15세기에 카파 집정관과 체르케시아의 관계에 관한 이탈리아 문서들은 체르케시아 통치자의 절대적인 특별한 지위를 분명히 나타낸다. 이 지위는 체르케시아의 고위 왕자가 교황과 서신을 주고받을 수 있게 해주었다. 교황 요한 22세가 지키아(키르케시아) 베르자흐트의 대공에게 보낸 편지는 1333년으로 거슬러 올라가는데, 그 편지에서 로마 교황은 통치자가 신민들에게 가톨릭 신앙을 소개하는 데 부지런히 노력한 것에 대해 감사를 표했다. 베르자흐트의 권력 지위가 너무 높았기 때문에 그의 모범을 따라 다른 체르케스 군주들도 가톨릭교를 받아들였다. [38]
체르케시아는 전통적으로 12개 이상의 공국으로 구성되어 있었습니다. 이 공국들 중 일부는 정치적 지위의 안정을 특징으로하는 큰 봉건 영지로 나뉘어졌습니다. 이 영토 내에는 왕자의 수많은 봉건 소유물이있었습니다 (pshi). 체르케스 주는 마을 의회 (чылэ хасэ, 마을 장로와 귀족으로 구성), 지역 의회 (7 개의 이웃 마을 의회의 대표로 구성), 지역 의회 (шъолъыр хасэ, 이웃 지역 의회로 구성), 인민 의회 (лъэпкъ зэфэс, 모든 의회에는 대표가 있음)의 4 단계 정부로 구성된 연방 국가였습니다. 중앙 정부는 1800년대 중반에서 후반에 등장했습니다. 그 이전에는 대공의 연구소가 대부분 상징적이었습니다.
In 1807, Shuwpagwe Qalawebateqo self-proclaimed himself as the leader of the Circassian confederation, and divided Circassia into 12 major regions.[39][40][41][42] In 1827, Ismail Berzeg officially declared the military confederation of the Circassian tribes and by 1839 united a significant part of Circassia under his control.[43][44] In 1839, the Circassians declared Bighuqal (Anapa) as their new capital and Hawduqo Mansur was declared the new leader of the Circassian Confederation. He kept this title until his death.[45][46][44] In 1848, Muhammad Amin was the leader of Circassia.[47][48][49] After learning that a warriorly scholar has arrived, thousands of families moved to the Abdzakh region to accept his rule.[50]Seferbiy Zaneqo assumed power after Amin's departure, but died the next year.
In June 1860, at a congress of representatives of Circassians, a parliament was formed as the highest legislative body of Circassia. Being a political resistance council and the legislature of Circassia,[51][52][53] the parliament was established in the capital of Sochi (Adyghe: Шъачэ, romanized: Ş̂açə) on June 13, 1860 and Qerandiqo Berzeg was elected as the head of the parliament and the nation.[54][55]
Legally and internationally, the Treaty of Belgrade 1739 provided for the recognition of the independence of Eastern Circassia (Kabarda), where both the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire recognized it, and the great powers at the time witnessed the treaty. The Congress of Vienna held in the period between 1814 and 1815 also stipulated the recognition of the independence of Circassia. In 1837, Circassian leaders sent letters to European countries requesting legal recognition. Following this, the United Kingdom recognized Circassia.[19][20] However, during the Russian-Circassian War, the Russian Empire did not recognize Circassia as an independent region, and treated it as Russian land under rebel occupation, despite having no control or ownership over the region.[21] Russian generals referred to the Circassians not by their ethnic name, but as "mountaineers", "bandits", and "mountain scum".[21][22]
The Circassian Parliament launched large-scale foreign policy activities. First of all, an official memorandum was drafted addressed to Tsar Alexander II. The text of the memorandum was presented to the tsar by the leaders of the Parliament during the latter's visit to Circassia in September 1861. The Parliament also accepted an appeal to the Ottoman and European governments. Special envoys were sent to Istanbul and London to seek diplomatic and military support. The activities of the Circassian government received the full support of public organizations, so the Circassian Committee of Istanbul and London supported Circassia. Thus, if not de jure, then de facto Circassia acquired the features of a subject of international law.[54]
In the 16th century, the English traveler Edmund Spencer, who traveled to the shores of the Caucasus, quotes a Circassian saying about the Ottoman sultan:
Circassian blood flows in the veins of the Sultan. His mother, his harem are Circassian; his slaves are Circassians, his ministers and generals are Circassians. He is the head of our faith and also of our race.
Circassia for centuries lived under the threat of external invasions, so the whole way of life of the Circassians was militarized. The governor of Astrakhan wrote to Peter I:[56]
One thing I can praise about the Circassians is that they are all warriors.
Circassia developed the so-called "Culture of War". Honorable combat was a big part of this culture, during hostilities, it was considered strictly unacceptable to set fire to homes or crops, especially bread, even from enemies. It was considered inadmissible to leave the bodies of dead comrades on the battlefield. It was considered a great disgrace in Circassia to fall alive into the hands of the enemy, so Russian officers who later fought in Circassia noted that it was very rare to succeed in capturing Circassians, as they would go as far as suicide. Johann von Blaramberg noted:
When they see that they are surrounded, they give their lives dearly, never surrendering.
The Russian army, after invading Circassia and ethnically cleansing the Circassians in the Circassian genocide, adopted some parts of Circassian military uniforms - from weapons (Shashka and Circassian sabers, daggers, Circassian saddles, Circassian horses) to uniforms (Cherkeska, burqa, papaha).[56]
Turkish nationalist groups and proponents of modern day Pan-Turkism have claimed that the Circassians are of Turkic origin, but no scientific evidence has been published to support this claim and it has been strongly denied by ethnic Circassians,[76] impartial research,[77][78][79][80][81][82] linguists[83] and historians[84] around the world. The Circassian language does not share notable similarities to the Turkish language except for borrowed words. According to various historians, the Circassian origin of the Sind-Meot tribes refutes the claim that the Circassians are of Turkic ethnic origin.[77]
Miyequap (Maikop) civilization was established in 3000 BC. Circassians were known by many different names in ancient times. "Kerket" and "Sucha" are examples.[85] In 1200 BC, Circassians fought alongside the Hittites against the Egyptians.[85]
A reconstructed image of a Sindian silver coin[86] discovered in Circassia,[87] with the word "Sindon" written in Greek alphabet and a horse, estimated to be from the late 5th century,[88] discovered in 1959.[89][90]
The Sindica Kingdom was founded in 800 BC. During this period, Greeks (Greeks) and Sindi-Meotay tribes lived in Circassia. Under the roof of this state, Sindi-Meotians in the region became the ancestors of the Circassian people.[91] The Greek poet Hipponax, who lived in the 5th century BC, and Herodotus later mentioned the Sindis. Strabo also mentions the Capitol of Sindia, located near the Black Sea coast. Information on Sindica has been learned from Greek documents and archaeological finds,[87] and there is not much detail. It is not known exactly when the Sindica Kingdom was established, but it is known that the Sindis had a state and trade relations with the Greeks before the establishment of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea coast. It is also known that the kingdom of Sindica was a busy trading state where artists and merchants were accommodated.[87][92][93][94][95][96] Circassians could not establish a union for a long time after this state.
The most detailed description of medieval Circassia was made by Johannes de Galonifontibus in 1404.[97] From his writing it follows that at the turn of the XIV and XV centuries, Circassia expanded its borders to the north to the mouth of the Don, and he notes that “the city and port of Tana is located in the same country in Upper Circassia, on the Don River, which separates Europe from Asia".[98]
Feudalism began to emerge in Circassians by the 4th century. As a result of Armenian, Greek and Byzantine influence, Christianity spread throughout the Caucasus between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD.[99][100] During that period the Circassians (referred to at the time as Kassogs)[101] began to accept Christianity as a national religion, but did not abandon all elements of their indigenous religious beliefs. Circassians established many states, but could not achieve political unity. From around 400 AD wave after wave of invaders began to invade the lands of the Adyghe people, who were also known as the Kasogi (or Kassogs) at the time. They were conquered first by the Bulgars (who originated on the Central Asian steppes). Outsiders sometimes confused the Adyghe people with the similarly named Utigurs (a branch of the Bulgars), and both peoples were sometimes conflated under misnomers such as "Utige". Following the dissolution of the Khazar state, the Adyghe people were integrated around the end of the 1st millennium AD into the Kingdom of Alania. Between the 10th and 13th centuries Georgia had influence on the Adyghe Circassian peoples.
In 1382, Circassian mamluks took the Mamluk throne, the Burji dynasty took over and the Mamluks became a Circassian state. The Mongols, who started invading the Caucasus in 1223, destroyed some of the Circassians and most of the Alans. The Circassians, who lost most of their lands during the ensuing Golden Horde attacks, had to retreat to the back of the Kuban River. In 1395 Circassians fought violent wars against Tamerlane, and although the Circassians won the wars,[102] Tamerlane plundered Circassia.[103]
Inal is called the "Prince of Princes" by Circassians and Abkhazians, because he united all Circassian tribes and established the Circassian state. According to popular belief, Inal is the ancestor of Kabardian, Besleney, Chemguy and Hatuqwai princes.
Inal, who during the 1400s[104] owned land in the Taman peninsula, established an army consisting mostly of the Khegayk tribe and declared that his goal was to unite the Circassians,[105] which were divided into many states at that time, under a single state, and after declaring his own princedom, conquered all of Circassia one by one.[106]
Circassian nobles and princes tried to prevent Inal's rise, but in a battle near the Msimta River, 30 Circassian lords were defeated by Inal and his supporters. Ten of them were executed, while the remaining twenty lords took an oath of allegiance and joined the forces of Inal's new state.[107] Inal, who ruled Western Circassia, established the Kabarda region in Eastern Circassia in 1434 and drove the Crimean Tatar tribes in the Circassian lands to the north of the Kuban River in 1438,[102] and as a result of his effective expansions, he was ruling all[107][102] of the Circassian land.
The capital of this new Circassian state founded by Inal became the city of Shanjir, built in the Taman region where he was born and raised.[108][109][110][111] Although the exact location of the city of Shanjir is unknown, the most supported theory is that it is the Krasnaya Batareya district, which fits the descriptions of the city made by Klarapoth and Pallas.[108][112][113]
Although he united the Circassians, Inal still wanted to include the cousin people, the Abkhaz, in his state. Abkhaz dynasties Chachba and Achba announced that they would side with Inal in a possible war. Inal, who won the war in Abkhazia, officially conquered Northern Abkhazia and the Abkhaz people recognized the rule of Inal, and Inal finalized his rule in Abkhazia.[102][114][107][115][116] One of the stars on the flag of Abkhazia represents Inal.
Inal divided his lands between his sons and grandchildren in 1453 and died in 1458. Following this, Circassian tribal principalities were established. Some of these are Chemguy founded by Temruk, Besleney founded by Beslan, Kabardia founded by Qabard, and Shapsug founded by Zanoko.
According to the Abkhaz claim, Inal died in North Abkhazia.[117] Although most sources cite this theory, researches and searches in the region have shown that Inal's tomb is not here.[118] According to Russian explorer and archaeologist Evgeniy Dimitrievich Felitsin, Inal's tomb is not in Abkhazia. In a map published in 1882, Felitsin has shown great importance to Inal, and placed his grave in the Ispravnaya region in Karachay-Cherkessia, not in Abkhazia. He added that there are ancient sculptures, mounds, tombs, churches, castles and ramparts in this area, which would be an ideal tomb for someone like Inal.[118][119]
At the end of the 15th century, a detailed description of Circassia and of its inhabitants was made by Genovese traveller and ethnographer Giorgio Interiano.[120]
In 1708, Circassians paid a great tribute to the Ottoman sultan in order to prevent Tatar raids, but the sultan did not fulfill the obligation and the Tatars raided all the way to the center of Circassia, robbing everything they could.[121] For this reason, Kabardian Circassians announced that they would never pay tribute to the Crimean Khan and the Ottoman Sultan again. The Ottomans sent their army of at least 20,000 men[122] to Kabardia under the leadership of the Crimean khan Kaplan-Girey to conquer the Circassians and ordered him collect the tribute.[123][124] The Ottomans expected an easy victory against the Kabardinians, but the Circassians won because of the strategy set up by the Kazaniko Jabagh.[121][125][126][127][128][129]
The Turkish-Crimean army was completely destroyed overnight. The Crimean Khan Kaplan-Giray barely managed to save his life, and was humiliated, all the way to his shoes taken, leaving his brother, son, field tools, tents and personal belongings.[121]
1714년, 표트르 1세는 코카서스를 점령할 계획을 세웠다. 그는 이 계획을 실행할 수 없었지만, 점령을 위한 정치적, 이데올로기적 토대를 마련했다. 예카테리나 2세는 이 계획을 실행에 옮기기 시작했다. 러시아군은 테렉 강둑에 배치되었다. [130]
러시아 군대는 일련의 요새를 건설하여 권위를 부여하려고 시도했지만 이러한 요새는 차례로 습격의 새로운 목표가 되었고 실제로 때로는 고지대 사람들이 실제로 요새를 점령하고 유지했습니다. [131] 예르몰로프 치하에서 러시아군은 습격에 대한 불균형적인 보복 전략을 사용하기 시작했다. 러시아군은 레지스탕스 전사들이 숨어 있을 것으로 생각되는 마을을 파괴하고 암살, 납치, 가족 전체를 처형하는 것으로 보복했다. [7] 레지스탕스가 식량을 동정적인 마을에 의존하고 있었기 때문에 러시아군은 체계적으로 농작물과 가축을 파괴하고 체르케스 민간인을 살해했습니다. [132][133] 체르케스인들은 이 지역의 모든 부족을 아우르는 부족 연방을 창설하여 대응했다. [133] 1840년 칼 프리드리히 노이만(Karl Friedrich Neumann)은 체르케스인 사상자를 약 150만 명으로 추산했습니다. [134] 일부 자료에 따르면 수십만 명의 다른 사람들이 출애굽 중에 죽었다고 합니다. [135] 몇몇 역사가들은 이 지역에서 러시아 행동의 결과에 대해 "체르케스 학살"[136]이라는 문구를 사용합니다. [137]
1860 년부터 1864 년까지 지속된 일련의 전면적인 군사 작전에서 ... 북서부 코카서스와 흑해 연안은 무슬림 마을 주민들이 사실상 텅 비었다. 피난민 대열은 오스만 제국으로 수송하기 위해 쿠반 [강] 평원이나 해안으로 행군했습니다. 체르케스 부족 전체가 차례로 흩어지거나, 재정착하거나, 한꺼번에 죽임을 당했습니다. [138]
체르케스인들은 1861년 6월 25일 수도인 샤셰(소치)에서 "위대한 자유 의회"라는 집회를 열었다. 하지 케란디코 베르제지(Haji Qerandiqo Berzedj)가 의회 의장으로 임명되었다. 이 의회는 유럽에 도움을 요청했고,[139] 곧 추방될 것이라고 주장했다. 그러나 그 결과가 나오기 전에 러시아의 콜리오바킨 장군이 소치를 침공하여 의회를 파괴했고[140] 이에 반대하는 나라는 없었다. [139]
1864년 5월, 20,000명의 체르케스 기병으로 구성된 체르케스 군대와 100,000명의 완전 무장한 러시아 군대 사이에 마지막 전투가 벌어졌습니다. [ 인용 필요 ] 체르케스 전사들은 러시아군을 공격하여 전선을 돌파하려 했으나 대부분 러시아군의 포병과 보병에 의해 격추되었다. [82] 나머지 전사들은 투사로 계속 싸웠고 곧 패배했습니다. 20,000명의 체르케스 기병이 모두 전쟁에서 죽었습니다. 러시아 군대는 체르케스 병사들의 시체 위에서 승리를 축하하기 시작했고, 1864년 5월 21일은 공식적으로 전쟁이 끝난 날이었다. [141]
오스만 제국으로의 체르케스인 추방 지도. 연한 녹색 지역은 오스만 제국으로 추방되기 전에 이미 남쪽으로 밀려난 체르케스인의 마지막 국경을 나타냅니다. 18세기 후반에 체르케스인들은 북부 영토를 잃었는데, 이 영토는 이 지도에서 녹색으로 표시되지 않습니다.
체르케스인들을 추방하자는 제안은 러시아 정부에 의해 비준되었고, 러시아군이 마지막 작전을 수행하면서 난민 이동의 홍수가 시작되었다. [78] 체르케스인들은 러시아군의 진격과 군대에 맞서 저항하고 최후의 저항을 할 준비를 했다. [142] 항복을 거부하자 체르케스 민간인들은 러시아군의 표적이 되어 수천 명이 학살되었고 러시아군은 체르케스 마을을 습격하고 불태우기 시작했으며,[133] 돌아올 수 없도록 밭을 파괴하고 나무를 베고 사람들을 흑해 연안으로 몰아넣었습니다. [79]
대량 학살의 주요 표적은 체르케스인이었지만 일부 압하스인, 아바진인, 체첸인, 오세티아인 및 기타 무슬림 백인 공동체도 영향을 받았다[143]. 얼마나 많은 사람들이 영향을 받는지는 정확히 알려지지 않았지만, 연구자들은 체르케스 민족 인구의 최소 75%, 90%, [144][145], 94%, [146] 또는 95–97%[147](압하스와 같은 다른 민족은 제외)가 영향을 받는다고 제안했다. 이러한 비율을 고려할 때, 러시아 정부 자체의 기록 수치를 고려한 계산은 600,000-1,500,000의 손실을 추정했다. 체르케시아의 카바르딘 인구는 500,000명에서 35,000명으로 감소한 것으로 추정됩니다. 압자흐족은 260,000명에서 14,600명으로 증가했다. 그리고 Natukhajs는 240,000명에서 단지 175명으로 줄었다. [148] 약 300,000명에 달했던 Shapsugh 부족은 3,000명으로 줄어들었다. 1864년 5월, 다른 러시아군이 승리를 자축하고 있을 때 크바다에서 그 광경을 목격한 러시아 장교 이반 드로즈도프는 다음과 같이 말했다.
길에서 우리의 눈은 여성, 어린이, 노인의 시체가 갈기갈기 찢기고 개에게 반쯤 먹히는 충격적인 이미지를 만났습니다. 굶주림과 질병으로 쇠약해진 추방자들은 다리를 움직일 수 없을 정도로 쇠약해졌고, 탈진하여 쓰러져 살아 있는 동안 개들의 먹이가 되었습니다.
— 드로즈도프(Drozdov), 이반(Ivan). "Posledniaia Bor'ba s Gortsami na Zapadnom Kavkaze". 456–457쪽.
오스만 제국은 아디게의 전사들을 용감하고 경험이 풍부한 사람들로 여겼다. 그것은 제국의 국경을 강화하기 위해 오스만 제국의 국경 근처의 다양한 정착지에 정착하도록 장려했습니다.
Circassia was a small independent nation on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea. For no reason other than ethnic hatred, over the course of hundreds of raids the Russians drove the Circassians from their homeland and deported them to the Ottoman Empire. At least 600,000 people lost their lives to massacre, starvation, and the elements while hundreds of thousands more were forced to leave their homeland. By 1864, three-fourths of the population was annihilated, and the Circassians had become one of the first stateless peoples in modern history.[80]
As of 2020, Georgia was the only country to classify the events as genocide, while Russia actively denies the Circassian genocide, and classifies the events as a simple migration of "undeveloped barbaric peoples".[attribution needed] Russian nationalists continue to celebrate the day on May 21 each year as a "holy conquest day", when the Russian Empire's occupation of the Caucasus ended. Circassians commemorate May 21 every year as the Circassian Day of Mourning.
Today, about 700,000 Circassians remain in historical Circassia in today's Russia. The 2010 Russian Census recorded 718,727 Circassians, of which 516,826 are Kabardians, 124,835 are Adyghe proper, 73,184 are Cherkess and 3,882 Shapsugs.[150] The largest Circassian population resides in Turkey (pop. 1,400,000–6,000,000).[151] Circassian populations also exist in other countries, such as Jordan, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, Serbia, Egypt and Israel, but are considerably smaller.[152][153][citation needed]
The ancient beliefs of the Circassians were based on animism and magic, within the framework of the customary rules of Xabze. Although the main belief was Monistic-Monotheistic, they prayed using water, fire, plants, forests, rocks, thunder and lightning. They performed their acts of worship accompanied by dance and music in the sacred groves used as temples. An old priest led the ceremony, accompanied by songs of prayer, and supplications. Thus, it was aimed to protect the newborn babies from diseases and the evil eye.[155] Another important aspect was ancestors and honor. Therefore, the goal of man's earthly existence is the perfection of the soul, which corresponds to the maintenance of honour, manifestation of compassion, gratuitous help, which, along with valour, and bravery of a warrior, enables the human soul to join the soul of the ancestors with a clear conscience.[156]
Some Circassian tribes converted to Judaism in the past as a result of the settlement of approximately 20 thousand Jews in 8th-century Circassia, along with the relations established with the Turkic-Jewish Khazar Khaganate.[155] Judaism in Circassia eventually assimilated into Christianity and Islam.
It is the tradition of the early church that Christianity made its first appearance in Circassia in the 1st century AD via the travels and preaching of the Apostle Andrew,[157] but recorded history suggests that, as a result of Greek and Byzantine influence, Christianity first spread throughout Circassia between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD.[99][100][158] The spread of the Catholic faith was only possible with the Latin Conquest of Constantinople by the crusaders and the establishment of the Latin state. The Catholic religion was adopted by the Circassians following Farzakht, a distinguished figure who greatly contributed to the spread of this religion in his country. The pope sent him a letter in 1333 thanking him for his effort, as an indication of his gratitude. For Circassians, the most important and attractive personality in all Christian teachings was the personality of Saint George. They saw in him the embodiment of all the virtues respected in the Caucasus. His name in Circassian is "Aushe-Gerge".
Christianity in Circassia experienced its final collapse in the 18th century when all Circassians accepted Islam. The ex-priests joined the Circassian nobility and were given the name "shogene" (teacher) and over time this name became a surname.
In 815 AD, Islam arrived in Circassia with the efforts of two Arab preachers called Abu Ishaq and Muhammad Kindi, and the first Circassian Muslim community was established with a small amount of followers. A small Muslim community in Circassia has existed since the Middle Ages, but the widespread adoption of Islam occurred after 1717.[159] Travelling Sufi preachers and the increasing threat of an invasion from Russia helped expedite the spread of Islam in Circassia.[159][160][161] Circassian scholars educated in the Ottoman Empire boosted the spread of Islam.[162]
Under Russian and Soviet rule, ethnic and tribal divisions between Circassians were promoted, resulting in several different statistical names being used for various parts of the Circassian people (Adyghes, Cherkess, Kabardins, Shapsugs). Consequently, Circassian nationalism has developed. Circassian nationalism is the desire among Circassians all over the world to preserve their culture and save their language from extinction,[163][164] achieve full international recognition of the Circassian genocide,[165][166][167] globally revive Adyghe Xabze among Circassians,[168][169][170] return to their homeland Circassia,[171][172][173][174] and ultimately reestablish an independent Circassian state.[173][174][175] There is also an effort among Circassians to unite under the name Circassian (Adyghe) in Russian Censuses to reflect and revive the concept of the Circassian nation. The overwhelming majority of the diaspora already tends to call itself "only Circassian".
^체르케스 주는 마을 의회 (чылэ хасэ, 마을 장로로 구성), 지역 의회 (7 개의 이웃 마을 의회의 대표로 구성), 지역 의회 (шъолъыр хасэ, 이웃 지역 의회로 구성), 인민 의회 (лъэпкъ зэфэс, 모든 의회에는 대표가 있음)의 4 단계 정부로 구성된 연방 국가였습니다. 1800년대까지는 중앙 통치자가 없었고, 지도자는 상징적 성격을 띠었다. 중앙 정부는 1800년대 중후반에 존재했다.
^Douglas Harper, Etymonline states: "1550s, in reference to a people people of the northern Caucasus along the Black Sea, from Circassia, Latinized from Russian Cherkesŭ, which is of unknown origin. Their name for themselves is Adighe. Their language is non-Indo-European. The race was noted for the "fine physical formation of its members, especially its women" [Century Dictionary], who were much sought by neighboring nations as concubines, etc."
^De facto Ungariae Magnae a fretre Riccardo invento tempori domini Gregorii Noni. // Исторический архив. 1940. Т. 3. С. 96.)
^Atti della Societa Ligure di storia patria. T. VII, f. 2. 737; Колли Л. Кафа в период владения ею банком св. Георгия (1454-1475) // Известия Таврической Ученой Архивной комиссии. No. 47. Симферополь, 1912. С. 86.)
^Berkok, İsmail. Tarihte Kafkasya. İstanbul Matbaası.
^ Jump up to:abРусско-Черкесская война 1763—1864 гг. и ее последствия
^Polyaenus names Hekataios, the king of the Sindi kingdom of Circassians, who ruled between 400-383 BC.
^Arrian (89–146) mentions a king of Zichia (West Circassia) named Stachemfak (Adyghe: Стахэмфакъу)
^ Jump up to:abD, S. Çerkes Krallar, Hükümdarlar "In the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, the Goths settled in the north of the Black Sea. There were constant wars with the Circassian kingdoms. Prince Baksan, one of the 8 sons and eldest of King Daw, was one of the rare leaders who made his mark in the wars against the Goths, was one of the rare leaders to whom a statue was erected, and died with his eighty warriors in a war against the Goths, in which his 7 brothers joined him."
^D, S. Çerkes Krallar, Hükümdarlar "Lawristan is the 6th century King of the Circassians and is known for his war with the Avars. Upon his refusal to come under Avar rule, Avar Khan with an army of 60 thousand destroyed the Black Sea coast."
^Zenkovsky, Sergei A. Medieval Russia’s Cronicles, 58-59
^D, S. Çerkes Krallar, Hükümdarlar "The leader of the Circassian tribes, Hapach, with his army of horsemen and allied principalities, attacked Sarkel, a city of the Khazars. The Khazar army was defeated and the Sarkel prince and his surviving army were shackled by their feet and imprisoned."
^The Laurentian Codex provides the following information: "In 1022, Prince Mstislav the Brave, who at the time was the prince of Tmutarakan, started a military operation against the Alans. During the operation, he encountered the Kassogian army commanded by Rededya. To avoid unnecessary bloodshed, Mstislav and Rededya, who possessed an extraordinary physical force, decided to have a personal fight, with the condition that the winner would be considered the winner of the battle. The fight lasted some hours and, eventually, Rededya was knocked to the ground and stabbed with a knife."
^In his letter to the king of Zichia, Verzacht/Ferzakht, Pope John XXII thanks the Governor of Circassians for his assistance in implementing the Christian faith among the Circassians. Verzacht's power and status was so high that his example was followed by the rest of the Circassian princes, who took the Roman Catholic faith.
^A contract was signed between the ruler of Circassia and the ruler of Caffa, naming another ruler of Zichia: "Petrezok , the paramount lord of Zichia". Under the contract, Zichia would supply large quantities of grain to Caffa.
^Kressel R. Ph. The Administration of Caffa under the Uffizio di San Giorgio. University of Wisconsin, 1966. P. 396
^Malʹbakhov, Boris (2002). Kabarda na ėtapakh politicheskoĭ istorii : (seredina XVI-pervai︠a︡ chetvertʹ XIX) veka. Moskva: Pomatur. ISBN5-86208-106-2.
^Сопутствующий монете материал хранится в ЛОИА АН СССР. Керамический материал представлен обломками фасосских амфор и чернолаковой керамикой (инв. No.No. М. 59. 1308-1319)
^М. И. Ростовцев, Эллинство и иранство на юге России, СПб., 1908, стр. 123; В. И. Мошинская, О государстве синдов, ВДИ. 1946, No. 3, стр. 203 сл.; Н. В. Анфимов, К вопросу о населении Прикубанья в скифскую эпоху, СА, XI, 1949, стр. 258; он же, Из прошлого Кубани, Краснодар. 1958, стр. 85; он же, Синдика в VI-IV вв. до н. э., "Труды Краснодарского гос. пед. ин-та", вып. XXXIII, Краснодар, 1963, стр. 195; В. Д. Блаватский, Античная культура в Северном Причерноморье, КСИИМК, XXXV, М.- Л., 1950; стр. 34; он же, Рабство и его источники в античных государствах Северного Причерноморья. СА, XX, 1954, стр. 32, 35; он же, Процесс исторического развития античных государств в Северном Причерноморье, сб. "Проблемы истории Северного Причерноморья в античную эпоху", М., 1959, стр. 11; В. П. Шилов, Население Прикубанья конца VII - середины IV в. до н. э. по материалам городищ и грунтовых могильников, Автореф. дисс, М.- Л., 1951, стр. 13; он же, Синдские монеты, стр. 214; Н. И. Сокольский и Д. Б. Шелов, Историческая роль античных государств Северного Причерноморья, сб. "Проблемы истории Северного Причерноморья", М., 1959, стр. 54; Д. Б. Шелов, Монетное дело Боспора, стр. 47; Т. В. Блаватская, Очерки политической истории Боспора в V-IV вв. до н. э., М-, 1959, стр. 94; Э. Берзин, Синдика, Боспор и Афины в последней четверти V в. до н. э., ВДИ, 1958, No. 1, стр. 124; F. И. Крупнов, Древняя история Северного Кавказа, М., 1960, стр. 373; "История Кабардино-Балкарской АССР", т. I, M., 1967, стр. 48; "Очерки истории Карачаево-Черкесии", т. I, Ставрополь, 1967, стр. 45-48: Т. X. Кумыков, К вопросу о возникновении и развитии феодализма у адыгских народов, сб. "Проблемы возникновения феодализма у народов СССР", М., 1969, стр. 191-194.
^В боспорской нумизматике известны монеты, приписанные исследователями Аполлонии и Мирмекию и датированные первой половиной V в. до н. э. Однако первые вызывают большие споры и сомнения ввиду отсутствия города с таким названием в источниках; вторые - с эмблемой муравья - также не могут быть отнесены безоговорочно к Мирмекию. См. В. Ф. Гайдукевич, Мирмекий, Варшава, 1959, стр. 6.
^Shora Nogma has 1427 (per Richmond, Northwest Caucasus, kindle@610). In a later book (Circassian Genocide kindle @47) Richmond reports the legend that Inal reunited the princedoms after they were driven into the mountains by the Mongols. In a footnote (@2271) he says that Inal was a royal title among the Oguz Turks
^Броневский, Семён, Новейшие географические и исторические известия о Кавказе, Москва, 1823.
^Захаров, Н. (Краснодар), “Пограничное укрепление Боспорского государства на Северном Кавказе и Краснобатарейное городище”, Советская археология II, Москва, 1937.
^Шевченко, Н. Ф., “Краснобатарейное городище. Старые проблемы, новые исследования”, Пятая Кубанская археологическая конференция. Материалы конференции, Краснодар, 2009, 434-439.
^Pallas, Peter Simon, Travels Through the Southern Provinces of the Russian Empire, in the Years 1793 and 1794, London: John Stockdale, Piccadilly, 1812 (2 vols). [Peter-Simon Pallas’ (1741-1811) second and most picturesque travel]
^Абрамзон, М. Г., Фролова, Н. А., “Горлов Ю. В. Клад золотых боспорских статеров II в. н. э. с Краснобатарейного городища: [Краснодар. край]”, ВДИ, № 4, 2000, С. 60-68.
^Papaskʻiri, Zurab, 1950- (2010). Абхазия : история без фальсификации. Izd-vo Sukhumskogo Gos. Universiteta. ISBN9941016526. OCLC 726221839.
^Klaproth, Julius Von, 1783—1835. (2005). Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia performed in the years 1807 and 1808 by command of the Russian government. Elibron Classics
^The 200-year Mingrelia-Abkhazian war and the defeat of the Principality of Mingrelia by the Abkhazians of XVII-XVIII cc.
^Sarah A.S. Isla Rosser-Owen, MA Near and Middle Eastern Studies (thesis). The First 'Circassian Exodus' to the Ottoman Empire (1858–1867), and the Ottoman Response, Based on the Accounts of Contemporary British Observers. Page 16: "... with one estimate showing that the indigenous population of the entire north-western Caucasus was reduced by a massive 94 per cent". Text of citation: "The estimates of Russian historian Narochnitskii, in Richmond, ch. 4, p. 5. Stephen Shenfield notes a similar rate of reduction with less than 10 per cent of the Circassians (including the Abkhazians) remaining. (Stephen Shenfield, "The Circassians: A Forgotten Genocide?", in The Massacre in History, p. 154.)"
^Richmond, Walter. The Circassian Genocide. Page 132: ". If we assume that Berzhe's middle figure of 50,000 was close to the number who survived to settle in the lowlands, then between 95 percent and 97 percent of all Circassians were killed outright, died during Evdokimov's campaign, or were deported."
^Чамокова, Сусанна Туркубиевна (2015). "Трансформация Религиозных Взглядов Адыгов На Примере Основных Адыгских Космогонических Божеств". Вестник Майкопского государственного технологического университета.