Albert Bandura의 社會學習 (사회학습 social learning)이론

[시너먼]

  심리학 이론에서

선천적 또는 내적인 힘보다는 환경적 영향에 의해 통제되는 학습행동.

흔히 모델링이라고 부르는 사회학습 개념을 주창한 대표적 인물은

미국의 심리학자 Albert Bandura(앨버트 반두라)이다.

그는 아동이 타인을 지켜보면서

공유·공격·협동 및 사회적 상호작용, 만족의 지체와 같은 많은 행동형태를 학습한다는 사실을

보여주는 수많은 연구를 했다.

모방학습에 대한 Bandura의 고전적 연구에서,

모델이 공격적 행동 때문에 벌을 받는 것을 지켜본 아동은

모델이 그러한 행동으로 상을 받는 것을 본 아동이나

벌을 받지도 상을 받지도 않는 것을 본 아동보다

덜 공격적인 반응을 보여준다.

그러나 Bandura는

비록 모든 아동이 즉각 공격적 반응을 한 것은 아니라 해도

그들은 공격을 학습했다고 주장했다.

즉 공격적 행동은

그들이 놓여 있는 상황에 따라 다르게 나타날 수 있다.

그의 연구로 인해

일부 심리학자들은

대중 텔레비전과 영화의 특히 반사회적·폭력적 행동장면이

아동에게 미치는 잠재적 '학습경험'에 문제를 제기하게 되었다.

이러한 대중매체에 나오는 폭력의 영향에 관한 연구는 논쟁을 계속했는데,

주로 2가지 대립되는 이론이 확산되었다.

한 이론은

폭력을 보는 것이

그러한 추동(推動)을 승화

(간접적으로 경험함으로써 추동을 완화)

시킨다고

주장하는 반면,

다른 이론은

폭력을 보면 추동은 증가할 뿐이라고 주장한다.

위의 증거로 보면

후자의 이론이 옳은 것 같다.

Bandura를 따르는 심리학자들은

관찰에 근거를 둔 사회학습은

3가지 단계를 포함하는 복잡한 과정이라고 말한다.

이 3가지 단계는

각각 다른 사람의 반응을 접하는 단계,

관찰한 타인의 반응을 획득하는 단계,

그리고 이에 따라 모방한 행위를 자신의 행동지침으로 받아들이는 단계이다.

Albert Bandura(1925~  )

is a psychologist

who is the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology

at Stanford University.

For almost six decades, he has been responsible for contributions to many fields

of psychology, including social cognitive theory, therapy

and personality psychology,

and was also influential in the transition between behaviorism and cognitive psychology.

He is known as the originator of social learning theory

and the theoretical construct of self-efficacy,

and is also responsible for the influential 1961 Bobo doll experiment.

A 2002 survey

ranked Bandura as the fourth most-frequently cited psychologist of all time,

behind B. F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, and Jean Piaget, and as the most cited living one.

Bandura is widely described as the greatest living psychologist,

and as one of the most influential psychologists of all time.

In 1974

Bandura was elected to be the Eighty-Second President

of the American Psychological Association (APA).

He was one of the youngest president-elects in the history of the APA

at the age of 46.

Bandura served as a member of the APA Board of Scientific Affairs

from 1968 to 1970

and is well known as a member of the editiorial board of nine psychology journals

including the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology from 1963 to 1972.

 At the age of 82,

Bandura was awarded the Grawemeyer Award for psychology

and is known as one of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century.

Education and academic career

Badura's introduction to academic psychology

came about by a fluke; as a student with little to do in the early mornings,

he took a psychology course to pass the time,

and became enamored of the subject.

Bandura graduated in three years, in 1949,

with a B.A. from the University of British Columbia,

winning the Bolocan Award in psychology, and then moved

to the then-epicenter of theoretical psychology, the University of Iowa,

from where he obtained his M.A. in 1951 and Ph.D. in 1952.

Arthur Benton was his academic adviser at Iowa,

giving Bandura a direct academic descent from William James,

while Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence were influential collaborators.

During his Iowa years,

Bandura came to support a style of psychology which sought

to investigate psychological phenomena

through repeatable, experimental testing.

His inclusion of such mental phenomena as imagery and representation,

and his concept of reciprocal determinism,

which postulated a relationship of mutual influence

between an agent and its environment,

marked a radical departure from the dominant behaviorism of the time.

Bandura's expanded array of conceptual tools allowed

for more potent modeling of such phenomena

as observational learning and self-regulation, and provided psychologists

with a practical way in which to theorize about mental processes,

in opposition to the mentalistic constructs of psychoanalysis and personology.

Post-doctoral work

Upon graduation,

he participated in a clinical internship with the Wichita Kansas Guidance Center.

The following year,

he accepted a teaching position at Stanford University in 1953,

which he holds to this day.

In 1974, he was elected president of the American Psychological Association (APA),

which is the world's largest association of psychologists.

Bandura would later state the only reason he agreed to be in the running

for the APA election

was because he wanted his 15 minutes of fame without any intentions of being elected.

Research

Bandura was initially influenced by Robert Sears' work

on familial antecedents of social behavior and identificatory learning.

He directed his initial research to the role of social modeling in human motivation,

thought, and action.

In collaboration with Richard Walters, his first doctoral student,

he engaged in studies of social learning and aggression.

Their joint efforts illustrated the critical role of modeling in human behavior

and led to a program of research into the determinants and mechanisms

of observational learning.

Social learning theory

The initial phase of Bandura's research analyzed the foundations of human learning

and the willingness of children and adults to imitate behavior observed in others,

in particular, aggression.

He found that according to Social Learning theory,

models are an important source for learning new behaviors

and for achieving behavioral change in institutionalized settings.

Social learning theory posits that there are three regulatory systems

that control behavior.

First,

the antecedent inducements greatly influence the time and response of behavior.

The stimulus

that occurs before the behavioral response must be appropriate

in relationship to social context and performers.

Second,

response feedback influences also serve an important function.

Following a response,

the reinforcements, by experience or observation,

will greatly impact the occurrence of the behavior in the future.

Third,

the importance of cognitive functions in social learning.

For example, for aggressive behavior to occur some people

become easily angered by the sight or thought of individuals with

whom they have had hostile encounters,

and this memory is acquired through the learning process.

Aggression

His research with Walters led to his first book,

Adolescent Aggression in 1959,

and to a subsequent book, Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis in 1973.

During a period dominated by behaviorism in the mold of B.F. Skinner,

Bandura believed the sole behavioral modifiers of reward and punishment

in classical and operant conditioning

were inadequate as a framework,

and that many human behaviors were learned from other humans.

Bandura began to analyze means of treating unduly aggressive children

by identifying sources of violence in their lives. Initial research in the area had begun

in the 1940s under Neal Miller and John Dollard;

his continued work in this line eventually culminated in the Bobo doll experiment,

and in 1977's hugely influential treatise, Social Learning Theory.

Many of his innovations came from his focus on empirical investigation

and reproducible investigation,

which were alien to a field of psychology dominated by the theories of Freud.

In 1961 Bandura conducted a controversial experiment known

as the Bobo doll experiment,

designed to show that similar behaviors

were learned by individuals shaping their own behavior after the actions of models.

Bandura's results from this experiment changed the course of modern psychology,

and were widely credited for helping shift the focus in academic psychology

from pure behaviorism to cognitive psychology.

Moreover, the Bobo doll experiment emphasized how young individuals

are influenced by the acts of adults.

When the adults were praised for their aggressive behaviour,

the children were more likely to keep on hitting the doll.

However, when the adults were punished,

they consequently stopped hitting the doll as well.

The experiment is among the most lauded and celebrated of psychological experiments.

However,

the experiment was criticized by some on ethical grounds,

for training children towards aggression.

Social cognitive theory

By the mid-1980s,

Bandura's research had taken a more holistic bent, and his analyses

tended towards giving a more comprehensive overview of human cognition

in the context of social learning.

The theory he expanded from social learning theory soon became known

as social cognitive theory.

Social foundations of thought and action

In 1986,

Bandura published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory,

in which he reconceptualized individuals as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting,

and self-regulating, in opposition to the orthodox conception of humans

as governed by external forces.

He advanced concepts of triadic reciprocality,

which determined the connections between human behavior, environmental factors,

and personal factors such as cognitive, affective, and biological events,

and of reciprocal determinism, governing the causal relations

between such factors. Bandura's emphasis

on the capacity of agents to self-organize and self-regulate

would eventually give rise to his later work on self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy

In 1963,

he published Social Learning and Personality Development.

In 1974, Stanford University awarded him an endowed chair

and he became David Starr Jordan Professor of Social Science in Psychology.

In 1977,

he published Social Learning Theory,

a book that altered the direction psychology took in the 1980s.

While investigating the processes by which modeling alleviates phobic disorders

in snake-phobics,

he found that self-efficacy beliefs (which the phobic individuals

had in their own capabilities to alleviate their phobia) mediated changes

in behavior and in fear-arousal.

He launched a major program of research examining the influential role

of self-referent thought in psychological functioning.

Although he continued to explore and write on theoretical problems

relating to myriad topics,

from the late 1970s

he devoted much attention to exploring the role of self-efficacy beliefs in human functioning.

In fact, in 2004 Bandura,

in conjunction with Charles Benight,

found that utilizing the same self-efficacy based beliefs

that were implemented for his phobia studies produced similar results

on people who suffered from severe debilitating trauma.

It was not only found useful for the trauma suffered

by natural disaster survivors,

but also those returning veterans that suffer post-traumatic stress disorder

that include pervasive hyper-vigilance and recurrent flashbacks.

By establishing a perceived sense of control (self-efficacy)

over their traumatic experience (cognitively or physically) the veterans

and hurricane survivors were able to overcome their distress and trauma

and move forward.

In 1986

he published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory,

a book in which he offered a social cognitive theory of human functioning

that accords a central role to cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory

and self-reflective processes in human adaptation and change.

This theory has its roots in an agentic perspective

that views people as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating,

not just as reactive organisms shaped by environmental forces

or driven by inner impulses.

His book, Self-efficacy: The exercise of control was published in 1997.

In addition to Bandura’s work on self-efficacy in relation to phobias and trauma,

he also contributed, in 2008 with Caprara and colleagues,

a significant amount to the study of self-efficacy in the education system.

His focus was on the continuing technological explosion,

in that with more information readily available than ever

before the education system needs to focus on teaching students self-regulating efficacy.

He argued that self-regulating efficacy is the focus on bolstering students belief

that they can not only stay up to date with current technology,

but also avoid becoming overwhelmed with its continual shift.

He stated that this will be invaluable as jobs focus more on cognitive abilities

as well as flexibility in light of technologies ever-changing use and applicability.

Moral agency

Bandura applied his human agentic view via social cognitive theory

for the personal and social aspects of control over moral values and conduct.

In particular,

he states that in the social cognitive theory of the moral self,

moral reasoning is linked to moral action through affective self-regulatory mechanisms

by which moral agency is exercised.

However

these self-regulatory mechanisms have to be activated psychosocially.

Bandura found interest in the role that human agency plays

when a society does not have safeguards set against particular lapses in moral judgment

that an individual finds justification, morally or otherwise.

First,

all people are capable of two morally agentic abilities,

to act humanely and to not act inhumanely.

Selective moral disengagement occurs

when a person actively disengages their self-regulating efficacy for moral conduct.

Selective moral disengagement occurs via a “cognitive restructuring”

of the inhumane acts into something justifiable.

He states the specific processes in which this occurs,

they are as follows: moral justification, sanitizing language,

exonerative social comparison,

disavowal of personal agency in the harm one causes by diffusion

or displacement of responsibility, disregarding or minimizing the injurious effects

of one’s actions, and attribution of blame to/dehumanization

of those who are victimized.

Awards

Bandura has received more than sixteen honorary degrees,

including those from the University of British Columbia, Alfred University,

the University of Rome,

the University of Lethbridge,

the University of Salamanca in Spain,

Indiana University,

the University of New Brunswick,

Penn State University,

Leiden University,

and Freie Universitat Berlin,

the Graduate Center of the City University of New York,

Universitat Jaume I in Spain,

the University of Athens and the University of Catania.

He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1980.

He received the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions

from the American Psychological Association in 1980

for pioneering the research in the field of self-regulated learning.

In 1999

he received the Thorndike Award for Distinguished Contributions of Psychology

to Education from the American Psychological Association, and in 2001,

he received the Lifetime Achievement Award

from the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy.

He is the recipient of the Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology Award

from the American Psychological Association

and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Western Psychological Association,

the James McKeen Cattell Award from the American Psychological Society,

and the Gold Medal Award for Distinguished Lifetime Contribution

to Psychological Science from the American Psychological Foundation.

In 2008,

he received the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award

for contributions to psychology.

Major books

Main articles: Social Foundations of Thought and Action and Self-Efficacy (book)

The following books have more than 5,000 citations in Google Scholar:

• Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
• Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

His other books are

• Bandura, A., & Walters, R.H. (1959). Adolescent Aggression. Ronald Press: New York.
• Bandura, A. (1962). Social Learning through Imitation. University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln, NE.
• Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
• Bandura, A. (1971). Psychological modeling: conflicting theories. Chicago: Aldine·Atherton.
• Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: a social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
• Bandura, A. (1975). Social Learning & Personality Development. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, INC: NJ.
• Bandura, A., & Ribes-Inesta, Emilio. (1976). Analysis of Delinquency and Aggression. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, INC: New Jersey
• Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.