흑사병

[박대선]

Black Death

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

For other uses, see Black Death (disambiguation).

Spread of the Black Death in Europe and the Near East (1346–1353)

The Black Death, also known as the Pestilence, the Great Bubonic Plague, the Great Plague or the Plague, or less commonly the Great Mortality or the Black Plague, was the most devastating pandemic recorded in human history, resulting in the deaths of up to 75-125 million^[1][2] people globally (in Eurasia and North Africa),^[3] peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351.^[2][4][5] The bacterium Yersinia pestis, which results in several forms of plague (septicemic, pneumonic and, the most common, bubonic), is believed to have been the cause.^[6] The Black Death was the first major European outbreak of plague and the second plague pandemic.^[7] (The first was the Plague of Justinian.) The plague created religious, social, and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history.

The Black Death probably originated in Central Asia or East Asia,^{[8][9][10][11][12]} from where it travelled along the Silk Road, reaching Crimea by 1347. From there, it was most likely carried by fleas living on the black rats that traveled on Genoese merchant ships, spreading throughout the Mediterranean Basin, reaching the rest of Europe via the Italian Peninsula.

The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of Europe's population.^[13] In total, the plague may have reduced the world population from an estimated 475 million to 350–375 million in the 14th century.^[14] It took 200 years for Europe's population to recover to its previous level,^[15] and some regions (such as Florence) did not recover until the 19th century.^[16][17][18] Outbreaks of the plague recurred until the early 20th century.

Contents

• 1Names
• 2Previous plagues
• 314th-century plague
  • 3.1Causes
    • 3.1.1Early theory
    • 3.1.2Predominant modern theory
  • 3.2Transmission
    • 3.2.1Transmission within Asia
    • 3.2.2Transmission outside of Asia
    • 3.2.3European outbreak
    • 3.2.4Middle Eastern and North African outbreak
  • 3.3Signs and symptoms
    • 3.3.1Bubonic plague
    • 3.3.2Pneumonic plague
    • 3.3.3Septicemic plague
  • 3.4Consequences
    • 3.4.1Death toll
    • 3.4.2Economic
    • 3.4.3Environmental
    • 3.4.4Persecutions
    • 3.4.5Social
  • 3.5DNA evidence
  • 3.6Alternative explanations
    • 3.6.1Means of transmission
    • 3.6.2Summary
• 4Recurrences
  • 4.1Second plague pandemic
  • 4.2Third plague pandemic
  • 4.3Late 19th-century
  • 4.4Others
  • 4.5Fatality rate
• 5Cultural portrayal
• 6See also
• 7References
• 8External links

Names

Writers contemporary with the plague described the event as "great plague"^[19] or "great pestilence".^[20] The phrase "black death" (mors nigra) was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino or Couvin, a Belgian astronomer, who wrote the poem "On the Judgment of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn.^[21]

The historian Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893^[22] and suggested that "it would appear to be some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague".^[23][a] In 1908, Gasquet claimed that use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J. I. Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocitabant).^[24] The name spread through Scandinavia and then Germany, gradually becoming attached to the mid 14th-century epidemic as a proper name.^[25]

However, atra mors is used to refer to a pestilential fever (febris pestilentialis) already in the 12th-century On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (De signis et sinthomatibus egritudinum) by French physician Gilles de Corbeil.^[26][27] In English, the term was first used in 1755.^[28][29]

Previous plagues

Main article: Plague (disease)

Yersinia pestis (200× magnification), the bacterium which causes bubonic plague^[30]

Research in 2018 found evidence of Yersinia pestis in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been the cause of what has been described as the Neolithic decline around 3000 BC, in which European populations declined significantly.^[31] In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the Plague of Justinian (541–542 AD, with recurrences until 750) was Yersinia pestis.^[32][33]

14th-century plague

Causes

The 13th-century Mongol conquest of China caused a decline in farming and trading. Economic recovery had been observed at the beginning of the fourteenth century. In the 1330s, many natural disasters and plagues led to widespread famine, starting in 1331, with a deadly plague arriving soon after.^[34] Other conditions, such as war, famine, and weather, contributed to the severity of the Black Death.^[35]

Early theory

The most authoritative contemporary account is found in a report from the medical faculty in Paris to Philip VI of France. It blamed the heavens, in the form of a conjunction of three planets in 1345 that caused a "great pestilence in the air" (miasma theory).^[36]

Predominant modern theory

The Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) engorged with blood. This species of flea is the primary vector for the transmission of Yersinia pestis, the organism responsible for spreading bubonic plague in most plague epidemics. Both male and female fleas feed on blood and can transmit the infection.

Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) infected with the Yersinia pestis bacterium which appears as a dark mass in the gut. The foregut (proventriculus) of this flea is blocked by a Y. pestis biofilm; when the flea feeds on an uninfected host Y. pestis is regurgitated into the wound, causing infection.

Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried-out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease.^[37] The plague disease, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas, including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, North India, Uganda and the Western US.^[38][39]

The mechanism by which Y. pestis is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y. pestis several days after feeding on an infected host. This blockage starves the fleas and drives them to aggressive feeding behaviour and attempts to clear the blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host. The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lack resistance. When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic.^[23]

Transmission

Main article: Black Death migration

The importance of hygiene was recognised only in the nineteenth century; until then streets were commonly filthy, with live animals of all sorts around and human parasites abounding, facilitating the spread of transmissible disease.^[40] The spread of disease was significantly more rampant in areas of poverty. Epidemics ravaged cities, particularly children. Plagues were easily spread by lice, unsanitary drinking water, armies, or by poor sanitation.^[41]

One early medical advance as a result of the Black Death was the establishment of the idea of quarantine in the city-state of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia) in 1377 after continuing outbreaks.^[40]

Transmission within Asia

According to international medical geneticists led by Mark Achtman that analyzed the global sequence variation of the bacterium, all three of the great waves of the plague had their bacterium "evolved in or near China".^[42][43] The analysis also found that "sylvatic cycles of disease depend on transmission by flea vectors" and "the likely origin of the plague in China has nothing to do with its people or crowded cities".^[42][43]

Nestorian graves dating to 1338–1339 near Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led many epidemiologists to think they mark the outbreak of the epidemic; from which it could easily have spread to China and India.^[44]

Epidemics, that may have included the plague, killed an estimated 25 million across Asia during the fifteen years before it reached Constantinople in 1347.^[45][46]

Transmission outside of Asia

The disease may have traveled along the Silk Road with Mongol armies and traders, or it could have arrived via ship.^[47] By the end of 1346, reports of plague had reached the seaports of Europe: "India was depopulated, Tartary, Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia were covered with dead bodies".^[48]

European outbreak

The seventh year after it began, it came to England and first began in the towns and ports joining on the seacoasts, in Dorsetshire, where, as in other counties, it made the country quite void of inhabitants so that there were almost none left alive.

... But at length it came to Gloucester, yea even to Oxford and to London, and finally it spread over all England and so wasted the people that scarce the tenth person of any sort was left alive.

Geoffrey the Baker, Chronicon Angliae^[49]

Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders from the port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347.^[50][51] During a protracted siege of the city by the Mongol army under Jani Beg, whose army was suffering from the disease, the army catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, taking the plague by ship into Sicily^[52] in October 1347. Carried by twelve Genoese galleys^[53] the plague rapidly spread all over the island. Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point to northern Italy. Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseille.^[54]

From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain (which was hit due to the heat – the epidemic raged in the early weeks of July),^[55] Portugal and England by June 1348, then spread east and north through Germany, Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced into Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen) and Iceland.^[56] Finally, it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351. The plague was somewhat more uncommon in parts of Europe with less developed trade with their neighbours, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent.^[57][58]

According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavorable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations and forced their fleas onto alternative hosts,^[59] inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean,^[60] as well as during the cool autumn months of the southern Baltic states.^[61][b] Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, malnutrition, even if distantly, also contributed to such an immense loss in European population, since it weakened immune systems.^[35]

Middle Eastern and North African outbreak

The plague struck various regions in the Middle East during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures.^[64] As infected rodents infected new rodents, the disease spread across the region, entering also from southern Russia. By autumn 1347, the plague reached Alexandria in Egypt, then transmitted by ships to Constantinople and ports on the Black Sea. During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to Gaza, and north along the eastern coast to cities in modern Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine, including Ashkelon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon, Damascus, Homs, and Aleppo. Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the entire Muslim empire from Arabia across North Africa.^[65] In 1348–1349, the disease reached Antioch. The city's residents fled to the north, but most of them ended up dying during the journey.^[66]

Mecca became infected in 1349. During the same year, records show the city of Mosul suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease.

Muslim religious scholars taught that the plague was a “martyrdom and mercy” from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise. For non-believers, it was a punishment.^[67] Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God. Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for the plague used by the Europeans. These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks.^{[citation needed]}

Signs and symptoms

A hand showing how acral gangrene of the fingers due to bubonic plague causes the skin and flesh to die and turn black

An inguinal bubo on the upper thigh of a person infected with bubonic plague. Swollen lymph nodes (buboes) often occur in the neck, armpit and groin (inguinal) regions of plague victims.

Bubonic plague

Symptoms of the disease include fever of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. Left untreated, of those that contract the bubonic plague, 80 percent die within eight days.^[68]

Contemporary accounts of the plague are often varied or imprecise. The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or gavocciolos) in the groin, neck, and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened.^[69] Boccaccio's description:

In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg ... From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous. As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves.^{[70][full citation needed][c]}

This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood. Most victims died two to seven days after initial infection. Freckle-like spots and rashes,^[72] which could have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of the plague.

Pneumonic plague

Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of the plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, pneumonic plague, that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems.^[69] Symptoms include fever, cough, and blood-tinged sputum. As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red. Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 95 percent.^[73]

Septicemic plague

Septicemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate near 100%. Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation).^[73] In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes.^[73]

Consequences

Main article: Consequences of the Black Death

Death toll

There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality. In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality.^[74] It killed some 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia.^{[2][5][75][better source needed]}

Citizens of Tournai bury plague victims

According to medieval historian Philip Daileader, it is likely that over four years, 45–50% of the European population died of the plague.^[76][d] Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow suggests is could have been as much as 60% of the European population.^[77][e] Half of Paris's population of 100,000 people died. In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from 110,000–120,000 inhabitants in 1338 down to 50,000 in 1351. At least 60% of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished,^[78] and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well.^[79] In London approximately 62,000 people died between 1346 and 1353.^[37][f] Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450.^[81] In 1348, the plague spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die.^[23] The disease bypassed some areas, and the most isolated areas were less vulnerable to contagion. Monks, nuns, and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for victims of the Black Death.^[82]

The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran, and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population.^[83] The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population.^[84]

Children were hit the hardest because many diseases, such as typhus and congenital syphilis, target the immune system, leaving young children without a fighting chance. Children in city dwellings were more affected by the spread of disease than the children of the wealthy.^[41]

Italian chronicler Agnolo di Tura recorded his experience from Siena:

Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight. And so they died. And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship. Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices ... great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead. And they died by the hundreds both day and night ... And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug ... And I, Agnolo di Tura ... buried my five children with my own hands. And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city. There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death. And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world.^[85]

Economic

With such a large population decline from the plague, wages soared in response to a labour shortage.^[86] Landowners were also pushed to substitute monetary rents for labour services in an effort to keep tenants.^[87]

Environmental

Some historians believe the innumerable deaths brought on by the plague cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering reforestation. This may have led to the Little Ice Age.^[88]

Persecutions

See also: Jewish persecutions during the Black Death

Inspired by the Black Death, The Dance of Death, or Danse Macabre, an allegory on the universality of death, was a common painting motif in the late medieval period.

Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death. Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims",^[89] lepers,^[89][90] and Romani, blaming them for the crisis. Lepers, and others with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were killed throughout Europe.

Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for outbreaks.^[19] Many believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins, and could be relieved by winning God's forgiveness.^[91]

There were many attacks against Jewish communities.^[92] In the Strasbourg massacre of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered.^[92] In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated. By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed.^[93] During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a warm welcome from King Casimir the Great.^[94]

Social

Pieter Bruegel's The Triumph of Death reflects the social upheaval and terror that followed plague, which devastated medieval Europe.

One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy and led to the Renaissance. Italy was particularly badly hit by the plague, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife.^[95][g] It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art.^[97] However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors,^[98] in combination with an influx of Greek scholars following the fall of the Byzantine Empire.^{[citation needed]}

As a result of the decimation in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of the most favorable position economically.^[99]

The demographic decline due to the plague had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30–40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400.^[100] Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall. The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably destabilized feudalism.

DNA evidence

Skeletons in a mass grave from 1720–1721 in Martigues, near Marseille in southern France, yielded molecular evidence of the orientalis strain of Yersinia pestis, the organism responsible for bubonic plague. The second pandemic of bubonic plague was active in Europe from 1347, the beginning of the Black Death, until 1750.

Definitive confirmation of the role of Y. pestis arrived in 2010 with a publication in PLOS Pathogens by Haensch et al.^[101][h] They assessed the presence of DNA/RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for Y. pestis from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences. The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y. pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages".^[101] In 2011, these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England. Schuenemann et al. concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y. pestis that may no longer exist."^[104]

Later in 2011, Bos et al. reported^[105] in Nature the first draft genome of Y. pestis from plague victims from the same East Smithfield cemetery and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of Y. pestis.^[105]

Since this time, further genomic papers have further confirmed the phylogenetic placement of the Y. pestis strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor^[106] of later plague epidemics including the third plague pandemic and as the descendant^[107] of the strain responsible for the Plague of Justinian. In addition, plague genomes from significantly earlier in prehistory have been recovered.^[108]

DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th century London have shown the plague is a strain of Y. pestis almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013.^[79][109]

See also: CCR5

Alternative explanations

Main article: Theories of the Black Death

It is recognised that an epidemiological account of the plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period. Most work has been done on the spread of the plague in England, and even estimates of overall population at the start vary by over 100% as no census was undertaken between the time of publication of the Domesday Book and poll tax of the year 1377.^[110] Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures for the clergy.

Means of transmission

Mathematical modelling is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of transmission. A research in 2018 challenged the popular hypothesis that "infected rats died, their flea parasites could have jumped from the recently dead rat hosts to humans". It suggested an alternative model which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people". The second model claims to better fits the trends of death toll because the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, which contradict historical death data.^[111][112]

Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread", whilst pointing to several other possibilities.^[113] Similarly, Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague.^[114]

Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the plague spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y. pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person.^[115][116] This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and human fleas during the second plague pandemic.^[117]

Summary

However, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance.^[23] Many scholars arguing for Y. pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections. In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicemic (a type of "blood poisoning") and pneumonic (an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body) forms of the plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms.^[69] In 2014, Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis.^[79]

Recurrences

Second plague pandemic

Main article: Second plague pandemic

The Great Plague of London, in 1665, killed up to 100,000 people.

The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries.^[118] According to Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671.^[119] (Note that some researchers ^[120] have cautions about the uncritical use of Biraben's data.) The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–1363; 1374; 1400; 1438–1439; 1456–1457; 1464–1466; 1481–1485; 1500–1503; 1518–1531; 1544–1548; 1563–1566; 1573–1588; 1596–1599; 1602–1611; 1623–1640; 1644–1654; and 1664–1667. Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century).^[121] The historian George Hussman claimed that the plague had not occurred in East Africa until the 1900s. However, other sources suggest that the Second pandemic did indeed reach Sub-Saharan Africa.^[122]

According to historian Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31."^[123] In the first half of the 17th century, a plague claimed some 1.7 million victims in Italy.^[124] More than 1.25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain.^[125]

A plague doctor and his typical apparel during the 17th Century Outbreak.

Contemporary engraving of Marseille during the Great Plague in 1720

The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world.^[126] Plague was present in at least one location in the Islamic world virtually every year between 1500 and 1850.^[127] Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–1621, and again in 1654–1657, 1665, 1691, and 1740–1742.^[128] Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800.^[129] Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out.^[130]

Third plague pandemic

Main article: Third plague pandemic

Worldwide distribution of plague-infected animals, 1998

The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.^[131] Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney. This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis.^[132]

Late 19th-century

Yersinia pestis is also responsible for an epidemic that began in southern China in 1865, eventually spreading to India. The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named.^[23]

Others

The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908.^{[133][134][135]}

Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine. It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat. One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995.^[136] A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014.^[137] In October 2017 the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands.^[138]

Fatality rate

An estimate of the case fatality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions.^[139]

Cultural portrayal

• Black Death (film)
• Cronaca fiorentina (Chronicle of Florence); a literary history of the plague, and of Florence up to 1386, by Baldassarre Bonaiuti
• Danse Macabre, an artistic genre of allegory of the Late Middle Ages on the universality of death
• Doomsday Book, a science fiction novel written by Connie Willis
• Four thieves vinegar; a popular French legend supposed to provide immunity to the plague
• Geisslerlieder (music)
• Ring a Ring o' Roses (song)
• The Seventh Seal, a film directed by Ingmar Bergman
• World Without End (miniseries)

See also

• Black Death in medieval culture
• Black Death in England
• Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
• Globalization and disease
• List of epidemics
• Timeline of plague

References

Notes

1. ^ He was able to adopt the epidemiology of the bubonic plague for the Black Death for the second edition in 1908, implicating rats and fleas in the process, and his interpretation was widely accepted for other ancient and medieval epidemics, such as the Plague of Justinian that was preval‎ent in the Eastern Roman Empire from 541 to 700 CE.^[23]
2. ^ However, other researchers do not think that the plague ever became endemic in Europe or its rat population. The disease repeatedly wiped out the rodent carriers, so that the fleas died out until a new outbreak from Central Asia repeated the process. The outbreaks have been shown to occur roughly 15 years after a warmer and wetter period in areas where plague is endemic in other species, such as gerbils.^[62][63]
3. ^ The only medical detail that is questionable in Boccaccio's description is that the gavocciolo was an "infallible token of approaching death", as, if the bubo discharges, recovery is possible.^[71]
4. ^ According to medieval historian Philip Daileader,

   The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45–50% of the European population dying during a four-year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Mediterranean Europe, areas such as Italy, the south of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 75–80% of the population. In Germany and England ... it was probably closer to 20%.^[76]

5. ^ Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow suggests:

   Detailed study of the mortality data available points to two conspicuous features in relation to the mortality caused by the Black Death: namely the extreme level of mortality caused by the Black Death, and the remarkable similarity or consistency of the level of mortality, from Spain in southern Europe to England in north-western Europe. The data is sufficiently widespread and numerous to make it likely that the Black Death swept away around 60 per cent of Europe's population. It is generally assumed that the size of Europe's population at the time was around 80 million. This implies that around 50 million people died in the Black Death.^[77]

6. ^ While contemporary reports account of mass burial pits being created in response to the large numbers of dead, recent scientific investigations of a burial pit in Central London found well-preserved individuals to be buried in isolated, evenly spaced graves, suggesting at least some pre-planning and Christian burials at this time.^[80]
7. ^ The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence's social and political structure than later epidemics. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of government.^[96]
8. ^ In 1998, Drancourt et al. reported the detection of Y. pestis DNA in human dental pulp from a medieval grave.^[102] Another team led by Tom Gilbert cast doubt on this identification^[103] and the techniques employed, stating that this method "does not allow us to confirm‎ the identification of Y. pestis as the aetiological agent of the Black Death and subsequent plagues. In addition, the utility of the published tooth-based ancient DNA technique used to diagnose fatal bacteraemias in historical epidemics still awaits independent corroboration".

Citations

1. ^ Gould, George Milbry (1966). Anomalies and Curiosities of Medicine. Blacksleet River. p. 617. ISBN 978-1-4499-7722-1.
2. ^ Jump up to:^a b c ABC/Reuters (29 January 2008). "Black death 'discriminated' between victims (ABC News in Science)". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2008.
3. ^ "Economic life after Covid-19: Lessons from the Black Death".
4. ^ "Health: De-coding the Black Death". BBC. 3 October 2001. Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2008.
5. ^ Jump up to:^a b "Black Death's Gene Code Cracked". Wired. 3 October 2001. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
6. ^ "Plague". World Health Organization. October 2017. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2017.
7. ^ Firth, John (April 2012). "The History of Plague – Part 1. The Three Great Pandemics". jmvh.org. Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
8. ^ Hollingsworth, Julia. "Black Death in China: A history of plagues, from ancient times to now". CNN. Archived from the original on 6 March 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
9. ^ Bramanti, Barbara; Stenseth, Nils Chr; Walløe, Lars; Lei, Xu (2016). "Plague: A Disease Which Changed the Path of Human Civilization". Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 918: 1–26. doi:10.1007/978-94-024-0890-4_1. ISBN 978-94-024-0888-1. ISSN 0065-2598. PMID 27722858.
10. ^ Wade, Nicholas (31 October 2010). "Europe's Plagues Came From China, Study Finds". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 4 November 2010. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
11. ^ "Black Death | Causes, Facts, and Consequences". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 9 July 2019. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
12. ^ Wade, Nicholas. "Black Death's Origins Traced to China". query.nytimes.com. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
13. ^ Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003). A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective. University of New Mexico Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8263-2871-7. Archivedfrom the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
14. ^ "Historical Estimates of World Population". Census.gov. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 28 April 2019.
15. ^ Jay, Peter (17 July 2000). "A Distant Mirror". TIME Europe. 156 (3). Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
16. ^ Nauert, Charles G. (2006). The A to Z of the Renaissance. Scarecrow Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-1461718963.
17. ^ Jussila, Heikki; Majoral, Roser (2018). Sustainable Development and Geographical Space: Issues of Population, Environment, Globalization and Education in Marginal Regionsons. Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 978-1351724814.
18. ^ Goldthwaite, Richard A. (2009). The economy of Renaissance Florence. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 278. ISBN 978-0801889820.
19. ^ Jump up to:^a b J. M. Bennett and C. W. Hollister, Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), p. 326.
20. ^ John of Fordun's Scotichronicon ("there was a great pestilence and mortality of men") Horrox, Rosemary (1994). Black Death. ISBN 978-0-7190-3498-5. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
21. ^ * On page 22 of the manuscript in Gallica Archived 6 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Simon mentions the phrase "mors nigra" (Black Death): "Cum rex finisset oracula judiciorum / Mors nigra surrexit, et gentes reddidit illi;" (When the king ended the oracles of judgment / Black Death arose, and the nations surrendered to him;).
    • A more legible copy of the poem appears in: Emile Littré (1841) "Opuscule relatif à la peste de 1348, composé par un contemporain" Archived 22 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine (Work concerning the plague of 1348, composed by a contemporary), Bibliothèque de l'école des chartes, 2 (2) : 201–43; see especially p. 228.
    • See also: Joseph Patrick Byrne, The Black Death (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004), p. 1. Archived 26 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
22. ^ Gasquet 1893.
23. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f} Christakos, George; Olea, Ricardo A.; Serre, Marc L.; Yu, Hwa-Lung; Wang, Lin-Lin (2005). Interdisciplinary Public Health Reasoning and Epidemic Modelling: the Case of Black Death. Springer. pp. 110–14. ISBN 978-3-540-25794-3.
24. ^ Francis Aidan Gasquet, The Black Death of 1348 and 1349, 2nd ed. (London, England: George Bell and Sons, 1908), p. 7. Archived 4 May 2016 at the Wayback MachineJohan Isaksson Pontanus, Rerum Danicarum Historia ... (Amsterdam (Netherlands): Johann Jansson, 1631), p. 476. Archived 4 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
25. ^ The German physician Justus Friedrich Karl Hecker (1795–1850) cited the phrase in Icelandic (Svarti Dauði), Danish (den sorte Dod), etc. See: J. F. C. Hecker, Der schwarze Tod im vierzehnten Jahrhundert [The Black Death in the Fourteenth Century] (Berlin, (Germany): Friedr. Aug. Herbig, 1832), page 3. Archived 29 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
26. ^ See: Stephen d'Irsay (May 1926) "Notes to the origin of the expression‎: atra mors," Isis, 8(2): 328–32.
27. ^ de Corbeil, Gilles (1907) [1200]. Valentin, Rose (ed.). Egidii Corboliensis Viaticus: De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium. Bibliotheca scriptorum medii aevi Teubneriana (in Latin). Harvard University.
28. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd edition, s.v.
29. ^ Pontoppidan, Erich (1755). The Natural History of Norway: …. London: A. Linde. p. 24.From p. 24: "Norway, indeed, cannot be said to be entirely exempt from pestilential distempers, for the Black-death, known all over Europe by its terrible ravages, from the years 1348 to 50, was felt here as in other parts, and to the great diminution of the number of the inhabitants."
30. ^ "Plague Backgrounder". Avma.org. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 3 November 2008.
31. ^ Zhang, Sarah, "An Ancient Case of the Plague Could Rewrite History Archived 13 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine", The Atlantic, December 6, 2018
32. ^ "Modern lab reaches across the ages to resolve plague DNA debate". phys.org. 20 May 2013. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
33. ^ Maria Cheng (28 January 2014). "Plague DNA found in ancient teeth shows medieval Black Death, 1,500-year pandemic caused by same disease". National Post. Archivedfrom the original on 23 March 2015. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
34. ^ The Cambridge History of China: Alien regimes and border states, 907–1368, p. 585.
35. ^ Jump up to:^a b Baten, Joerg; Koepke, Nikola (2005). "The Biological Standard of Living in Europe during the Last Two Millennia". European Review of Economic History. 9 (1): 61–95. doi:10.1017/S1361491604001388. hdl:10419/47594 – via EBSCO.
36. ^ Horrox 1994, p. 159.
37. ^ Jump up to:^a b Tignor, Robert; Adelman, Jeremy; Brown, Peter; Elman, Benjamin; Liu, Xinru; Pittman, Holly; Shaw, Brent (2014). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, Volume 1: Beginnings to the 15th Century. New York, London: W.W Norton & Company. p. 407. ISBN 978-0-393-92208-0.
38. ^ Ziegler 1998, p. 25.
39. ^ https://www.cdc.gov/plague/maps/index.html
40. ^ Jump up to:^a b Sehdev PS (2002). "The Origin of Quarantine". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 35 (9): 1071–72. doi:10.1086/344062. PMID 12398064. Archived from the original on 28 June 2012. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
41. ^ Jump up to:^a b "Renaissance And Reformation France" Mack P. Holt pp. 30, 39, 69, 166^{[ISBN missing]}
42. ^ Jump up to:^a b Wade, Nicholas (31 October 2010). "Europe's Plagues Came From China, Study Finds". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 November 2010. Retrieved 25 March 2020. The great waves of plague that twice devastated Europe and changed the course of history had their origins in China, a team of medical geneticists reported Sunday, as did a third plague outbreak that struck less harmfully in the 19th century. ... In the issue of Nature Genetics published online Sunday, they conclude that all three of the great waves of plague originated from China, where the root of their tree is situated. ... The likely origin of the plague in China has nothing to do with its people or crowded cities, Dr. Achtman said. The bacterium has no interest in people, whom it slaughters by accident. Its natural hosts are various species of rodent such as marmots and voles, which are found throughout China.
43. ^ Jump up to:^a b Morelli, G.; Song, Y.; Mazzoni, C.; et al. (2010). "Yersinia pestis genome sequencing identifies patterns of global phylogenetic diversity". Nature Genetics. 42 (12): 1140–43. doi:10.1038/ng.705. PMC 2999892. PMID 21037571.
44. ^ Galina Eroshenko et al. (2017) “Yersinia Pestis Strains of Ancient Phylogenetic Branch 0.ANT Are Widely Spread in the High-Mountain Plague Foci of Kyrgyzstan,” PLoS ONE, XII (e0187230); discussed in Philip Slavin, "Death by the Lake: Mortality Crisis in Early Fourteenth-Century Central Asia", Journal of Interdisciplinary History 50/1 (Summer 2019): 59–90. https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jinh_a_01376
45. ^ Kohn, George C. (2008). Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. Infobase Publishing. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-8160-6935-4. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
46. ^ Sussman GD (2011). "Was the black death in India and China?". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 85 (3): 319–55. doi:10.1353/bhm.2011.0054. PMID 22080795. Archivedfrom the original on 20 May 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
47. ^ Moore, Malcolm (1 November 2010). "Black Death may have originated in China". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
48. ^ Hecker 1859, p. 21 cited by Ziegler, p. 15.
49. ^ Geoffrey, Baker (1847) [1350]. Gilles, John Allen (ed.). Galfridi Le Baker de Swinbroke, Chronicon Angliae temporibus Edwardi II et Edwardi III (in Latin and English). Londini: apud Jacobum Bohn. LCCN 08014593. OL 6996785M. Archived from the original on 3 August 2008 – via Internet Archive.
50. ^ Wheelis M. Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2002;8(9):971–75. doi:10.3201/eid0809.010536.
51. ^ Barras, Vincent; Greub, Gilbert (June 2014). "History of biological warfare and bioterrorism". Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 20 (6): 498. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12706. PMID 24894605. In the Middle Ages, a famous although controversial example is offered by the siege of Caffa (now Feodossia in Ukraine/Crimea), a Genovese outpost on the Black Sea coast, by the Mongols. In 1346, the attacking army experienced an epidemic of bubonic plague. The Italian chronicler Gabriele de’ Mussi, in his Istoria de Morbo sive Mortalitate quae fuit Anno Domini 1348, describes quite plausibly how the plague was transmitted by the Mongols by throwing diseased cadavers with catapults into the besieged city, and how ships transporting Genovese soldiers, fleas and rats fleeing from there brought it to the Mediterranean ports. Given the highly complex epidemiology of plague, this interpretation of the Black Death (which might have killed >25 million people in the following years throughout Europe) as stemming from a specific and localized origin of the Black Death remains controversial. Similarly, it remains doubtful whether the effect of throwing infected cadavers could have been the sole cause of the outburst of an epidemic in the besieged city.
52. ^ "The Black Death". History – Channel 4. Archived from the original on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 3 November 2008.
53. ^ Michael of Piazza (Platiensis) Bibliotheca scriptorum qui res in Sicilia gestas retulere Vol 1, p. 562, cited in Ziegler, 1998, p. 40.
54. ^ De Smet, Vol II, Breve Chronicon, p. 15.
55. ^ "The Black Death: The Greatest Catastrophe Ever". English. Archived from the original on 19 November 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
56. ^ Gunnar Karlsson (2000). Iceland's 1100 years: the history of a marginal society. London: C. Hurst. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-85065-420-9. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
57. ^ Zuchora-Walske, Christine, Poland, North Mankato: ABDO Publishing, 2013.
58. ^ Welford, Mark; Bossak, Brian H. (4 June 2010). "Revisiting the Medieval Black Death of 1347–1351: Spatiotemporal Dynamics Suggestive of an Alternate Causation". Geography Compass. 4 (6): 561–75. doi:10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00335.x. ISSN 1749-8198.
59. ^ Samia, N. I.; Kausrud, K. L.; Heesterbeek, H.; Ageyev, V.; Begon, M.; Chan, K.-S.; Stenseth, N. C. (2011). "Dynamics of the plague–wildlife–human system in Central Asia are controlled by two epidemiological thresholds". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (35): 14527–14532. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10814527S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1015946108. PMID 21856946.
60. ^ Cohn, Samuel K. (2008). "4 Epidemiology of the Black Death and Successive Waves of Plague". Medical History. 52: 74–100. doi:10.1017/S0025727300072100. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
61. ^ Stefan Kroll, Kersten Krüger (2004). LIT Verlag Berlin. ISBN 3-8258-8778-2
62. ^ Baggaley, Kate (24 February 2015). "Bubonic plague was a serial visitor in European Middle Ages". Science News. Archived from the original on 24 February 2015. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
63. ^ Schmid, Boris V. (2015). "Climate-driven introduction of the Black Death and successive plague reintroductions into Europe". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 112 (10): 3020–25. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.3020S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1412887112. PMC 4364181. PMID 25713390. Archived from the original on 25 February 2015. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
64. ^ Green, Monica H. (2018). "Putting Africa on the Black Death map: Narratives from genetics and history". Afriques (9). doi:10.4000/afriques.2125. Archived from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2019.
65. ^ The Great Mortality An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time John Kelly (2005). Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0060006927
66. ^ "An Economic History of the World since 1400". English. Archived from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
67. ^ The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time John Kelly (2005). Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0060006927
68. ^ R. Totaro Suffering in Paradise: The Bubonic Plague in English Literature from More to Milton (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 2005), p. 26
69. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Byrne 2004, pp. 21–29
70. ^ Giovanni Boccaccio (1351), Decameron
71. ^ Ziegler 1998, pp. 18–19.
72. ^ D. Herlihy, The Black Death and the Transformation of the West (Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1997), p. 29.
73. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Byrne 2004, p. 8.
74. ^ Olea Ricardo A.; Christakos G. (2005). "Duration assessment of urban mortality for the 14th century Black Death epidemic". Human Biology. 77 (3): 291–303. doi:10.1353/hub.2005.0051. PMID 16392633.
75. ^ "Health. De-coding the Black Death". BBC. 3 October 2001. Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2008.
76. ^ Jump up to:^a b Philip Daileader, The Late Middle Ages, audio/video course produced by The Teaching Company, (2007) ISBN 978-1-59803-345-8.
77. ^ Jump up to:^a b Ole J. Benedictow, "The Black Death: The Greatest Catastrophe Ever", History Today Volume 55 Issue 3 March 2005 (Archived 3 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine). Cf. Benedictow, The Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History, Boydell Press (2012), pp. 380ff.^{[ISBN missing]}
78. ^ Snell, Melissa (2006). "The Great Mortality". Historymedren.about.com. Archived from the original on 10 March 2009. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
79. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Thorpe, Vanessa (29 March 2014). "Black death was not spread by rat fleas, say researchers". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 March 2014. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
80. ^ Dick, HC; Pringle, JK; Sloane, B; Carver, J; Wisneiwski, KD; Haffenden, A; Porter, S; Roberts, D; Cassidy, NJ (2015). "Detection and characterisation of Black Death burials by multi-proxy geophysical methods" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science. 59: 132–41. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2015.04.010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 July 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2018.
81. ^ Richard Wunderli (1992). Peasant Fires: The Drummer of Niklashausen. Indiana University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-253-36725-9.
82. ^ J. M. Bennett and C. W. Hollister, Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), p. 329.^{[ISBN missing]}
83. ^ Kathryn Jean Lopez (14 September 2005). "Q&A with John Kelly on The Great Mortality on National Review Online". Nationalreview.com. Archived from the original on 16 February 2012. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
84. ^ Egypt – Major Cities Archived 17 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Library of Congress
85. ^ Plague readings Archived 29 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine from P. M. Rogers, Aspects of Western Civilization, Prentice Hall, 2000, pp. 353–65.
86. ^ Scheidel, Walter (2017). The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press. pp. 292–93, 304. ISBN 978-0691165028. Archived from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
87. ^ "Black Death | Causes, Facts, and Consequences". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 9 July 2019. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
88. ^ "Europe's chill linked to disease". 27 February 2006. Archived from the original on 27 April 2006. Retrieved 28 February 2006.
89. ^ Jump up to:^a b David Nirenberg, Communities of Violence, 1998, ISBN 0-691-05889-X.
90. ^ R.I. Moore The Formation of a Persecuting Society, Oxford, 1987 ISBN 0-631-17145-2.
91. ^ "Black Death". history.com. 2010. Archived from the original on 8 December 2013. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
92. ^ Jump up to:^a b Black Death Archived 4 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Jewishencyclopedia.com
93. ^ "Jewish History 1340–1349" Archived 2 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
94. ^ Gottfried, Robert S. (2010) [1983]. Black Death. Simon and Schuster. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-4391-1846-7. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
95. ^ Barbara Tuchman (1978) A Distant Mirror, Knopf ISBN 0-394-40026-7.
96. ^ Hatty, Suzanne E.; Hatty, James (1999). Disordered Body: Epidemic Disease and Cultural Transformation. SUNY Press. p. 89. ISBN 978-0791443651.
97. ^ The End of Europe's Middle Ages: The Black Death Archived March 9, 2013, at the Wayback Machine University of Calgary website. (Retrieved on April 5, 2007)
98. ^ Brotton, J., The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2006 ISBN 0-19-280163-5.
99. ^ Netzley, Patricia D. Life During the Renaissance.San Diego: Lucent Books, Inc., 1998.^{[ISBN missing]}
100. ^ Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). A History of European Society. Essentials of Western Civilization (Vol. 2, p. 217). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc.
101. ^ Jump up to:^a b Haensch S, Bianucci R, Signoli M, Rajerison M, Schultz M, Kacki S, Vermunt M, Weston DA, Hurst D, Achtman M, Carniel E, Bramanti B (2010). Besansky NJ (ed.). "Distinct Clones of Yersinia pestis Caused the Black Death". PLOS Pathogens. 6 (10): e1001134. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001134. PMC 2951374. PMID 20949072.
102. ^ Drancourt M, Aboudharam G, Signoli M, Dutour O, Raoult D (1998). "Detection of 400-year-old Yersinia pestis DNA in human dental pulp: an approach to the diagnosis of ancient septicemia". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 95 (21): 12637–40. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9512637D. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.21.12637. PMC 22883. PMID 9770538.
103. ^ MTP Gilbert; J Cuccui; W White; N Lynnerup; RW Titball; A Cooper; MB Prentice (2004). "Absence of Yersinia pestis-specific DNA in human teeth from five European excavations of putative plague victims". Microbiology. 150 (2): 341–54. doi:10.1099/mic.0.26594-0. PMID 14766912.
104. ^ VJ Schuenemann; K Bos; S DeWitte; S Schmedes; J Jamieson; A Mittnik; S Forrest; BK Coombes; JW Wood; DJD Earn; W White; J Krause; H Poinar (29 August 2011). "Targeted enrichment of ancient pathogens yielding the pPCP1 plasmid of Yersinia pestis from victims of the Black Death". PNAS. 108 (38): E746–E752. doi:10.1073/pnas.1105107108. PMC 3179067. PMID 21876176. Archived from the original on 11 January 2013. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
105. ^ Jump up to:^a b Bos KI, Schuenemann VJ, Golding GB, Burbano HA, Waglechner N, Coombes BK, McPhee JB, DeWitte SN, Meyer M, Schmedes S, Wood J, Earn DJ, Herring DA, Bauer P, Poinar HN, Krause J (12 October 2011). "A draft genome of Yersinia pestis from victims of the Black Death". Nature. 478 (7370): 506–10. Bibcode:2011Natur.478..506B. doi:10.1038/nature10549. PMC 3690193. PMID 21993626.
106. ^ Spyrou, Maria A; Marcel Keller; R. I. Tukhbatova; CL Scheib; EA Nelson; A Andrades Valtueña; GU Neumann; D Walker; A Alterauge A; N Carty; C Cessford; H Fetz; M Gourvennec; R Hartle; M Henderson; K von Heyking; SA Inskip; S Kacki; FM Key; EL Knox; C Later; P Maheshwari-Aplin; J Peters; JE Robb; J Schreiber; T Kivisild; D Castex; S Lösch; M Harbeck M; A Herbig; KI Bos; J Krause (2019). "Phylogeography of the second plague pandemic revealed through analysis of historical Yersinia pestis genomes". Nature Communications. 10 (4470): 4470. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.4470S. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-12154-0. PMC 6775055. PMID 31578321.
107. ^ Wagner, David M; J. Klunk; M. Harbeck; A. Devault; N. Waglechner; J. W. Sahl; J. Enk; D. N. Birdsell; M. Kuch; C. Lumibao; D. Poinar; T. Pearson; M. Fourment; B. Golding; J. M. Riehm; D. J. D. Earn; S. DeWitte; J.-M. Rouillard; G. Grupe; I. Wiechmann; J. B. Bliska; P. S. Keim; H. C. Scholz; E. C. Holmes; H. Poinar (28 January 2014). "Yersinia pestis and the Plague of Justinian 541–543 AD: a genomic analysis". The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 14 (4): 319–26. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70323-2. PMID 24480148.
108. ^ Rasmussen S, Allentoft ME, Nielsen K, Orlando L, Sikora M, Sjögren KG, Pedersen AG, Schubert M, Van Dam A, Kapel CM, Nielsen HB, Brunak S, Avetisyan P, Epimakhov A, Khalyapin MV, Gnuni A, Kriiska A, Lasak I, Metspalu M, Moiseyev V, Gromov A, Pokutta D, Saag L, Varul L, Yepiskoposyan L, Sicheritz-Pontén T, Foley RA, Lahr MM, Nielsen R, Kristiansen K, Willerslev E (2015). "Early Divergent Strains of Yersinia pestis in Eurasia 5,000 Years Ago". Cell. 163 (3): 571–82. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.10.009. PMC 4644222. PMID 26496604.
109. ^ Morgan, James (30 March 2014). "Black Death skeletons unearthed by Crossrail project". BBC News. Archived from the original on 25 December 2017. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
110. ^ Ziegler 1998, p. 233.
111. ^ Ben Guarino (16 January 2018). "The classic explanation for the Black Death plague is wrong, scientists say". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 22 January 2018.
112. ^ Rachel Rettner (17 January 2018). "Rats May Not Be to Blame for Spreading the 'Black Death'". Live Science.
113. ^ Walloe, Lars (2008). Vivian Nutton (ed.). Medieval and Modern Bubonic Plague: some clinical continuities. Pestilential Complexities: Understanding Medieval Plague. Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine at UCL. p. 69.
114. ^ Green, Monica (2014). "Taking "Pandemic" Seriously: Making the Black Death Global". The Medieval Globe: 31ff. Archived from the original on 8 April 2016.
115. ^ M. Kennedy (2011). "Black Death study lets rats off the hook". The Guardian. London. ISBN 978-0-7524-2829-1. Archived from the original on 27 August 2013. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
116. ^ B. Slone (2011). The Black Death in London. London: The History Press Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7524-2829-1.
117. ^ Dean, Katharine R.; Krauer, Fabienne; Walløe, Lars; Lingjærde, Ole Christian; Bramanti, Barbara; Stenseth, Nils Chr; Schmid, Boris V. (10 January 2018). "Human ectoparasites and the spread of plague in Europe during the Second Pandemic". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (6): 1304–09. doi:10.1073/pnas.1715640115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5819418. PMID 29339508.
118. ^ The Great Plague Archived 1 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Stephen Porter (2009). Amberley Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 1-84868-087-2.
119. ^ J. N. Hays (1998). The burdens of disease: epidemics and human response in western history. Archived 21 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine. p. 58. ISBN 0-8135-2528-4.
120. ^ [1] Archived 16 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Roosen, J., & Curtis, D. R. (2018). Dangers of Noncritical Use of Historical Plague Data. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 24(1), 103–10. https://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2401.170477.
121. ^ Epidemics and pandemics: their impacts on human history Archived 31 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine. J. N. Hays (2005). p. 46. ISBN 1-85109-658-2.
122. ^ Green, Monica H. (2018). "Putting Africa on the Black Death map: Narratives from genetics and history". Afriques (9). doi:10.4000/afriques.2125. Archived from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2019.
123. ^ Geoffrey Parker (2001). Europe in crisis, 1598–1648 Archived 31 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 7. ISBN 0-631-22028-3.
124. ^ Karl Julius Beloch, Bevölkerungsgeschichte Italiens, volume 3, pp. 359–360.
125. ^ The Seventeenth-Century Decline, S.G. Payne, A History of Spain and Portugal
126. ^ "The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death)". Ucalgary.ca. Archived from the original on 21 July 2009. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
127. ^ Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A–M. ABC-CLIO. p. 519. ISBN 978-0-313-34102-1.
128. ^ Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800 Archived 11 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Robert Davis (2004). ISBN 1-4039-4551-9.
129. ^ Université de Strasbourg; Institut de turcologie, Université de Strasbourg; Institut d'études turques, Association pour le développement des études turques (1998). Turcica. Éditions Klincksieck. p. 198.
130. ^ The Fertile Crescent, 1800–1914: a documentary economic history Archived 1 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Charles Philip Issawi (1988). Oxford University Press US. p. 99. ISBN 0-19-504951-9.
131. ^ Infectious Diseases: Plague Through History Archived 17 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine, sciencemag.org
132. ^ Bubonic Plague comes to Sydney in 1900 Archived 10 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, University of Sydney, Sydney Medical School
133. ^ Chase, Marilyn (2004). The Barbary Plague: The Black Death in Victorian San Francisco. Random House Digital. ISBN 978-0-375-75708-2.
134. ^ Echenberg, Myron (2007). Plague Ports: The Global Urban Impact of Bubonic Plague: 1894–1901. Sacramento: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-2232-9.
135. ^ Kraut, Alan M. (1995). Silent travelers: germs, genes, and the "immigrant menace". JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5096-7. Archived from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
136. ^ Drug-resistant plague a 'major threat', say scientists Archived 19 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine, SciDev.Net.
137. ^ "Plague – Madagascar". World Health Organisation. 21 November 2014. Archivedfrom the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
138. ^ Wexler, Alexandra; Antoy, Amir (16 November 2017). "Madagascar Wrestles With Worst Outbreak of Plague in Half a Century". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2017.
139. ^ Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (24 September 2015). "FAQ: Plague". Archivedfrom the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2017.

Further reading

• Armstrong, Dorsey (2016). The Black Death: The World's Most Devastating Plague. The Great Courses. ASIN B01FWOO2G6.
• Benedictow, Ole Jørgen (2004). Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History. ISBN 978-1-84383-214-0.
• Byrne, J. P. (2004). The Black Death. London: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32492-5.
• Cantor, Norman F. (2001). In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World It Made, New York, Free Press.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Cohn, Samuel K. Jr., (2002). The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe, London: Arnold.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Crawford, Dorothy (2018). Deadly Companions: How Microbes Shaped Our History. Oxford University Press.
• Gasquet, Francis Aidan (1893). The Great Pestilence AD 1348 to 1349: Now Commonly Known As the Black Death. ISBN 978-1-4179-7113-8.
• Hecker, J. F. C. (1859). B. G. Babington (trans) (ed.). Epidemics of the Middle Ages. London: Trübner.
• Herlihy, D., (1997). The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Horrox, Rosemary (1994). The Black Death. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-3498-5.
• McNeill, William H. (1976). Plagues and Peoples. Anchor/Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-11256-7.
• Scott, S., and Duncan, C. J., (2001). Biology of Plagues: Evidence from Historical Populations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Shrewsbury, J. F. D., (1970). A History of Bubonic Plague in the British Isles, London: Cambridge University Press.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Twigg, G., (1984). The Black Death: A Biological Reappraisal, London: Batsford.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Ziegler, Philip (1998). The Black Death. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-027524-7. 1st editions 1969.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Black Death.

• Black Death on In Our Time at the BBC
• Black Death at BBC

show

• v
• t
• e

Black Death

show

• v
• t
• e

Epidemics

Categories: 

• Black Death
• Plague pandemics
• 14th-century health disasters
• 1340s in Asia
• 1340s in Europe
• Eurasian history
• History of medieval medicine
• History of the Middle East
• Medieval health disasters
• Second plague pandemic
• 1350s in Europe
• Causes of death
• 1350s in Asia