5G and Human Skin

[edwin]

5G and Human Skin

The study “Human Electromagnetic Field Exposure in 5G at 28 GHz” published in IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine eval‎uated human exposure to radiofrequency for three wireless systems -5G, 4G, and 3.9G and found that 5G’s higher frequencies penetrate into the skin very intensely despite the fact that the depth of penetration is more shallow.“The SAR is inversely proportional to the penetration depth, and hence, a shallower penetration occurring in 5G yields a higher absorption.” The authors conclude that “the fact that a high-frequency EMF cannot penetrate deep into human skin does not mean that it is not dangerous.”

“The Human Skin as a Sub-THz Receiver – Does 5G Pose a Danger to It or Not?”, published in Environmental Research, and “The Modeling of the Absorbance of Sub-THz Radiation by Human Skin”, published in IEEE Transactions on Terahertz Science and Technology, are two papers by physicists presenting research that found higher 5G frequencies are intensely absorbed into human sweat ducts (in skin), at a much higher absorption levels than other parts of our skin’s tissues (Betzalel et al., 2017, Betzalel et al., 2018). In an article published in Environmental Research, researchers conclude, “We are raising a warning flag against the unrestricted use of sub-THz technologies for communication, before the possible consequences for public health are explored” (Betzalel, et al., 2018).

A 2020 study published in the journal Environmental Research and Public Health investigated the combined exposure of 3 G mobile systems at 1950 MHz RF and UV found a 24-h RF exposure significantly reduced the MMP-1 enzyme concentration, caused by prior UV exposure. Although they did not find changes in cytokines due to exposure to RF alone or enhancment of the effects of UV radiation, their findings indicate changes after exposure and point to the importance of investigating this and other effects on skin. The authors conclude that, “the investigation of the possible adverse effects on the skin due to the high frequency electromagnetic fields become more and more important before the deployment of 5G mobile systems. Using this new technology, the absorption of exposure to RF in the skin will be enhanced. The skin will be the most important target organ of the RF exposure to 5G. Therefore, our approach of combined (i.e., consecutive) exposure to UV and RF might be important in future research related to 5G and skin.”

5G’s Higher Frequencies Will Impact Insects

“Exposure of Insects to Radio-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields from 2 to 120 GHz” published in Scientific Reports is the first study to investigate how insects (including the Western honeybee) absorb the higher frequencies (2 GHz to 120 GHz) to be used in the 4G/5G rollout. The scientific simulations showed increases in absorbed power between 3% to 370% when the insects were exposed to the frequencies. Researchers concluded, “This could lead to changes in insect behaviour, physiology, and morphology over time….” (Thielens et al., 2018)

According to Belyaev 2019, “the health effects of chronic MMW exposures may be more significant than for any other frequency range.” The abstract states that, “ Various responses to non-thermal microwaves (MW) from mobile communication including adverse health effects related to electrohypersensitivity, cancer risks, neurological effects, and reproductive impacts have been reported while some studies reported no such effects. This presentation provides an overview of the complex dependence of the MW effects on various physical and biological variables, which account for, at least partially, an apparent inconsistence in the published data. Among other variables, dependencies on carrier frequency, polarization, modulation, intermittence, electromagnetic stray fields, genotype, physiological traits, and cell density during exposure were reported. Nowadays, biological and health effects of 5G communication, which will use microwaves of extremely high frequencies (millimeter waves MMW, wavelength 1- 10 mm), are of significant public concern. It follows from available studies that MMW, under specific conditions of exposure at very low intensities below the ICNIRP guidelines, can affect biological systems and human health. Both positive and negative effects were observed in dependence on exposure parameters. In particular, MMW inhibited repair of DNA damage induced by ionizing radiation at specific frequencies and polarizations. To what extend the 5G technology and the Internet of Things will affect the biota and human health is definitely not known. However, based on possible fundamental role of MMW in regulation of homeostasis and almost complete absence of MMW in atmosphere due to effective absorption, which suggests the lack of adaptation to this type of radiation, the health effects of chronic MMW exposures may be more significant than for any other frequency range.”

The Bioeffects of Millimeter Waves Documented Years Ago

“Biological Effect of Millimeter Waves”, a Russian review on millimeter waves declassified by the CIA in 2012, reported multiple research findings and concluded that, “Morphological, functional and biochemical studies conducted in humans and animals revealed that millimeter wave caused changes in the body manifested in structural alterations in the skin and internal organs, qualitative and quantitative changes of the blood and bone marrow composition and changes of the conditioned reflex activity, tissue respiration, activity of enzymes participating in the process of tissue respiration and nucleic metabolism” (Zalyubovskaya, 1977).

“Current State And Implications Of Research On Biological Effects Of Millimeter Waves: A Review Of The Literature” published in BioElectroMagnetics reviewed dozens of research findings on low-intensity millimeter waves and determined that the reported, “MMW effects could not be readily explained by temperature changes during irradiation.” The review concludes by questioning the adequacy of regulatory limits stating that, “Safety limits for these types of exposure are based solely on predictions of energy deposition and MMW heating, but in view of recent studies this approach is not necessarily adequate” (Pakhomov et al., 1998).

“Skin Heating and Injury by Prolonged Millimeter-Wave Exposure: Theory Based on a Skin Model Coupled to a Whole Body Model and Local Biochemical Release From Cells at Supraphysiologic Temperatures”, published in IEEE Transactions On Plasma Science concludes that a consequence of MMW heating is the alteration of cell-membrane permeability. Nearby skin layers are affected by the biophysical mechanism of biochemical release through cell membranes. “The released molecules are delivered to other skin regions by diffusion and into the bloodstream by perfusion, where according to our hypothesis, the molecules interact with susceptible cells. This raises the possibility of additional indirect injury at nearby deeper skin regions that experience insignificant heating. Biochemical release may also lead to injury at distant sites within the body by perfusion clearance that transfers molecules into the systemic circulation to reach other susceptible cells” (Stewart et al., 2006).

Siegel et al, 2010 published in Electronics Records reviewed a series of experiments “which show changes in cell membrane potential and the action potential firing rate of cortical neurons under short (1 min) exposures to continuous-wave 60 GHz radiation at mW/cm2 power levels, more than 1000 times below the US govern- ment maximum permissible exposure.” “At power levels of approximately 300 nW/cm2 and above, we observed strong inhibition of the action potential firing rate in some of the neurons, and increased firing in others, perhaps indicating the functional heterogeneity in the studied neuronal population. …These results are believed to be the first positive correlative measurements of real-time changes in neuronal activity with ultra-low-power millimetre-wave exposures. The experiments point to changes in membrane channel opening….”

Yes, Adding More Cell Antennas Will Increase Exposures in Communities

A 2018 study published in Annals of Telecommunications found increased RF-EMF exposure from small cell LTE networks in two urban cities in France and the Netherlands. Researchers measured the RF-EMF from LTE (Long-Term Evolution) MC (macro cells meaning large cell towers) and SC networks (low-powered small cell base stations) and found that the small cell networks increased the radio emissions from base stations (called downlink) by a factor of 7–46 while decreasing the radio emissions from user equipment exposure (called ) by a factor of 5–17. So while the devices themselves could emit less radiation, the cell antennas will increase the levels from cell antennas (Mazloum et al., 2019). This study shows the increased exposures would be involuntary. We can turn our phones off, but we cannot turn off the antennas in the neighborhood.

A 2020 paper “Radiation Analysis in a Gradual 5G Network Deployment Strategy,” presented at the IEEE 3rd 5G World Forum documents how engineers found significant increases in levels of radio frequency radiationwould result if a mmWave-based 5G network was fully deployed in Austin Texas. The researchers first mapped the pre-existing LTE antennas and then laid out the real world design for the densification of cell towers and signal repeaters which would be needed in the City in order to fully build out a mmWave-based 5G network. The engineers then simulated the RF power densities that would be experienced in the outdoor environments should the 5G mmWave antennas be installed. They found the fully deployed 5G mmWave network would result in significant increases in outdoor RF levels for the City. The researchers conclude that, “This suggests that 5G mobile networks can not yet be classified as safe for the public, and demands serious considerations before using mmWave communications for 5G networks, given the potential harms it could afflict on the public.” The engineers created a heat map to show the increased radiation levels should 5G be fully deployed in Austin Texas.

An Australian study published in the Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology also found that children in kindergartens with nearby antenna installations had nearly three-and-a-half times higher RF exposures than children with installations further away by more than 300 meters (Bhatt et al., 2016).

A 2018 multi-country study published in Environment International measured RF in several countries. It found that cell phone tower radiation is the dominant contributor to RF exposure in most outdoor areas; exposure in urban areas was higher and that exposure has drastically increased. As an example, the measurements the researchers took in Los Angeles, USA were 70 times higher than the US EPA estimate 40 years ago (Sagar et al., 2018).

As an example of how rapidly RF is increasing from wireless antennas, a 2014 published study from Environmental Research looked at RF in three European cities and found in just one year (between April 2011 and March 2012) that the total RF-EMF exposure levels in all outdoor areas in combination increased by 57.1% in Basel, by 20.1% in Ghent and by 38.2% in Brussels. “Exposure increase was most consistently observed in outdoor areas due to emissions from mobile phone base stations” (Urbinello et al., 2014).

Another study, published in Environment International, looked at 529 children in Denmark, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Switzerland and Spain who wore meters around the waist or carried in a backpack during the day and placed close to the bed at night. Researchers found “the largest contributors to total personal environmental RF-EMF exposure were downlink (meaning from cell tower base stations) and broadcast” (Birks et al., 2018).

Cell tower radiation is a significant contribution to our daily exposure to RF. A study recently published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health equipped Australian adults with an RF measuring device in a small hip bag for approximately 24 consecutive hours. The study found “downlink and broadcast are the main contributors to total RF-EMF personal exposure.” Downlink (RF from mobile phone base station) contributed 40.4% of the total RF-EMF exposure (Zeleke et al., 2018).

Another published study in the Science of The Total Environment journal, gave 50 Korean parents and their child a measuring device for 48 hours found that “the contribution of base-station exposure to total RF-EMF exposure was the highest both in parents and children” (Choi et al., 2018).

Experts Warn that Measurement Techniques Do Not Adequately Measure 5G Exposures

A 2019 Report for the European Parliament Committee on Industry, Research and Energy published for the Policy Department for Economic, Scientific and Quality of Life Policies, entitled “5G Deployment: State of Play in Europe, USA, and Asia” explained that “5G radio emission fields are quite different to those of previous generations because of their complex beamformed transmissions in both directions – from base station to handset and for the return. Although fields are highly focused by beams, they vary rapidly with time and movement and so are unpredictable, as the signal levels and patterns interact as a closed loop system. This has yet to be mapped reliably for real situations, outside the laboratory.” “While the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) issues guidelines for limiting exposure to electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields (EMF), and EU member states are subject to Council Recommendation 1999/519/EC which follows ICNIRP guidelines, the problem is that currently it is not possible to accurately simulate or measure 5G emissions in the real world” (Blackman & Forge, 2019).

A 2020 European Parliament Briefing on the “Effects of 5G wireless communication on human health” reiterates the issues with measurements and also comments on how radiation limits are outdated stating in this summary, “The EU’s current provisions on exposure to wireless signals, the Council Recommendation on the limitation of exposure of the general public to electromagnetic fields (0 Hz to 300 GHz), is now 20 years old, and thus does not take the specific technical characteristics of 5G into account” (Karaboytcheva, 2020).

“Human Exposure to RF Fields in 5G Downlink” in IEEE International Communications Conference found “that 5G downlink RF fields generate significantly higher power density (PD) and specific absorption rate (SAR) than a current cellular system. This paper also shows that SAR should also be taken into account for determining human RF exposure in the mmW downlink” (Nasim & Kim, 2017).

The study “Human EMF Exposure in Wearable Networks for Internet of Battlefield Things” published in MILCOM 2019 – 2019 IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM) is the first work that explicitly compares the human EMF exposure at different operating frequencies for on-body wearable communications. The study investigates the exposure effects of the human electromagnetic field (EMF) from on-body wearable devices and compares the results to illustrate how the technology evolution to higher frequencies can impact one’s health. It concludes that the results suggest the average specific absorption rate (SAR) at 60 GHz can exceed the regulatory guidelines within a certain separation distance between a wearable device and the human skin surface (Nasim & Kim, 2019).

Review Publications on Electromagnetic Radiation and RF

A 2019 literature review “Oxidative mechanisms of biological activity of low-intensity radiofrequency radiation” published in Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine found that 93 of the 100 peer-reviewed studies dealing with oxidative effects of low-intensity RFR, confirmed that RFR induces oxidative effects in biological systems (Yakymenko et al., 2016).

“Planetary Electromagnetic Pollution: It Is Time to Assess Its Impact” published in The Lancet Planetary Health documents the significant increase in environmental levels of radio-frequency (RF) electromagnetic wireless radiation over the past two decades. The study cites an eval‎uation that found 68.2% of 2,266 studies in humans, animals, and plants demonstrated significant biological or health effects associated with exposure to electromagnetic fields. 89% of experimental studies that investigated oxidative stress endpoints showed significant effects and “radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation causes DNA damage apparently through oxidative stress.” The paper also highlights research that has associated RF exposure with altered neurodevelopment and behavioural disorders, structural and functional changes in the brain and the sensitivity of pollinators. “These findings deserve urgent attention.This weight of scientific evidence refutes the prominent claim that the deployment of wireless technologies poses no health risks at the currently permitted non-thermal radiofrequency exposure levels” (Bandara & Carpenter, 2018).

The review “Thermal and non-thermal health effects of low intensity non-ionizing radiation: An international perspective” published in Environmental Pollution by researchers of the European Cancer Environment Research Institute in Brussels, Belgium and the Institute for Health and the Environment, University at Albany, NY, USA reviews current research findings and states that, “the mechanism(s) responsible include induction of reactive oxygen species, gene expression‎ alteration and DNA damage through both epigenetic and genetic processes.” The paper affirms that “exposure to low frequency and radiofrequency electromagnetic fields at low intensities poses a significant health hazard that has not been adequately addressed by national and international organizations such as the World Health Organization” (Belpomme et al., 2018).

The literature review “Effect of radiofrequency radiation on reproductive health” published by the Division of Reproductive Biology & Maternal Health, Child Health, Indian Council of Medical Research documents research that has found a link between radiofrequency radiation and oxidative stress and changes to the reproductive system including sperm count, motility, normal morphology and viability. The review concludes that the “available data indicate that exposure to EMF can cause adverse health effects. It is also reported that biological effects may occur at very low levels of exposure” (Singh et al., 2018).

Environmental Review published a 2010 landmark review study on 56 studies that reported biological effects found at very low intensities, including impacts on reproduction, permeability of the blood-brain barrier, behavior, cellular and metabolic changes, and increases in cancer risk (Lai & Levitt, 2010).

Cancer

“Cancer epidemiology update, following the 2011 IARC eval‎uation of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields” published in Environmental Research is a comprehensive research review of RF effects in human and animal research. The review concludes that scientific evidence is now adequate to conclude radiofrequency radiation is carcinogenic to humans (Miller, 2018). Several previously published studies also concluded that RF causes various types of cancer, for example, Carlberg & Hardell, 2017 published in BioMed Research International; Atzman et al., 2016 published in the International Journal Cancer Clinical Research; and Peleg et al., 2018 published in Environmental Research.

The US National Toxicology Program (NTP) is a federal, interagency program that conducted a $30-million study designed to test the basis for federal safety limits.The study on, “Cell Phone Radio Frequency Radiation” found “clear evidence” of cancer, heart damage and DNA damage (NIEHS, 2018). The heart and brain cancers found in the NTP rats are the same cell type as tumors that researchers have found to be increasing in humans who have used cell phones for over 10 years as published in BioMed Research (Carlberg & Hardell, 2017). Thus, researchers assert in the International Journal of Oncology that the animal evidence from the NTP study confirm‎s the human evidence associating radio frequency radiation exposure to cancer occurrences/developments (Carlberg & Hardell, 2019).

The 2018 report of final brain and heart tumor results from the The Ramazzini Institute (RI) Study on Base Station RF, published in Environmental Research was another large scale rat study that also found increases in the same heart cancers that the US National Toxicology Program (NTP) study found—yet the Ramazzini rats were exposed to much lower levels of RF than the NTP rats. In fact, all the RI radiation exposures were below FCC limits, as the study was specifically designed to test the safety of RF limits for cell tower/base stations (Falconi et al., 2018.) Thus, the Ramazzini study corroborates the NTP findings as published on the National Institutes of Health website.

“Tumor promotion by exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields below exposure limits for humans” published in Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications is a replication study that used very, very low RF exposures (lower than the Ramazzini and NTP study) and combined the RF with a known carcinogen. Researchers found elevated lymphoma and significantly higher numbers of tumors in the lungs and livers in animals exposed to both RF and the carcinogen, leading researchers to state that previous research published in the International Journal of Radiation Biology (Tillman et al., 2010) was confirmed and that “our results show that electromagnetic fields obviously enhance the growth of tumors” (Lerchl et al., 2015).

Environment

“A review of the ecological effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF)” published in Environment International reviewed 113 studies finding RF-EMF had a significant effect on birds, insects, other vertebrates, other organisms and plants in 70% of the studies (Cucurachi et al., 2013). Development and reproduction in birds and insects were the most strongly affected. As an example of the several studies on wildlife impacts, a study published in the Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology focused on RF emissions from antennas found increased sperm abnormalities in mice exposed to RF from GSM antennas (Otitoloju et al., 2009).

Published studies, in Toxicology International and Apidologie, on bees have found behavioral effects (Kumar et al., 2011; Favre 2011), while other studies from the International Journal of Environmental Sciences and the IIAS-InterSymp Conference attest to disrupted navigation (Goldsworthy, 2009; Sainudeen, 2011; Kimmel et al., 2007). Decreasing egg laying rate and reduced colony strength are documented in Science Direct and the Acta Systemica-IIAS International Journal (Sharma & Kumar, 2010; Harst et al., 2006).

Research has also found high levels of damage to trees from cell antenna radiation. For example, a field monitoring study, “Radiofrequency radiation injures trees around mobile phone base stations” published in the Science of The Total Environment –spanning 9 years, involving over 100 trees–found trees sustained more damage on the side of the tree facing the antenna (Waldmann-Selsam et al., 2016).

Expanded 4G, 5G and the Internet of Things (IoT) will increase overall use of all types of wireless frequencies.

A published review, in Environmental Research, of effects of Wi-Fi radiation entitled, “Wi-Fi is an important threat to human health” found that “repeated Wi-Fi studies show that Wi-Fi causes oxidative stress, sperm/testicular damage, neuropsychiatric effects including EEG changes, apoptosis, cellular DNA damage, endocrine changes, and calcium overload (Pall, 2018).

“The Impact of radiofrequency radiation on DNA damage and antioxidants in peripheral blood lymphocytes of humans residing in the vicinity of mobile phone base station” is a research study that compared people living close (within 80 meters) and far (more than 300 meters away) from cellular antennas found that the people living closer had several significant changes in their blood predictive of cancer development (Zothansanga et al., 2017). An earlier 2016 study, on genetic damage in humans populations exposed to radiation from mobile towers published in Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, eval‎uated 116 persons exposed to radiation from mobile towers and 106 control subjects, found DNA damage in peripheral blood lymphocytes (Gulati et al., 2016).

“Mortality by neoplasia and cellular telephone base stations”, published in Science of The Total Environment, is a 10 year study by the Belo Horizonte, Brazil Health Department and several universities in Brazil that found an elevated relative risk of cancer mortality at residential distances of 500 meters or less from cell installations (Dode et al., 2011). Shortly after this study was published, the city prosecutor sued several cell phone companies and requested that almost half of the city’s antennas be removed. Many antennas were dismantled.

The 2018 study, “Mobile Phone Base Station Tower Settings Adjacent to School Buildings: Impact on Students’ Cognitive Health” published in the American Journal of Men’s Health, investigated male students in schools near cell towers. The researchers concluded that exposure to higher RF levels is associated with negative impacts on motor skills, memory and attention (Meo et al., 2019). Examples of other effects linked to cell towers in research studies include neuropsychiatric problems, published in NeuroToxicology; elevated diabetes, published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health; headaches, published in Occupational and Environmental Medicine; sleep problems and genetic damage published in the French journal Pathologie Biologie.

A study published in 2018 International Conference on Power Energy, Environment and Intelligent Control (PEEIC) by IEEE entitled, “Effect of Mobile Tower Radiation on Microbial Diversity in Soil and Antibiotic Resistance” took soil samples from four different base stations located in Dausa city, India and control samples from soil far from stations and then isolated and eval‎uated the microorganisms in the soil. The researchers found greater antibiotic resistance in microbes present in soil near base stations compared to the control. The study concludes, “our findings suggest that mobile tower radiation can significantly alter the vital systems in microbes and turn them multidrug resistant (MDR) which is the most important current threat to public health” (Sharma et al., 2018).

Research on 3G and 4G

3G and 4G technology is still very much in use around the world. In addition, 5G devices will also have 4G emissions and 5G will utilize the frequencies currently used in 2G, 3G and 4G.

Published in General Physiology and Biophysics, a 2019 study titled, “Chromosome damage in human cells induced by UMTS mobile telephony radiation” examined human blood from healthy donors. The study found that 3G ) EMF/microwave radiation emissions from mobile telephones, within the current exposure limits, has significant genotoxic effects on human cells and advises that “human exposure to this EMF/radiation should be kept at levels as low as possible” (Panagopoulos, 2019). A series of landmark studies found that effects from microwaves on human lymphocytes can be dependant on carrier frequency (Markova et al., 2005), that Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) 3G microwaves can affect chromatin and inhibit formation of DNA double-strand breaks (Belyaev et al., 2009), and that stem cells are most sensitive to microwave exposure (Markova et al., 2010) published in Environmental Health Perspectives, Bio Electro Magnetics, and Environmental Health Perspectives respectively. Children have more active stem cells.

4G LTE

The fourth generation (4G) of cellular technology called Long Term Evolution (LTE) was launched without premarket safety testing for long term exposure. Published research has found behavioral changes in mice (Broom et al., 2019), damage to the testes and reproductive potential in mice (Yu et al., 2019), reduction to EEG alpha power (Vecsei et al., 2018), modulation to resting state EEG on alpha and beta bands (Yang et al., 2017), and the ; alteration of spontaneous low frequency fluctuations induced by the acute LTE RF-EMF exposure (Lv et al., 2014); published in Bio Electro Magnetics, Science of the Total Environment, Scientific Reports, Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, and Clinical Neurophysiology respectively.

Published in Bio Electro Magnetics, a 2018 double‐blind, crossover, randomized, and counterbalanced design study about the modulation of brain functional connectivity by exposure to 4G LTE cell phone radiation found that acute LTE‐EMF exposure did modulate connectivity in some brain regions.The authors conclude that, “Our results may indicate that approaches relying on network‐level inferences can provide deeper insights into the acute effects of LTE‐EMF exposure with intensities below the current safety limits on human functional connectivity. In the future, we need to investigate the evolution of the effect over time” (Wei et al., 2018).

A 2021 study found that exposure to 4.5G (LTE Advanced-Pro network) mobile phone radiation for two hours per day over a six week period caused significant damage to the optic nerve in rats. The authors concluded:

“The optic nerve transmits all visual information to the visual cortex, and any damage in this nerve can cause permanent and serious vision loss. This study demonstrated that RF exposure may be an environmental risk factor for eye toxicity and potential eye disorders. Further studies are needed to reveal the potentiality of the risk in this area.”

The Building Industry

Published in Building and Environment the article, “Building Science and Radiofrequency Radiation: What Makes Smart and Healthy Buildings” with a long list of authors, including former Microsoft Canada President Frank Clegg as well as Anthony Miller MD former Director of the Epidemiology Unit of the National Cancer Institute of Canada, review research studies finding adverse health effects below regulatory limits. The authors recommend reducing radiofrequency radiation in buildings by installing wired rather than wired internet connections and corded rather than cordless phones (Clegg et al., 2019).

The Collaborative for High Performance Schools (CHPS) has developed “Best Practices for LOW EMF Classrooms” that details how schools can replace wireless networks with wired networks. See CHPS Low EMF Criteria

Cell Towers and Health

“Mobile Phone Infrastructure Regulation in Europe: Scientific Challenges and Human Rights Protection”, a 2014 publication in Environmental Science & Policy by human rights experts argue that cell tower placement is a human rights issue for children because “the protection of children is a high threshold norm in Human Right law and the binding language of the Convention on the Rights of the Child obliges States Parties to provide a higher standard of protection for children than adults” and “any widespread or systematic form of environmental pollution that poses a long-term threat to a child’s rights to life, development or health may constitute an international human rights violation.” The article concludes that the “dearth of legislation to regulate the installation of base stations (cell towers) in close proximity to children’s facilities and schools clearly constitutes a human rights concern…” (Roda & Perry, 2014).

“Safety Zone Determination for Wireless Cellular Tower – A Case Study from Tanzania” published in the International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eval‎uated the radiation levels and concluded that “respective authorities should ensure that people reside far from the tower by 120m or more depending on the power transmitted to avoid severe health effect” (Nyakyi et al., 2013).

“Long-term Exposure to Microwave Radiation Provokes Cancer Growth: Evidences from Radars and Mobile Communication Systems”, published in Experimental Oncology reviews research findings on RF-EMF and states that it is “becoming increasingly evident that [the] assessment of biological effects of non-ionizing radiation based on physical (thermal) approach used in recommendations of current regulatory bodies, including the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) Guidelines, requires urgent reeval‎uation.” The paper concluded that “everyday exposure of both occupational and general public to MW radiation should be regulated based on a precautionary principles which imply maximum restriction of excessive exposure” (Yakymenko et al., 2011).

Published in Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, a cross-sectional case control study on genetic damage in individuals living near cell towers found genetic damage parameters of DNA were significantly elevated. “The genetic damage evident in the participants of this study needs to be addressed against future disease-risk, which in addition to neurodegenerative disorders, may lead to cancer” (Gandhi et al., 2015).

“Neurobehavioral Effects Among Inhabitants Around Mobile Phone Base Stations” published in NeuroToxicology, concludes that, “Inhabitants living nearby mobile phone base stations are at risk for developing neuropsychiatric problems and some changes in the performance of neurobehavioral functions either by facilitation or inhibition” and called for the revision of standard guidelines for public exposure to RER from mobile phone base station antennas” (Abdel-Rassoul et al., 2006).

“Epidemiological Evidence for a Health Risk from Mobile Phone Base Stations” published in the International Journal of Occupational Environmental Health reviewed ten epidemiological studies that assessed for health effects of mobile phone base stations and found that 8 of the 10 studies reported increased preval‎ence of adverse neurobehavioral symptoms or cancer in populations living at distances less than 500 meters from base stations. The review concludes that ”current guidelines may be inadequate in protecting the health of human populations” (Khurana et al., 2010).

“How Does Long Term Exposure To Base Stations And Mobile Phones Affect Human Hormone Profiles?” published in Clinical Biochemistry followed volunteers for six years and found that high radio frequency radiation had effects on pituitary–adrenal axis represented in the reduction of ACTH, cortisol, thyroid hormones, prolactin in young females, and testosterone levels (Eskander et al., 2012).

Published in the French journal, Pathologie Biologie a study of 530 people living near mobile phone masts reported more symptoms of headache, sleep disturbance, discomfort, irritability, depression, memory loss and concentration problems the closer they lived to the cellular antennas (Santini et al., 2002).

A study, “The Microwave Syndrome: A Preliminary Study in Spain” published in Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine found statistically significant associations between field intensity and the symptoms of fatigue, irritability, headaches, nausea, loss of appetite, sleeping disorder, depressive tendency, feeling of discomfort, difficulty in concentration, loss of memory, visual disorder, dizziness and cardiovascular problems (Navarro et al., 2003). “Subjective Symptoms, Sleeping Problems, And Cognitive Performance In Subjects Living Near Mobile Phone Base Stations” published in Occupational and Environmental Medicine found a significant correlation between measured power density and headaches, fatigue, and difficulty in concentration in 365 subjects (Hutter et al., 2006). Published in NeuroToxicology, Abdel-Rassoul et al., 2007 found residents living beneath and opposite a long established mobile phone mast reported significantly higher occurrences of headaches, memory changes, dizziness, tremors, depressive symptoms and sleep disturbance than a control group.

“Increased Incidence of Cancer Near a Cell-Phone Transmitter Station” published in the International Journal of Cancer Prevention found a four-fold increase in the incidence of cancer among residents living within a 300 meter radius of a mobile phone mast after three and seven years of exposure (Wolf & Wolf, 2004).

“The Influence of Being Physically Near to a Cell Phone Transmission Mast on the Incidence of Cancer” published in Umwelt Medizin Gesellschaft, found a three-fold increase in the incidence of malignant tumours after five years of exposure in people living within a 400 meter radius of a mobile phone mast (Eger et al., 2004).

Panagopoulos, D., Johansson, O., & Carlo, G. (2015). Polarization: A Key Difference between Man-made and Natural Electromagnetic Fields, in regard to Biological Activity. Scientific Reports, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14914

Panagopoulos, D., Johansson, O., & Carlo, G. (2015). Real versus Simulated Mobile Phone Exposures in Experimental Studies. Biomed Research International, 2015, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/607053

Hardell, L., & Carlberg, M. (2019). Comments on the US National Toxicology Program technical reports on toxicology and carcinogenesis study in rats exposed to whole-body radiofrequency radiation at 900 MHz and in mice exposed to whole-body radiofrequency radiation at 1,900 MHz. International Journal Of Oncology, 54(1), 111-127. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijo.2018.4606

Carlberg, M., & Hardell, L. (2017). Eval‎uation of Mobile Phone and Cordless Phone Use and Glioma Risk Using the Bradford Hill Viewpoints from 1965 on Association or Causation. Biomed Research International, 2017, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/9218486

Belyaev, I., Dean, A., Eger, H., Hubmann, G., Jandrisovits, R., & Kern, M. et al. (2016). EUROPAEM EMF Guideline 2016 for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of EMF-related health problems and illnesses. Reviews On Environmental Health, 31(3). https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2016-0011

Belpomme, D., Hardell, L., Belyaev, I., Burgio, E., & Carpenter, D. (2018). Thermal and non-thermal health effects of low intensity non-ionizing radiation: An international perspective. Environmental Pollution, 242(Part A), 643-658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.019

Research on People Near Cell Towers Links Exposure to Adverse Effects

Published in the Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine journal, “The Impact of radiofrequency radiation on DNA damage and antioxidants in peripheral blood lymphocytes of humans residing in the vicinity of mobile phone base station” is a research study that compared people living close (within 80 meters) and far (more than 300 meters away) from cellular antennas and found that the people living closer had several significant changes in their blood predictive of cancer development. The researchers controlled for various demographics, including the use of microwaves and wireless in the homes (Zothansiama et al., 2017).

“Mortality by neoplasia and cellular telephone base stations” is a 10 year study by the Belo Horizonte Brazil Health Department and several universities in Brazil that found an elevated relative risk of cancer mortality at residential distances of 500 meters or less from cell installations (Dode 2011). Shortly after this study was published, the city prosecutor sued several cell phone companies and requested that almost half of the city’s antennas be removed. Many antennas were dismantled.

A 2019 studyof students in schools near cell towers found their higher RF exposure was associated with impacts on motor skills, memory and attention (Meo 2019). Examples of other effects linked to cell towers in research studies include neuropsychiatric problems, elevated diabetes, headaches, sleep problemsand genetic damage. Such research continues to accumulate after the 2010 landmark review studyon 56 studies that reported biological effects found at very low intensities, including impacts on reproduction, permeability of the blood-brain barrier, behavior, cellular and metabolic changes, and increases in cancer risk (Lai and Levitt, 2010).

A published study entitled, “Effect of Mobile Tower Radiation on Microbial Diversity in Soil and Antibiotic Resistance” took soil samples from four different base stations located in Dausa city, and control samples from soil far from stations and then isolated and eval‎uated the microorganisms in the soil. The researchers found greater antibiotic resistance in microbes present in soil near base stations compared to the control and a statistical significant difference in pattern of antibiotic resistance was found with Nalidixic acid, and cefixime when used as antimicrobial agents. The study concludes, “our findings suggest that mobile tower radiation can significantly alter the vital systems in microbes and turn them multidrug resistant (MDR) which is most important current threat to public health.”

Cellular Antennas Create Measurable Increases in Radiation in the Area

A 2018 article published in The Lancet Planetary Health points to unprecedented increasing RF exposures (Bandara and Carpenter 2018). Another key finding from Zothansiama 2017was that homes closer to antennas had measurably higher radiation levels—adding to the documentation that antennas increase RF levels. An Australian study also found that children in kindergartens with nearby antenna installations had nearly three-and-a-half times higher RF exposures than children with installations further away (more than 300 meters (Bhatt 2016).

Research Finds that Cell Tower Base Station Radiation is the Dominant Contributor to Overall Environmental Radiation Exposures

A 2018 multi-country study that measured RF in several countries found that cell phone tower radiation is the dominant contributor to RF exposure in most outdoor areas exposure in urban areas was higher and that exposure has drastically increased. As an example, the measurements the researchers took in Los Angeles, USA were 70 times higher than the US EPA estimate 40 years ago (Sagar 2018).

As an example of how rapidly RF is increasing from wireless antennas, a 2014 published study looked at RF in three European cities and found in just one year (between April 2011 and March 2012) that the total RF-EMF exposure levels in all outdoor areas in combination increased by 57.1% in Basel by 20.1% in Ghent and by 38.2% in Brussels (Urbinello 2014). “Exposure increase was most consistently observed in outdoor areas due to emissions from mobile phone base stations.”

Another study, Birks 2018, looked at 529 children in Denmark, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Switzerland and Spain who wore meters around the waist or carried in a backpack during the day and placed close to the bed at night. Researchers found “the largest contributors to total personal environmental RF-EMF exposure were downlink (meaning from cell tower base stations) and broadcast.”

A study on Australian adults where participants carried a measuring device in a small hip bag for approximately 24 consecutive hours also found “downlink and broadcast are the main contributors to total RF-EMF personal exposure.” Downlink (RF from mobile phone base station) contributed 40.4% of the total RF-EMF exposure (Zeleke 2018).

Another published study (Choi 2018) that gave 50 Korean adult child pairs a special radiation measuring device for 48 hours eval‎uated the types of radiation the participants were exposed to and found that “the contribution of base-station exposure to total RF-EMF exposure was the highest both in parents and children.” These two studies are an important example of the research that shows that radiation from base stations is the dominant contributor to a person’s cumulative exposure. Therefore we cannot only focus on a persons cell phone use as the way people are exposed to this radiation. People are exposed to wireless radiation even when they are not using a mobile device due to cell towers, antennas and hotspots and they have no control over this.

[벗어나자]