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FODMAP = Fermentable Oligosaccharides, Disaccharides, Monosaccharides And Polyols
(발효성 올리고당, 이당류, 단당류 그리고 폴리올)
2. 저FODMAP 식이의 개발과 효과
작용 기전
3. 실용화와 세계적 확산
4. 최근 확장
5. 환자들의 반응
기사에는 실제로 삶의 질이 크게 개선된 환자들의 증언이 실려 있습니다.
“수년간 IBS로 고통받았는데, 이 연구와 앱을 만난 후 인생이 바뀌었다”는 식의 피드백이 많습니다.
요약
이 기사는
모나쉬 대학교 팀이 2005년 FODMAP 개념을 제안한 이후,
식품 분석 → 임상 검증 → 앱과 교육 자료 개발 → 전 세계 가이드라인 채택까지
20년에 걸쳐 IBS 치료를 어떻게 바꿔놓았는지를 정리한 내용입니다.
호주 모나시 대학교(Monash University)의
피터 깁슨(Peter Gibson) 교수와 수 셰퍼드(Sue Shepherd) 박사는
과민성 대장 증후군(IBS) 치료의 패러다임을 바꾼 포드맵(LOW-FODMAP) 식단을
세계 최초로 개발하고 체계화한 세계적인 권위자들
1. 태동기 (2005) – 개념의 탄생
Gibson PR, Shepherd SJ. Personal view: food for thought--western lifestyle and susceptibility to Crohn's disease. The FODMAP hypothesis. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 2005;21(12):1399-1409.
이 논문은 실험 연구가 아니라
새로운 가설을 제시한 Personal View(개인적 견해) 논문입니다.
서양식 생활습관과 크론병(Crohn’s disease) 발생 사이의 연관성을 설명하기 위해
FODMAP 가설을 처음 체계적으로 제안한 글입니다.
핵심 내용
1. 배경
2. FODMAP 가설 저자들은 다음과 같은 가설을 제시합니다.
3. 가설을 뒷받침하는 근거
4. 함의
의의
이 논문은 이후 저FODMAP 식이(Low FODMAP Diet)가 IBS(과민성 대장 증후군) 치료의 주요 접근법으로 발전하는 데 중요한 출발점이 된 역사적 문헌입니다.
2. 임상 적용 초기 (2006~2008)
Shepherd SJ, Gibson PR. Fructose malabsorption and symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome: guidelines for effective dietary management. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 2006.
연구 개요
과당 흡수장애(fructose malabsorption)가 있는
과민성 대장 증후군(IBS) 환자를 대상으로,
과당과 프럭탄을 제한하는 식이요법의 효과를 후향적으로 평가하고,
구체적인 식이 관리 지침을 제시한 논문입니다.
연구 방법
주요 결과
결론
과당 흡수장애가 있는 IBS 환자에게 체계적인 과당·프럭탄 제한 식이를 적용하면 높은 순응도와 함께 증상 개선 효과가 우수하다는 것을 보여주었습니다.
이 연구는 이후 저FODMAP 식이가 본격적으로 발전하는 데 중요한 기초가 된 초기 중 하나입니다
Shepherd SJ et al. Dietary triggers of abdominal symptoms in patients with irritable bowel syndrome: randomized placebo-controlled evidence. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2008.
연구 개요
과당 흡수장애(fructose malabsorption)가 있는 IBS 환자에서
과당(fructose)과 프럭탄(fructans)이 실제로 증상을 유발하는 식이 요인인지 확인하기 위해 실시된
이중맹검 무작위 위약 대조 재도전(rechallenge) 임상시험입니다.
연구 설계
주요 결과
결론
IBS + 과당 흡수장애 환자에서 과당과/또는 프럭탄을 제한하는 것이 증상 개선의 주요 원인임을 입증했습니다. 이는 “잘 흡수되지 않는 짧은사슬 탄수화물(FODMAP) 전반을 제한하는 것이 효과의 핵심”이라는 점을 뒷받침하는 고품질 근거를 제공한 연구입니다.
이 논문은 저FODMAP 식이가 IBS 치료법으로 자리 잡는 데 결정적인 역할을 한 핵심 임상시험 중 하나로 평가됩니다
3. 체계화 시기 (2010)
Gibson PR, Shepherd SJ. Evidence-based dietary management of functional gastrointestinal symptoms: The FODMAP approach. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2010;25(2):252-258.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1440-1746.2009.06149.x
저FODMAP 식이에 대한
근거 기반 리뷰 논문입니다.
2005년 가설 제안과 2006~2008년 임상 연구 결과를 종합해,
기능성 위장관 증상 관리에 저FODMAP 식이를 본격적으로 권고하는 내용을
담고 있습니다.
주요 내용
1. FODMAP이란?
2. 증상 유발 기전
3. 임상 근거
4. 실용적 조언
의의
이 논문은 저FODMAP 식이가 실험적 단계에서 벗어나 기능성 위장관 증상의 표준 식이 치료법으로 자리 잡는 데 중요한 전환점이 된 리뷰입니
단계별 설명
검사 결과식이 제한 범위
| 과당 + 유당 흡수장애 또는 검사 비정보적 | 과당 + 유당 + 올리고당(프럭탄, 갈락탄) + 폴리올 모두 제한 |
| 과당 흡수장애만 | 과당 + 올리고당 + 폴리올 제한 |
| 유당 흡수장애만 | 유당 + 올리고당 + 폴리올 제한 |
| 과당·유당 모두 정상 흡수 | 올리고당(프럭탄, 갈락탄) + 폴리올만 제한 |
4. 기전 규명 시기 (2010~2015)
Ong DK et al. / Barrett JS et al. (관련 연구들)
Halmos EP et al. A diet low in FODMAPs reduces symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2014. (또는 관련 고인용 임상시험)
연구 개요
저FODMAP 식이가 IBS 증상을 실제로 줄이는지,
일반적인 서양식(호주 식단)과 비교해 효과를 검증한
고품질 무작위 교차 임상시험입니다.
연구 설계
주요 결과
결론
통제된 교차 시험에서 저FODMAP 식이가 IBS의 기능성 위장관 증상을 효과적으로 줄인다는 것을 입증했습니다. 이 연구는 저FODMAP 식이를 1차 치료로 사용할 수 있는 고품질 근거를 제공한 핵심 논문으로 평가됩니다
Halmos EP et al. Diets that differ in their FODMAP content alter the colonic luminal microenvironment. Gut. 2015.
https://gut.bmj.com/content/64/1/93
연구 개요
저FODMAP 식이가 IBS 증상을 줄이는 것은 확인됐지만,
FODMAP 섭취 감소가 장내 미생물 환경(colonic microenvironment)에
어떤 영향을 미치는지 조사한 연구입니다.
2014년 증상 효과 연구와 같은
교차 시험의 미생물 분석 결과입니다.
연구 설계
주요 결과
저FODMAP 식이 시:
호주 식이(고FODMAP)와 비교했을 때:
결론
FODMAP 함량이 다른 식이는 장내 미생물 구성에 뚜렷한 변화를 일으킵니다. 저FODMAP 식이는 총 세균 수를 줄이지만, 상대적인 유익균 비율에는 큰 악영향을 주지 않았습니다. 다만 장기적으로 FODMAP을 제한했을 때의 영향은 아직 더 연구가 필요하다고 지적했습니다.
이 논문은 저FODMAP 식이가 증상 개선뿐만 아니라 장내 미생물에도 실질적인 변화를 준다는 점을 처음으로 체계적으로 보여준 중요한 연구입니다.
5. 확산·확립 시기 (2014~2017)
Staudacher HM et al. Mechanisms and efficacy of dietary FODMAP restriction in IBS. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 2014.
저FODMAP 식이의 작용 기전과 임상 효과를
종합적으로 정리한 리뷰 논문입니다.
핵심 내용 (Key Points 기준)
요약
이 리뷰는 저FODMAP 식이가 장관 내 수분 조절과 가스 생성을 줄여 IBS 증상을 완화한다는 기전을 명확히 정리하고, 당시까지의 임상 근거를 객관적으로 평가한 논문입니다.
Gibson PR. History of the low FODMAP diet. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2017.
논문 성격
저FODMAP 식이가
어떻게 탄생하고 발전했는지를 정리한 역사적 리뷰입니다.
핵심 내용
1. 배경
2. FODMAP 개념의 탄생
3. 발전 과정
요약
이 논문은 “개별 탄수화물 제한”에서 “FODMAP이라는 집단적 개념”으로 발전한 과정을 설명하며, 저FODMAP 식이가 어떻게 전 세계적인 IBS 표준 치료로 성장했는지를 간결하게 정리한 역사적 고찰입니다.
짧은사슬 탄수화물 → IBS 증상이라는 큰 틀에서 출발합니다.
왼쪽 축: 개별 원인 물질 발견
각각이
중심: FODMAP concept
FODMAP 개념을 중심으로
연구와 발전이 이루어진
8가지 주요 영역을 나타냅니다.
영역 의미
| Definition of mechanisms | 증상 유발 기전 규명 |
| Safety | 안전성 평가 |
| Measurement of food content | 식품 내 FODMAP 함량 측정 |
| Development of dietary principles | 저FODMAP 식이 원칙 개발 |
| Demonstration of efficacy | 임상 효과 입증 |
| Additional uses & abuses of the diet | 추가 적용 및 오용 문제 |
| Educational methods | 교육 방법 개발 |
| Implementation across the world | 전 세계적 확산과 적용 |
→ FODMAP 개념이 단순한 가설에서 벗어나,
기전·식품 분석·임상 검증·교육·국제적 보급까지 종합적으로 발전했음을 보여줍니다.
6. 메타분석·표준화 시기 (2021~2022)
Black CJ et al. Efficacy of a low FODMAP diet in irritable bowel syndrome: systematic review and network meta-analysis. Gut. 2022;71(6):1117-1126.
연구 개요
저FODMAP 식이가 IBS에서 얼마나 효과적인지,
다른 식이 조언(특히 BDA/NICE 권고)과 비교해 순위를 매긴 체계적 고찰 및 네트워크 메타분석입니다.
연구 방법
주요 결과
결론
네트워크 메타분석 결과, 저FODMAP 식이가 연구된 모든 평가 지표에서 가장 효과적인 식이 중재로 순위가 매겨졌습니다.
다만 대부분의 시험이 2·3차 의료기관에서 진행되었고, FODMAP 재도입과 개인화 단계의 효과를 제대로 평가하지 않았다는 한계가 있습니다.
이 논문은
저FODMAP 식이가 IBS 관리에서
가장 근거가 탄탄한 식이 치료 중 하나임을 재확인한 최신 고품질 분석
7. 최근 종합 평가 (2025~2026)
Umbrella review of meta-analyses on the low-FODMAP diet in IBS Frontiers in Nutrition. 2026.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12807944/
연구 성격
이 논문은 Umbrella Review(우산 리뷰)입니다.
저FODMAP 식이에 대한 기존 메타분석들을 모아서 다시 종합·평가한 최상위 수준의 근거 종합 연구입니다.
연구 방법
주요 결과
평가 항목결과세부 내용
| IBS 증상 중증도 (IBS-SSS) | 유의하게 감소 | SMD = −0.599 (5개 메타분석, 3,761명) |
| 삶의 질 | 유의하게 개선 | SMD = 0.259 (p < 0.0001, 5개 메타분석, 3,576명) |
| 복통 | 유의한 효과 없음 | - |
| 대변 형태 | 유의한 효과 없음 | - |
| 배변 빈도 | 유의한 효과 없음 | - |
| 장내 미생물 | 유의한 효과 없음 | - |
| 복부 팽만감 | 통합 분석 불가 | 측정 방법이 서로 달라서 |
저자들의 해석과 주의점
의의
2025년까지 나온 저FODMAP 식이 관련 메타분석들을 한곳에 모아 평가한 가장 최신의 종합 리뷰입니다. 전반적 증상과 삶의 질 개선 효과는 재확인했지만, 개별 증상(복통, 대변 양상 등)과 미생물에 대한 효과는 이전보다 더 보수적으로 평가하고, 식이 연구의 방법론적 한계(맹검 불가능, 기대 효과)를 강조한 점이 특징입니다.
요약 흐름
이 10편 정도가 FODMAP 연구의 핵심 궤적을 보여줍니다.
Front Nutr
. 2026 Jan 2;12:1714281. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2025.1714281
An umbrella review of meta-analyses on the low-FODMAP diet in IBS
Dagmara Bogdanowska-Charkiewicz 1,*, Urszula Malinowska 2, Jarosław Daniluk 1
PMCID: PMC12807944 PMID: 41550863
Abstract
This umbrella review systematically evaluated the effects of the low FODMAP diet on irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) through 192 studies retrieved from PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Scopus up to January 2025. All meta-analyses and evaluation criteria adhered to PRISMA guidelines. The quality of the included meta-analyses was evaluated by AMSTAR-2. The effect size was expressed as a standardized mean difference, odds ratio, or relative risk, as available. Pooled analysis was based on a random-effects model. Sixteen meta-analyses qualified for the final statistical analysis (141 studies included, 9,904 patients), all of which concerned patients with IBS. Analysis of evidence showed that the low FODMAP diet in IBS patients significantly reduced symptom scores on the IBS Symptom Severity Scale (IBS-SSS) (standardized mean difference (SMD) = −0.599, 5 meta-analyses, 3,761 patients) and improved quality of life (SMD = 0.259, p < 0.0001, 5 meta-analyses, 3,576 patients). No significant effect was found on abdominal pain, stool consistency, stool frequency, or microbiota. For bloating, the pooled analysis was not possible due to different measures in the source meta-analyses. The placebo effect was not taken into account in most of the meta-analyses included in the umbrella review. A low FODMAP diet reduces symptoms and improves quality of life in patients with IBS. The results should be approached with caution, as they may be influenced by psychological factors related to the observation itself. As blinding or placebo-controlled conditions are inherently impossible in dietary interventions of this type, it is impossible to decide whether symptom reduction is caused strictly by diet or by non-specific or expectancy-related effects. Further methodologically reliable studies on the effectiveness of the low FODMAP diet in IBS are still needed.
이 우산 리뷰(umbrella review)는
2025년 1월까지 PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Scopus에서 검색된 192편의 연구를 통해
저FODMAP 식이가 과민성 대장 증후군(IBS)에 미치는 영향을 체계적으로 평가하였다.
모든 메타분석과 평가 기준은 PRISMA 가이드라인을 따랐다.
포함된 메타분석의 질은 AMSTAR-2로 평가하였다.
효과 크기는 가능한 경우 표준화된 평균 차이(standardized mean difference), 오즈비(odds ratio), 또는 상대위험도(relative risk)로 표현하였다. 통합 분석은 무작위 효과 모델에 기반하였다. 최종 통계 분석에 포함된 메타분석은 16편이었으며(포함된 개별 연구 141편, 환자 9,904명), 모두 IBS 환자를 대상으로 하였다.
근거 분석 결과,
IBS 환자에서 저FODMAP 식이는 IBS 증상 중증도 척도(IBS-SSS) 점수를 유의하게 감소시켰고
(표준화된 평균 차이(SMD) = −0.599, 5개 메타분석, 환자 3,761명), 삶의 질을 개선하였다
(SMD = 0.259, p < 0.0001, 5개 메타분석, 환자 3,576명).
복통, 대변 형태, 배변 빈도, 또는 미생물총에 대해서는 유의한 효과가 나타나지 않았다.
복부 팽만감의 경우 원 메타분석들에서 측정 방법이 서로 달라 통합 분석이 불가능하였다.
이 우산 리뷰에 포함된 대부분의 메타분석에서는 위약 효과가 고려되지 않았다.
저FODMAP 식이는 IBS 환자의 증상을 감소시키고 삶의 질을 개선한다.
그러나 결과는 신중하게 해석해야 하는데, 관찰 자체와 관련된 심리적 요인의 영향을 받을 수 있기 때문이다.
이러한 유형의 식이 중재에서는 맹검이나 위약 대조 조건을 본질적으로 적용하기 어렵기 때문에,
증상 감소가 순수하게 식이로 인한 것인지 아니면 비특이적 효과나 기대 효과로 인한 것인지를 판단하기 어렵다.
IBS에서 저FODMAP 식이의 효과에 대한 방법론적으로 더 신뢰할 수 있는 연구가 여전히 필요하다.
Keywords: umbrella review, low FODMAP diet, irritable bowel syndrome, IBS, FODMAP
Introduction
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a chronic disease of the large and small intestines that is not caused by biochemical or organic changes. This syndrome belongs to the group of gut–brain axis disorders (formerly known as functional disorders). The precise etiology of IBS is unknown (1, 2).
The prevalence of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in Europe and North America, estimated based on population studies, is approximately 10–15%. In a meta-analysis of eight international studies, the overall prevalence of IBS was estimated at 11%, according to Rome IV criteria, with significant variation depending on the geographical region. The prevalence of IBS is higher in women than in men (14 and 9%, respectively) (3, 4). The main symptom of IBS is abdominal pain described as a feeling of cramping of varying intensity and periodic exacerbations. It may be constant or recurrent, most often in the lower abdomen and left iliac fossa. In addition, patients often report bloating, and accompanying symptoms of IBS include drowsiness, headaches, back pain, and urinary disorders. Approximately 70% of patients with IBS experience depressive or anxiety disorder symptoms.
Irritable bowel syndrome is diagnosed based on the Rome IV criteria (5). The Rome IV criteria for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) require recurrent abdominal pain on average for at least 1 day per week in the last 3 months, associated with two or more of the following: the pain is related to defecation; the pain is associated with a change in stool frequency; or the pain is associated with a change in stool form (appearance). The criteria specify that these symptoms must have been present for the last 3 months, with symptom onset at least 6 months prior to diagnosis.
Treatment of IBS includes non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatment. It is recommended to start treatment with non-pharmacological methods.
Due to the fact that the symptoms are chronic in nature, it is important to establish good cooperation with the patient, reassure them that there are no signs of serious disease, explain the chronic nature of the symptoms, and the role of diet, stress, and infections in potentially exacerbating the symptoms. The next step is to educate the patient on how to avoid situations that exacerbate symptoms, modify their diet, and, only if there is no improvement, provide pharmacological treatment (4, 6).
Previous studies have shown the effectiveness of the low fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols (FODMAP, LFD) diet in relieving IBS-related symptoms (7, 8). Due to the fact that the research results were ambiguous and varied in terms of methodology, we decided to use an umbrella review to systematize them. In our review, we analyzed meta-analyses on the effectiveness of the low FODMAP diet in reducing symptoms, but it is worth mentioning that the placebo effect was not ruled out, as blinding or placebo-controlled conditions are impossible in the case of interventions such as the low FODMAP diet.
Introduction 번역
과민성 대장 증후군(IBS)은
생화학적 또는 기질적 변화에 의해 발생하지 않는 대장과 소장의 만성 질환이다.
이 증후군은 장-뇌 축 장애 그룹(이전에는 기능성 장애로 알려짐)에 속한다.
IBS의 정확한 병인은 알려져 있지 않다 (1, 2).
유럽과 북미에서 인구 연구에 기반한 IBS 유병률은 약 10–15%로 추정된다. 8개의 국제 연구를 대상으로 한 메타분석에서, Rome IV 기준에 따른 전체 IBS 유병률은 11%로 추정되었으며, 지리적 지역에 따라 상당한 차이가 있었다. IBS 유병률은 남성(9%)보다 여성(14%)에서 더 높다 (3, 4). IBS의 주요 증상은 강도가 다양하고 주기적으로 악화되는 경련감으로 묘사되는 복통이다. 이는 지속적이거나 재발할 수 있으며, 주로 하복부와 왼쪽 장골와에 나타난다. 또한 환자들은 종종 복부 팽만감을 호소하며, IBS의 동반 증상으로 졸음, 두통, 요통, 배뇨 장애 등이 있다. IBS 환자의 약 70%가 우울 또는 불안 장애 증상을 경험한다.
과민성 대장 증후군은 Rome IV 기준에 따라 진단된다 (5). Rome IV 기준에 따르면 IBS는 최근 3개월 동안 평균 주 1일 이상 재발하는 복통이 있어야 하며, 다음 중 두 가지 이상과 관련되어야 한다: 통증이 배변과 관련됨; 통증이 배변 빈도 변화와 관련됨; 또는 통증이 대변 형태(외양) 변화와 관련됨. 이 기준은 이러한 증상이 최근 3개월 동안 존재해야 하며, 증상 발생이 진단 최소 6개월 전부터 시작되어야 한다고 명시한다.
IBS 치료에는 비약물적 치료와 약물적 치료가 포함된다. 비약물적 방법으로 치료를 시작하는 것이 권장된다.
증상이 만성적인 성격을 띠기 때문에, 환자와 좋은 협력 관계를 구축하고, 심각한 질환의 징후가 없음을 안심시키며, 증상의 만성적 성격과 식이, 스트레스, 감염이 증상을 악화시킬 수 있는 역할을 설명하는 것이 중요하다. 다음 단계는 증상을 악화시키는 상황을 피하는 방법을 교육하고, 식이를 수정하며, 개선이 없을 경우에만 약물 치료를 제공하는 것이다 (4, 6).
이전 연구들은 저발효성 올리고당, 이당류, 단당류 및 폴리올(FODMAP, LFD) 식이가 IBS 관련 증상 완화에 효과적임을 보여주었다 (7, 8). 연구 결과가 모호하고 방법론적으로 다양했기 때문에, 이를 체계화하기 위해 우산 리뷰를 사용하기로 결정하였다. 본 리뷰에서는 증상 감소에 대한 저FODMAP 식이의 효과에 관한 메타분석들을 분석하였으나, 저FODMAP 식이와 같은 중재의 경우 맹검이나 위약 대조 조건이 불가능하기 때문에 위약 효과가 배제되지 않았다는 점을 언급할 가치가 있다.
MethodsLiterature search strategy
Our research comprehensively evaluated the effects of the low FODMAP diet in irritable bowel syndrome. All meta-analyses and evaluation criteria adhered to PRISMA guidelines.
This umbrella meta-analysis utilized data from five online databases: PubMed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/), Cochrane Library (https://www.cochranelibrary.com/), Web of Science (http://isiknowledge.com/), Embase (https://www.embase.com/), and Scopus (http://www.scopus.com/). Our team searched these databases using keywords such as “low FODMAP diet,” “FODMAP,” “irritable bowel syndrome” (IBS), systematic review,” and “meta-analysis”.
Inclusion criteria and exclusion criteria
Inclusion criteria:
Exclusion criteria:
Authors excluded abstracts, review articles, observational studies, and case series.
Data extraction
First, the studies were screened manually by the authors (DBCh and JD).
Second, the full texts of the included studies were carefully reviewed. Third, the authors.
(DBCh and JD) collected pertinent information. The methodological assessment of the studies included in the umbrella review was performed independently by three authors (DBCh, UM, and JD). The statistical analyses were performed by UM.
Baseline and outcome data were collected and saved in Microsoft Excel (Version 16.91). EndNote 21 software was used to eliminate duplicates and substandard documents.
The data extracted included basic literature information (first author name, country, year of publication, funding source, and research registration agreement); experimental details (database used, search date, number of patients in experimental and control groups, intervention type, and duration); and results.
The umbrella review only included the results of studies that evaluated the effectiveness of the low FODMAP diet in IBS. The results of studies that evaluated the effectiveness of the low FODMAP diet in other gastrointestinal diseases were not included in the analysis (9, 10). Studies comparing the effectiveness of the low FODMAP diet in IBS to diets other than normal (e.g., gluten-free diet) were also not included in the umbrella review.
In one case, the effect of the low FODMAP diet concerned IBS symptoms during the inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) remission phase (11), and we assumed an assessment of the diet effect on IBS, excluding other diseases.
Quality assessment of documentary evidence
The AMSTAR2 tool was used to assess the quality of each included article. AMSTAR2 used 16 questions to assess study design, literature search, literature screening, and data analysis, categorizing articles into four quality levels: high, moderate, low, and critically low (12).
Statistical analysis
For source meta-analyses that reported pooled effect sizes (standardized mean difference (SMD), mean deviation (MD), odds ratio (OR), or relative risk (RR)) with 95% confidence intervals but without corresponding p-values, authors calculated two-tailed p-values using standard statistical procedures. For continuous outcomes (MD, SMD), the standard error was estimated from the confidence interval, and a z-statistic was used to derive the p-value. For binary outcomes (OR, RR), calculations were performed on the logarithmic scale (13).
In order to standardize continuous outcomes across included meta-analyses, all effect sizes were converted to standardized mean difference (SMD). This standardization allowed for the pooling of continuous outcomes measured on different scales, improving the comparability and consistency of the umbrella meta-analysis.
For studies that reported mean difference (MD), these values were transformed into SMD by dividing the MD by the pooled standard deviation of the outcome. When group-specific standard deviations and sample sizes were available, they were used to estimate the pooled standard deviation (13, 14).
Effect sizes reported as Cohen’s d were adjusted using Hedges’ g, a bias-corrected form of SMD that accounts for small sample sizes (15).
In this umbrella meta-analysis, eligible meta-analyses reported binary effect sizes either as odds ratio (OR) or relative risk (RR). In an effort to harmonize effect measures and permit pooled analyses across outcomes, authors initially aimed to convert RRs to OR using established statistical formulas. However, the necessary primary data (e.g., incidence in intervention and control groups) required for the accurate conversion were not consistently reported in the original meta-analyses or their source studies. Despite attempts to obtain the missing data by contacting corresponding authors, no additional information was provided (16–18). Consequently, the authors conducted two parallel sets of quantitative syntheses: one included only meta-analyses reporting OR and the other limited to those reporting RRs. This approach was adopted to preserve the integrity of the reported effect measures and to avoid introducing bias through imprecise conversions.
Statistical analysis was carried out using R 4.2.1 statistical software (R Core Team (2022). R: Language and environment for statistical computing by the R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). Packages metafor and forestplot were used. Effect sizes were calculated, including a 95% confidence interval for each outcome variable. A random effects model approach was applied. Visual presentation of the results included a tabularized summary as well as forest plots. Sensitivity analysis (leave-one-out analysis) was conducted to assess the stability of results. Heterogeneity was considered low if I2 was ≤ 50% and high if I2 was > 50%.
Results
Document inclusion process
A total of 290 articles were retrieved from four databases: PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Scopus. After removing duplicates in the first stage, 101 articles remained. Following a thorough review of summaries and titles, 73 articles were excluded. The remaining articles were further screened and classified, resulting in 16 articles being included in this umbrella meta-analysis. The detailed document inclusion process is illustrated in the flow chart (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
PRISMA flow chart of the document selection process (41).
Characteristics of the included studies and quality of literature
A total of 16 articles were incorporated into our umbrella analysis, with their detailed characteristics outlined in Table 1. The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed by two independent researchers (DBCh and JD) using the Cochrane risk of bias tool (19).
Table 1.
Characteristics of selected studies.
First author, yearIntervention typeOutcomesDisease nostudies included nopatients (total)AMSTAR 2
| Altobelli E., 2017 (16) | Low FODMAP diet | Abdominal pain Bloating Stool consistency Stool frequency | IBS | 3 | 208 | High |
| Black C., 2022 (8) | Low FODMAP diet | Bloating | IBS | 13 | 944 | High |
| Chu P., 2025 (23) | Low FODMAP diet | Microbiota | IBS | 4 | 259 | High |
| Haghbin H., 2024 (27) | Low FODMAP diet | Stool consistency Stool frequency Symptoms | IBS | 4 | 330 | High |
| Hahn J., 2021 (25) | Low FODMAP diet | QoL Stool consistency Symptoms | IBS | 22 | 1,374 | High |
| Jent S., 2023 (20) | Low FODMAP diet | Abdominal pain QoL Stool frequency | IBS | 9 | 604 | High |
| Khan Z., 2025 (26) | Low FODMAP diet | QoL Symptoms | IBS | 5 | 320 | High |
| Lei Y.,2025 (30) | Low FODMAP diet | Symptoms | IBS | 7 | 525 | High |
| Marsh A., 2016 (17) | Low FODMAP diet | Symptoms | IBS | 6 | 354 | High |
| Schumann D., 2017 (21) | Low FODMAP diet | Abdominal pain QoL Symptoms | IBS | 9 | 596 | High |
| So D., 2022 (24) | Low FODMAP diet | Microbiota | IBS | 9 | 403 | High |
| van Lanen A. S., 2021 (1) | Low FODMAP diet | Symptoms | IBS | 12 | 772 | High |
| Wang J., 2021 (29) | Low FODMAP diet | Symptoms | IBS | 10 | 551 | High |
| Xie C., 2022 (28) | Low FODMAP diet | Symptoms | IBS | 6 | 508 | High |
| Yu S. J., 2022 (18) | Low FODMAP diet | Symptoms | IBS | 14 | 1,603 | High |
| Zeraattalab-Motlagh S., 2025 (22) | Low FODMAP diet | Abdominal pain QoL Stool consistency Stool frequency Symptoms | IBS | 8 | 553 | High |
In all the studies included in meta-analyses, Patient, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome (PICO) (a framework for developing focused, answerable questions in evidence-based health care) criteria were met. The AMSTAR 2 evaluation revealed that all articles were of high quality.
In all studies, the effectiveness of the low FODMAP diet for IBS was assessed against a normal diet.
Direct meta-analysis
The results of meta-analyses are presented in Table 2.
Table 2.
Results of meta-analyses of different outcomes.
OutcomeEffect size measureEffect size level95% CI lower95% CI upperpI2 (%)p for heterogeneityNumber of studies includedNumber of patients included
| Abdominal pain | SMD | −0.130 | −0.636 | 0.376 | 0.614 | 93.58 | <0.0001 | 3 | 1753 |
| OR | 0.44 | 0.26 | 0.79 | 0.006 | – | – | 1 | 208 | |
| Microbiota | SMD | −0.052 | −0.368 | 0.265 | 0.749 | 51.1 | 0.153 | 2 | 662 |
| QoL | SMD | 0.259 | 0.143 | 0.374 | <0.0001 | 0 | 0.945 | 5 | 3,576 |
| Stool consistency | SMD | −0.240 | −0.629 | 0.149 | 0.226 | 87.68 | <0.0001 | 4 | 2,346 |
| Stool frequency | SMD | −0.126 | −0.646 | 0.393 | 0.634 | 90.0 | <0.0001 | 4 | 1,578 |
| Bloating | RR | 0.71 | 0.47 | 1.06 | 0.820 | – | – | 1 | 944 |
| OR | 0.32 | 0.15 | 0.66 | <0.0001 | – | – | 1 | 208 | |
| Symptoms | SMD | −0.599 | −0.708 | −0.489 | <0.0001 | 0 | 0.457 | 5 | 3,761 |
| RR | 1.53 | 1.19 | 1.97 | 0.001 | 65.2 | 0.035 | 4 | 2,420 | |
| OR | 0.38 | 0.23 | 0.63 | 0.0002 | 3.6 | 0.309 | 2 | 1957 |
CI, confidence interval; OR, odds ratio; SMD, standardized mean difference; RR, relative risk.
Abdominal pain
The effect size of the low FODMAP diet on abdominal pain levels was statistically not significant, SMD = −0.130 CI95 [−0.636 to 0.376], p = 0.614, as based on three meta-analyses, 1753 patients (20–22). Based on sensitivity analysis, when removing Jent S (20) study, the effect size became significant, SMD = −0.363 CI95 [−0.596 to −0.130], p = 0.002 (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Forest plot (A) and sensitivity analysis (B) for the effect size of the low FODMAP diet on abdominal pain.
Analysis based on data for frequency of abdominal pain (16) confirmed that patients with a low FODMAP diet had statistically significant lower pain compared to those receiving a traditional diet, OR = 0.44, CI95 [0.26 to 0.79], p = 0.006 (Table 2).
Microbiota
Analysis confirmed no significant effect of low FODMAP diet on microbiota, SMD = −0.052 CI95 [−0.368 to 0.265], p = 0.749, 2 meta-analyses, 662 patients (23, 24). Sensitivity analysis showed the stability of this analysis (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Forest plot (A) and sensitivity analysis (B) for the effect size of the low FODMAP diet on microbiota.
QOL
Low FODMAP diet had a significant effect on QoL, SMD = 0.259 CI95 [0.143 to 0.374], p < 0.0001, 5 meta-analyses, 3,576 patients (20–22, 25, 26). Sensitivity analysis confirmed the robustness of these findings (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Forest plot (A) and sensitivity analysis (B) for the effect size of the low FODMAP diet on QoL.
Stool consistency
Four studies indicate that low FODMAP had no significant effect on stool consistency, SMD = −0.240, CI95 [−0.629 to 0.149], p = 0.226, 4 meta-analyses, 2,346 patients (16, 22, 25, 27). However, when excluding Altobelli E., (16) study, the effect size was confirmed as statistically significant, SMD = −0.409, CI95[−0.747 to −0,070], p = 0.018 (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Forest plot (A) and sensitivity analysis (B) for the effect size of the low FODMAP diet on stool consistency.
Stool frequency
Based on 4 meta-analyses, the low FODMAP diet also had no significant effect on stool frequency, SMD = −0.126 CI95 [−0.646 to 0.393], p = 0.634, 4 meta-analyses, 1,578 patients (16, 20, 22, 27). Exclusion of Jent S, (20) study from the analysis resulted in statistically significant findings, SMD = −0.400 CI95 [−0.581 to −0.218], p < 0.0001 (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Forest plot (A) and sensitivity analysis (B) for the effect size of the low FODMAP diet on stool frequency.
Bloating
For bloating, the pooled analysis was not possible due to different measures in source meta-analyses (1 meta-analysis with OR data, 1 meta-analysis with RR data). Based on one study, odds for bloating in patients with low FODMAP were significantly lower vs. the traditional diet, OR = 0.32 CI95 [0.15 to 0.66], p < 0.001, 208 patients (16). However, based on another study, there was no significant difference in bloating in low FODMAP, RR = 0.71 CI95 [0.47 to 1.06], p = 0.820, 944 patients (8) (Table 2).
Overall symptoms
For symptoms, the data were collected from 11 meta-analyses: 5 having effect size measured with SMD, 4 studies with data in RR, and 2 studies with data in OR.
Analysis including five meta-analyses confirmed a statistically significant effect size of the low FODMAP diet on the symptom level, SMD = −0.599 CI95 [−0.708 to −0.489], p < 0.001, 3,761 patients (1, 21, 25, 27, 28). The results were confirmed by sensitivity analysis (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Forest plot (A) and sensitivity analysis (B) for the effect size of the low FODMAP diet on symptoms based on the standardized mean difference measure.
Based on another 4 meta-analyses, risk for symptom improvement was significantly higher for the low FODMAP diet, RR = 1.53, CI95 [1.19 to 1.97], p = 0.001, 2,420 patients (22, 26, 29, 30). Sensitivity analysis showed the stability of this analysis (Figure 8).
Figure 8.
Forest plot (A) and sensitivity analysis (B) for the effect size of the low FODMAP diet on symptoms based on the relative risk measure.
The remaining two meta-analyses showed lower odds for symptom improvement in low FODMAP patients as compared to the traditional diet, OR = 0.38 CI95 [0.23 to 0.63], p < 0.001, 1957 patients (17, 18). Sensitivity analysis confirmed the robustness of these findings (Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Forest plot (A) and sensitivity analysis (B) for the effect size of the low FODMAP diet on symptoms based on the odds ratio measure.
Discussion
Key findings
This comprehensive analysis shows that the low FODMAP diet has beneficial effects in IBS.
The processing of evidence showed that the low FODMAP diet in IBS patients significantly reduced symptom scores on the IBS-SSS scale (SMD = −0.599, 5 meta-analyses, 3,761 patients) and improved quality of life (SMD = 0.259, p < 0.0001, 5 meta-analyses, 3,576 patients) (Table 2).
It should be noted that observed improvement, particularly regarding quality of life and the Irritable Bowel Syndrome Symptom Severity Scale, is likely attributable to non-specific treatment effects such as the Hawthorne effect (participants modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed) or the placebo effect. The last two questions on the IBS-SSS assess the patient’s subjective perception of their condition. Improved scores during the FODMAP diet may thus reflect a change in self-perception rather than an actual improvement in objective symptoms. Unfortunately, blinding or placebo-controlled conditions are inherently impossible in dietary interventions of this type, which is a significant methodological limitation that introduces uncertainty in the interpretation of the observed effects. At the same time, no statistically significant improvement was found in measurable and less perception-dependent symptoms, such as stool frequency or stool consistency, as mentioned below.
The results show improvements mainly in the IBS-SSS and quality-of-life measures. While these outcomes are clinically meaningful, they also include components that are influenced by patients’ perception and psychological factors. In contrast, parameters that are less perception-dependent, such as stool frequency, stool consistency, or microbiota composition, did not show significant differences. This discrepancy should be explicitly discussed as it raises the possibility that part of the reported benefit may reflect non-specific or expectancy-related effects.
No significant effect was found on abdominal pain, stool consistency, stool frequency, or microbiota. For bloating, the pooled analysis was not possible due to different measures in the source meta-analyses. Based on sensitivity analysis (leave-one-out), the results were robust for microbiota, quality of life, and overall symptoms. In case of abdominal pain and stool frequency, the results became significant when removing Jent S., (20) study, while for stool consistency, the effect size was confirmed as statistically significant when excluding Altobelli E., (16) study.
Comparison with existing literature
According to the American College of Gastroenterology (ASG) Clinical Guideline, the low-FODMAP diet is the most evidence-based diet intervention for IBS. It consists of three phases: restriction (lasting no more than 4–6 weeks), reintroduction of FODMAP foods, and personalization based on results from reintroduction.
The mechanism of the low FODMAP diet is a reduction in small intestinal absorption of osmotically active short-chain carbohydrates, resulting in diminished intestinal water content and downstream effects on colonic fermentation and gas production (16, 31, 32). Studies have suggested that the low FODMAP diet also reduces the serum levels of proinflammatory interleukins and the levels of fecal bacteria (Bifidobacterium, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, and Actinobacteria) (33). The response to a low-FODMAP diet may be associated with factors related to patient demographics, microbiome composition and metabolism, and IBS subtype (34, 35). The clinical response to a low FODMAP diet may be related to different subtypes of IBS, demographic differences, or differences in the composition of the patients’ microbiome.
A diet low in FODMAPs is recommended for patients diagnosed with IBS after a trial of traditional diet modifications, including soluble fiber supplementation and avoidance of gas-producing foods (36).
Our results regarding symptom reduction are consistent with the existing literature (6, 21, 25, 27).
Surprisingly, we did not find a statistically significant reduction in pain after applying the diet, but this may be related to the use of different scales for pain intensity.
According to our data, the low FODMAP diet does not significantly affect stool frequency and consistency, but it should be noted that numerous studies included in the analysis involved patients with both diarrhea and constipation, or mixed types of IBS (7, 36–40).
In case of the analysis of stool habits changing in IBS-D (diarrhea type), Hahn et al. showed a significant decrease in stool frequency compared to the control group (25).
Microbiota results were non-significant, which can be explained by a short intervention duration, different analysis methods, and baseline microbiota diversity.
Strengths and limitations
The main strength of this review is that we prepared the first umbrella review on the efficacy of the low FODMAP diet in IBS. Umbrella reviews are reviews of previously published systematic reviews or meta-analyses, and consist of the repetition of the meta-analyses following a uniform approach for all factors to allow their comparison (13). They represent one of the highest levels of evidence synthesis currently available, which increases the credibility of our conclusions. We included 16 high-quality studies, and most studies had a low risk of bias.
A limitation is that most studies included in our review had a different duration of the diet, and most of them were short-term interventions, and they may not reflect long-term symptom control.
The other reason for heterogeneity may be variability in adherence reporting and the absence of data on concurrent pharmacotherapy across included meta-analyses.
Besides, most of the meta-analyses used for the umbrella review did not distinguish between IBS subtypes. Furthermore, the conclusions of the existing analyses did not include conclusions specific to individual IBS subtypes. Therefore, the results concerning the improvement in stool consistency and stool frequency should be interpreted with caution.
The placebo effect and the Hawthorne effect were not analyzed in the meta-analyses used in the umbrella review. These effects may influence the results of the low FODMAP diet in self-reported symptom questionnaires.
Clinical implications
In clinical practice, it is recommended to use a dietary intervention in IBS before introducing pharmacotherapy. According to our analysis, the low FODMAP diet significantly reduces these symptoms and improves quality of life, although part of the reported benefit may reflect non-specific or expectancy-related effects caused by the placebo effect.
Conclusion
This study concludes that low FODMAP in IBS patients reduces symptoms and improves quality of life. At the same time, no statistically significant effect was found on such important symptoms as abdominal pain, bloating, and frequency of bowel movements. While these outcomes are clinically meaningful, they also include components that are influenced by patients’ perception and psychological factors. The results should be approached with caution, as they may be influenced by psychological factors related to the observation itself. Conducting studies that exclude the placebo effect and the Hawthorne effect is unfortunately impossible with dietary interventions such as the low FODMAP diet. Further methodologically reliable studies on the effectiveness of the low FODMAP diet in IBS are still needed.
Funding Statement
The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.
Footnotes
Edited by: Marta Stelmach-Mardas, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poland
Reviewed by: Isabelle Mack, University of Tübingen, Germany
Gitanjali Deokar, MET's Institute of Pharmacy, India
Aleksandar Sic, Advocate Illinois Masonic Medical Center, United States
Author contributions
DB-C: Conceptualization, Resources, Methodology, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. UM: Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Software. JD: Supervision, Project administration, Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Generative AI statement
The authors declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.
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References
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