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2. 동물 모델에서의 심장 보호 효과
3. 인간 데이터
4. 주요 기전 (산화적 + 비산화적)
역할 내용 효과
| 산화적 | 대체 연료 | ATP 공급 (지방산·포도당보다 산소 효율적일 수 있음) |
| HDAC 억제제 (Class I) | 히스톤 아세틸화 증가 (FOXO3a 등) | 오토파지/미토파지 촉진, SOD2·카탈라제 증가 → ROS 감소, 미토콘드리아 항상성 |
| NLRP3 인플라마솜 억제제 | 염증 사이토카인(IL-1β, IL-18) 억제 | 심근 염증·섬유화 감소 |
| GPR 리간드 | HCAR2(GPR109A), GPR41 | 지방분해 조절, 교감신경 조절 |
| 기타 | 라이신 β-hydroxybutyrylation(Kbhb), 흥분-수축 커플링 개선 등 | 에피제네틱 조절 |
5. SGLT2 억제제와의 연관
SGLT2i(엠파글리플로진, 다파글리플로진 등)는 혈당 저하·이뇨 효과 외에 **경도의 케토시스(BHB 상승)**를 유도합니다. 이 BHB 상승이 심혈관 보호 효과의 일부 기전으로 제안됩니다(비산화적 역할 포함). DAPA-HF, EMPEROR-Reduced 등 대규모 임상에서 당뇨 유무와 관계없이 심부전 예후 개선이 확인됨.
6. 치료적 시사점과 주의점
“β-Hydroxybutyrate Modulates N-Type Calcium Channels in Rat Sympathetic Neurons by Acting as an Agonist for the G-Protein-Coupled Receptor FFA3” (Yu-Jin Won, Van B. Lu, Henry L. Puhl III, Stephen R. Ikeda, The Journal of Neuroscience 2013, Vol. 33, No. 49, pp. 19314–19325)는
케톤체 **β-hydroxybutyrate(BHB)**가
교감신경계에서 어떻게 작용하는지를 밝힌 논문입니다.
핵심 요약
Free fatty acid receptor 3 (FFA3, GPR41)은
단쇄지방산(SCFA)인 acetate와 propionate의 수용체로 알려져 있습니다.
이전 연구(Kimura et al., 2011)에서 FFA3가
설치류 교감신경계에 발현되어
영양 상태와 자율신경 기능을 연결할 수 있다고 보고되었습니다.
이 논문은 다음을 발견했습니다:
주요 실험 결과
생리학적 의미
기아, 당뇨병성 케톤산증, 케토제닉 다이어트 등으로 혈중 BHB 수치가 높아지면,
FFA3를 통해 교감신경계 활성을 조절할 수 있습니다.
즉, 영양·대사 상태가 자율신경 기능에 직접 영향을 줄 수 있는 경로입니다.
“Short-Chain Fatty Acid Receptors and Blood Pressure Regulation: Council on Hypertension Mid-Career Award for Research Excellence 2021” (Jiaojiao Xu, Brittni N. Moore, Jennifer L. Pluznick, Hypertension 2022, Vol. 79, No. 10, pp. 2127–2137)는
장내 미생물이 생산하는 **단쇄지방산(SCFA)**과
그 수용체가 혈압 조절에 어떻게 기여하는지를 정리한 리뷰입니다.
핵심 요약
장내 미생물은
여러 경로로 숙주 생리에 영향을 미치는데,
그중 하나가 화학 대사산물의 생산입니다.
SCFA(acetate, propionate, butyrate 등)는
장내 미생물 대사산물로, 숙주의 다양한 신호 경로를 활성화합니다.
점점 더 많은 증거가 다음을 보여줍니다:
고혈압은 심혈관 질환의 주요 위험 인자이므로, 혈압 조절의 새로운 기전을 밝히는 것이 중요합니다.
주요 내용
이 리뷰는 SCFA와 그 숙주 G protein-coupled receptors에 초점을 맞춥니다:
각 수용체의 리간드 프로파일, G 단백질 결합, 조직 분포를 설명하고,
Gpr41, Gpr43, Gpr109a, Olfr78 녹아웃 마우스에서 보고된 혈압 관련 표현형을 검토합니다.
또한 기저 상태에서 SCFA 신호가 생리에 미치는 영향과, 고혈압 상황에서 SCFA 신호가 혈압 조절에 어떻게 기여할 수 있는지를 다룹니다.
“β-Hydroxybutyrate: A Signaling Metabolite” (John C. Newman & Eric Verdin, Annual Review of Nutrition 2017, Vol. 37, pp. 51–76)는
케톤체 **β-hydroxybutyrate(BHB)**가
단순한 에너지원을 넘어
**신호 대사산물(signaling metabolite)**로 작용한다는 점을 종합한 리뷰입니다.
핵심 요약
BHB는 간에서 지방산으로부터 합성되며,
포도당 공급이 부족할 때(장시간 운동, 기아, 저탄수화물 식이 등) 간에서 말초 조직으로 에너지를 운반하는 필수 대사산물입니다.
그러나
최근 연구에 따르면 BHB는 세포 신호 기능도 가지고 있습니다.
이 신호 기능은
외부 환경(식이, 단식 등)을 후성유전적 유전자 조절과 세포 기능에 연결하며,
다양한 인간 질환과 노화에 관련될 수 있습니다.
주요 신호 기능
BHB의 신호 작용은 직접적과 간접적으로 나뉩니다.
직접적 신호 작용
간접적 신호 작용
BHB가 대사되어 acetyl-CoA, succinyl-CoA, NAD⁺ 등의 수준을 변화시키면서 발생하는 신호.
주요 영향 영역
논문은 BHB의 키랄 특이성(chiral specificity)도 논의합니다.
참고)
단쇄지방산(SCFA)과 BHB가 혈액에 풍부할 때
GPR 수용체를 통해 혈압을 조절하는 기전을 이전 논문들(Pluznick 그룹 연구 + Won et al. 2013)을 바탕으로 정리해 드립니다.
1. 주요 수용체와 리간드
혈액 내 SCFA(acetate, propionate, butyrate)와 케톤체 BHB가 결합하는 주요 G-protein-coupled receptors는 다음과 같습니다.
수용체주요 리간드G 단백질 결합혈압 관련 주요 위치
| GPR41 (FFAR3) | Propionate, Acetate, BHB | Gi/o | 혈관 평활근, 교감 신경절 |
| GPR43 (FFAR2) | Acetate, Propionate | Gi/o, Gq | 면역세포, 장 상피 |
| OLFR78 | Propionate, Acetate | Gs | 신장 사구체 옆장치, 혈관 평활근 |
| GPR109A | Butyrate, Niacin, BHB(일부) | Gi/o | 면역세포, 지방세포 |
특히 BHB는 GPR41(FFA3)의 agonist로 작용합니다(Won et al., J Neurosci 2013). 이전 일부 연구에서는 antagonist로 해석되었으나, 여러 실험에서 agonist임이 확인되었습니다.
2. 혈압 조절 기전
A. 혈관 확장 (혈압 하강 방향)
B. 레닌 분비 조절 (혈압 상승 방향)
C. 교감신경계 조절
D. 면역·염증 경로
3. 전체적인 균형
혈액 내 SCFA/BHB가 증가하면:
이 두 경로가 균형을 이루며, 식이 섬유 섭취 → 장내 미생물 → SCFA 생산이 혈압을 낮추는 방향으로 작용하는 경우가 많습니다. 케토제닉 다이어트나 단식 시 상승하는 BHB도 GPR41 agonist로 작용해 유사한 효과를 낼 수 있습니다.
요약
SCFA와 BHB는 단순한 에너지원이 아니라 수용체 리간드로 작용해, 혈관 평활근(GPR41), 신장 레닌 시스템(OLFR78), 교감신경계(FFA3)를 직접 조절함으로써 혈압을 미세 조정합니다. 이 기전은 장내 미생물-혈압 축의 중요한 분자적 연결고리입니다.
Mechanisms Underlying the Biological Effects of β-OHB in the Heart and Other OrgansOxidative Roles
Ketogenesis is vital in cardiac health, especially during stresses, such as heart failure. The ketone bodies are generated in the liver, and the heart can use ketone bodies at baseline as a minor energy source and increase ketone body usage upon heart failure (Figure 2). In the failing hearts, β-OHB serves as an alternative fuel, providing more ATP than glycolysis without increasing cardiac efficiency (Lopaschuk et al., 2020). These oxidative roles of β-OHB have been reviewed recently (Lopaschuk et al., 2020). In this review, we will focus more on the non-oxidative roles of β-OHB in the heart.
Non-Oxidative Roles
Although there are many studies showing cardioprotective effects of β-OHB in addition to its oxidative roles, the underlying specific mechanisms of cardioprotection remain elusive. Elevated β-OHB has been found as an effective treatment for epilepsy (Martin et al., 2016) and played a neuro-protective role in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease (Tieu et al., 2003) and Alzheimer’s disease (Shippy et al., 2020). The possible mechanisms of β-OHB’s neuroprotective effects include mitochondrial metabolism regulation (Li et al., 2021), inhibition of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway (Thau-Zuchman et al., 2021), and glutamatergic excitatory synaptic transmission reduction (Lund et al., 2009). In addition, β-OHB has also been reported to contribute to cancer cell stemness by regulating cell proliferation and facilitating key transcriptional factor expression (Wang et al., 2019; Ji et al., 2020). These functions suggest that β-OHB is not only serving as an alternative fuel but also as a signaling molecule.
β-OHB Is an Endogenous HDAC Inhibitor and Maintains Mitochondrial Homeostasis
Histone deacetylases (HDACs) play essential roles in regulating gene transcription by balancing the acetylation activities of histone acetyltransferases (HATs). Acetylation is an essential post-translational modification of many proteins, which regulates mitochondrial metabolism and function (Felisbino and Mckinsey, 2018). Acetylation of ε-lysine groups can lead to chromatin structure relaxation, thus enhancing the DNA binding proteins’ accessibility and increasing transcriptional activation (Wang et al., 2014). Since HDACs modify the lysine residue in other proteins to affect their function, HDACs are also referred to as lysine deacetylases (KDACs). According to their homology to yeast transcriptional repressors, HDACs can be divided into four classes. Class I includes HDACs 1, 2, 3, and 8; Class IIa includes HDACs 4, 5, 7, and 9; Class IIb includes HDACs 6 and 10; Class IV includes HDAC 11, which are Zn2+ dependent for enzymatic activity and Class III, also called Sirt1-7, uses a different NAD + dependent mechanism to regulate their activity (Gregoretti et al., 2004). The activity of HATs is dependent on nuclear acetyl-CoA concentrations (Felisbino and Mckinsey, 2018).
It has been reported that HDACs activity is elevated in models of heart failure, diabetic heart, and myocardial I/R injury (Granger et al., 2008; Nural-Guvener et al., 2014; Evans and Ferguson, 2018; Bocchi et al., 2019). Class I and II HDAC inhibitors represent a group of small molecule epigenetic modifiers that have demonstrated efficacy in animal models of heart failure over the last decade (Evans and Ferguson, 2018). HDAC inhibition has also been used as a therapeutic strategy for cardiac I/R injury (Xie et al., 2019). Emerging evidence also suggests that inhibition of HDACs protects the heart against myocardial injury and stimulates endogenous angiomyogenesis even in the diabetic heart (Bocchi et al., 2019). Thus, inhibition of HDACs using small molecules has been thought to be a promising approach to treat many pathological disorders.
Multiple pathways have been implicated in the cardioprotective effects of HDAC inhibitors, including apoptosis, inflammation, metabolism, and autophagy (Xie et al., 2014; Schotterl et al., 2015; Das Gupta et al., 2016). β-OHB is an endogenous Class I HDAC inhibitor that can cause an increase in histone acetylation (Shimazu et al., 2013). In human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells, β-OHB can significantly increase the acetylation levels of histone H3 lysine 9 and histone H3 lysine 14. In vitro, β-OHB inhibits the activity of HDAC 1, 3, and 4, indicating that it is a Class I HDAC inhibitor. This inhibitory effect is through increasing histone acetylation at the FOXO3a promoter in HEK293 cells (Shimazu et al., 2013). Physiologically achievable millimolar concentrations of β-OHB can significantly increase histone acetylation through HDAC inhibition directly (Shimazu et al., 2013). However, inhibition of HDAC 6, one of the Class II HDACs, shows no benefit and is even detrimental to cardiomyocytes during I/R injury (Aune et al., 2014). Another study shows that a pretreatment with suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA), a second-generation HDAC inhibitor, effectively protects murine fibrosarcoma L929 cells against TNF-α induced necroptosis (Wang et al., 2013). This mechanism may include induction of multiple transcription factors that can initiate cell-protective autophagy.
Since HDAC inhibitors can induce autophagy in multiple cell types, including cardiomyocytes, it will be essential to test whether β-OHB’s cardioprotective effects are mediated through autophagy. Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation pathway that plays an essential role in removing protein aggregates and damaged organelles to maintain homeostasis (Kroemer et al., 2010). In nutrient deprivation status, autophagy is thought to be an adaptive response to recycle cytosolic elements, thus providing substrates for energy metabolism (Kim et al., 2007). Autophagy has also been shown to play an essential role in mitochondrial metabolism, especially in cardiomyocytes. During reperfusion, autophagy is blocked and contributes to the reperfusion injury following ischemia (Ma et al., 2012). Dian J. Cao and his colleagues showed that autophagy is an obligatory element in cardiac hypertrophic remodeling and HDAC 1 and 2 are required effectors (Cao et al., 2011). β-OHB is a known endogenous inhibitor of HDAC1 and 2 (Shimazu et al., 2013).
Mitophagy is a specialized autophagy mainly responsible for the clearance of damaged mitochondria by lysosomes (Whitworth and Pallanck, 2017). This is important in ischemic cardiovascular diseases because damaged mitochondria are a source of oxidative stress, which can affect mitochondrial function, thus leading to cellular degeneration in the disease status (Bingol et al., 2014). In aged rabbit hearts, β-OHB can enhance mitochondrial quality control by activating Parkin translocation while worsening mitophagy with impaired mitochondrial fission and fusion upon heart failure (Thai et al., 2019). β-OHB has also been shown to reduce oxidative stress during I/R (Shimazu et al., 2013). As a crucial part of normal and pathophysiological metabolism, β-OHB has profound effects on various mitochondrial functions, such as reducing the mitochondrial NAD couple and oxidizing coenzyme Q (Veech, 2014; Xie et al., 2016). Superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) is an enzyme located within the mitochondrial matrix and works as a superoxide scavenger. Under H2O2 stimulation, β-OHB can increase FOXO3a expression level, which can induce antioxidant enzymes SOD2 and catalase, suggesting that β-OHB can reduce ROS generation in oxidative status (Nagao et al., 2016). A short-term ketogenic diet increases mitochondrial abundance in the myocardium, partially explaining the protective effect of β-OHB (Al-Zaid et al., 2007).
In diabetic patients the prevalence and severity of cardiovascular diseases are significantly increased, compared with non-diabetic patients, accompanied by a much worse prognosis. Chen et al. showed that in diabetic hearts, HDAC inhibition plays a critical role in improving cardiac function and suppressing myocardial remodeling and is associated with decreased apoptosis, stimulation of endogenous angiogenesis, increase of anti-oxidant SOD1 and activations of GLUT1 acetylation and p38 phosphorylation (Chen et al., 2015). Since β-OHB concentrations are always kept at high levels in both type 1 and 2 diabetic patients, it is intriguing to explore the role of β-OHB in diabetic patients also suffering from a cardiovascular disease.
In summary, many cardiac stresses, such as cardiac I/R injury and diabetes, can induce HDAC activity, which contributes to the pathogenesis of heart failure. HDAC inhibition has been shown to be effective in preventing cardiac I/R injury and improve the function of a failing heart. These are probably through inducing autophagy/mitophagy. β-OHB is an endogenous HDAC inhibitor. However, whether the beneficial effects of β-OHB during cardiac I/R are exerted through regulation of the autophagy/mitophagy pathway as well as mitochondrial functions via HDAC inhibition, still needs more investigation.
β-OHB Is an Endogenous NLRP3 Inflammasome Inhibitor
The Nod-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (Nlrp3) inflammasome is an important innate immune sensor acting through regulation of the caspase-1 activity and the release of proinflammatory cytokines (Lamkanfi and Dixit, 2014). Suppression of Nlrp3 inflammasome can ameliorate the progression of atherosclerosis (Duewell et al., 2010), diabetes (Ding et al., 2019), Alzheimer’s disease (Heneka et al., 2013), and other functional declines related to aging (Camell et al., 2019). Inflammation is an unmissable component of the heart stress. Numerous studies have highlighted the role of Nlrp3 inflammasome during the I/R injury event (Toldo and Abbate, 2018). β-OHB is an endogenous inhibitor of the Nlrp3 inflammasome, attenuating inflammatory responses (Yamanashi et al., 2017). In high salt-fed hypertensive rats there is a lower level of circulating β-OHB, while a nutritional supplementation of the β-OHB precursor, 1,3-butanediol, rescues kidney function, resulting in nearly normal blood pressure. The therapeutic effects of 1,3-butanediol are comparable to that of exercise. These beneficial effects are likely to be exerted through inhibition of the renal Nlrp3 inflammasome (Chakraborty et al., 2018). Another study found that the anti-inflammatory effect of ketogenic diet may be attributed to the β-OHB-mediated inhibition of Nlrp3 inflammasome formation (Youm et al., 2015). Increasing the circulating β-OHB levels by SCOT knockout in skeletal muscle reduced cardiac Nlrp3 inflammasome activation upon heart failure (Byrne et al., 2020). Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress can induce Nlrp3 inflammasome. Bae et al. showed that β-OHB can inhibit both ER stress and Nlrp3 inflammasome activity in rats through the AMPK activation (Bae et al., 2016). In HFpEF mice, β-OHB can delay the progression of HFpEF probably by attenuating Nlrp3 inflammasome formation and proinflammatory cytokines to prevent mitochondrial dysfunction (Deng et al., 2021).
Therefore, in addition to providing energy during heart failure and I/R, β-OHB may also reduce detrimental inflammatory responses. Thus, inhibiting Nlrp3 inflammasome formation can have positive effects, such as reduction of infarct size and prevention of heart failure. Since drugs like MCC950 are still in the development stage (van Hout et al., 2017), there is no selective Nlrp3 inflammasome inhibitors currently available for clinical use. Alternatively, as an endogenous Nlrp3 inflammasome inhibitor, increasing the circulating β-OHB levels may be used to treat Nlrp3 inflammasome-related cardiovascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis, coronary heart diseases, and heart I/R injury (Tong et al., 2020).
β-OHB Is an Endogenous Ligand of GPRs
β-OHB is an endogenous ligand for a nicotinic acid receptor G protein-coupled receptor (GPR) 109A (Offermanns et al., 2011), also known as hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCAR2). Its specific binding can activate the adipocyte-expressed GPCRs, HM74a/PUMA-G, to reduce lipolysis in adipocytes and regulate fatty acid availability and metabolism (Tunaru et al., 2003; Taggart et al., 2005), which may have anti-atherosclerosis and anti-inflammatory effects (Lukasova et al., 2011). This suggests that activation of HCAR2 may be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of diseases, such as atherosclerosis. β-OHB can also affect cardiovascular function via another GPCR family member, GPR41. It has been reported that β-OHB administration can decrease sympathetic outflow and heart rate through antagonizing GPR41 (Kimura et al., 2011), thereby maintaining metabolic homeostasis via the GPR41-SNS pathway (Kimura et al., 2011). The role of GPRs in ischemic neurological diseases have been well established. However, whether β-OHB can protect hearts from I/R injury via GPRs still needs to be determined. Therefore, further studies are needed to unveil the relationship between β-OHB and GPRs in cardiovascular diseases.
Other Non-oxidative Roles of β-OHB
In addition to acting as an HDAC inhibitor, Nlrp3 inflammasome inhibitor, and GPR ligand, ketone bodies have other roles that are likely to impact the cardiovascular system. As low as 0.5 mM β-OHB can improve cardiac cell excitation-contraction coupling under hypoxia, providing evidence that β-OHB can exert cardioprotective benefits under stress (Klos et al., 2019). β-OHB can also reduce oxidative stress and induce anti-aging effects through binding to hnRNP A1 to upregulate Oct4 expression at the concentration of 4 mM in the vascular system (Han et al., 2018). Besides enhancing gene expression by inhibiting HDACs, β-OHB can also promote protein hyperacetylation via increasing cellular acetyl-CoA levels to maintain metabolic balance (Newman and Verdin, 2014). Lysine β-hydroxybutyrylation (Kbhb) is a post-translational modification of histone induced by increased β-OHB levels, which can activate gene transcription and cell proliferation (Xie et al., 2016). It has been reported that Kbhb is involved in the upregulation of genes in the starvation-responsive metabolic pathways (Xie et al., 2016) and β-OHB may become a new target for cancer treatment through regulating p53 activity (Liu et al., 2019). These observations suggest that β-OHB’s cardiac protective effects may be achieved through other epigenetic mechanisms other than HDAC inhibition. Poly-R-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a polymer of β-OHB and a part of the mitochondrial membrane system (Dedkova and Blatter, 2014). It can increase mitochondrial membrane permeability by regulating the opening of the permeability transition pores required for cardiovascular metabolism and apoptosis pathways (Dedkova, 2016). These studies demonstrate that β-OHB plays an essential role in multiple pathways in non-cardiomyocytes, warranting more studies to elucidate its function in cardiovascular diseases.
SGLT2 Inhibitors can Increase the Production of β-OHB
The sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) are diabetic medications to control blood glucose. SGLT2i targets renal glucose reabsorption in an insulin-independent manner, which can induce glycosuria of 60–90 g/day (Tahrani et al., 2013). Unlike the traditional antidiabetic agents, SGLT2i offers unique benefits to type 2 diabetic patients with high cardiovascular risks. Many clinical studies have been carried out to show remarkable cardiovascular outcomes in patients using SGLT2i (Zinman et al., 2015; Neal et al., 2017; Wiviott et al., 2019).
The SGLT family is composed of seven isoforms: SGLT1-6 and Sodium-myo-inositol co-transporter 1 (SMIT1). SGLT1 has the highest affinity for glucose in the gastrointestinal tract and is also involved in kidney and cardiac glucose handling (Wright et al., 2011). In human heart, GLUT4 is the major isoform that represents approximately 70% of the total glucose transporters. Expression of SGLT1 is increased in patients with end-stage cardiomyopathy secondary to type 2 diabetes. Increased expression of SGLT1 is a compensatory mechanism to the reduction in cardiac GLUT1 and GLUT4 expression (Szablewski, 2017). Although SGLT1 is thought to be an important cardiac glucose transporter in type 2 diabetic patients (Szablewski, 2017), a recent study demonstrated that phlorizin, a dual SGLT1/2 inhibitor, can reduce cardiomyocyte glucose uptake independent of SGLT1, suggesting that SGLT1/2 inhibitor might inhibit other glucose transporters (Ferte et al., 2021). In diabetic mice, inhibition of SGLT1 using shRNA, could alleviate inflammation and pyroptosis induced by hyperglycemia (Sun et al., 2021). To investigate whether using a dual SGLT1/2 inhibitor can enhance the protective effects of SGLT2i, Bode et al. carried out a study in mouse HFpEF models and found that the SGLT1/2 inhibitor sotagliflozin can improve atrial remodeling and exhibit anti-arrhythmic effects (Bode et al., 2021). A recent study showed that the dual SGLT1/2 inhibitors may protect patients with diabetes from MI and stroke better, while the beneficial effects in patients without diabetes require more evaluation (Pitt and Bhatt, 2021). SGLT2 is the main co-transporter in humans that helps reabsorbing 80–90% of the glucose filtered by the glomerulus (Bonora et al., 2020), and SGLT1 helps reabsorbing additional renal glucose that evades SGLT2 (Bertrand et al., 2020). However, since the SGLT2i are available as therapeutic agents, most of the current clinical results reviewed are from SGLT2i.
In a clinical trial involving 7,020 patients, compared with placebo, empagliflozin showed a lower rate of primary composite cardiovascular outcome and all-cause mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes (Zinman et al., 2015). Neal et al. showed similar results that canagliflozin can lower the risk of cardiovascular events with a greater risk of amputation at the level of the toe or metatarsal (Neal et al., 2017). Wiviott et al. showed that treatment with dapagliflozin resulted in a lower rate of cardiovascular death or hospitalization for heart failure in patients with type 2 diabetes (Wiviott et al., 2019). Recent data from DAPA-HF (Dapagliflozin and Prevention of Adverse Outcomes in Heart Failure), EMPEROR-Reduced (EMPagliflozin outcomE tRial in Patients With chrOnic heaRt Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction) and EMPA-TROPISM (Are the “Cardiac Benefits” of Empagliflozin Independent of Its Hypoglycemic Activity) showed the benefit of SGLT2i in both diabetic and non-diabetic heart failure patients (Mcmurray et al., 2019; Packer et al., 2020; Santos-Gallego et al., 2021). Dapagliflozin can reduce the risk of cardiovascular death or heart failure exacerbation in HFrEF patients shown in the DAPA-HF trial (Mcmurray et al., 2019). Empagliflozin significantly improves cardiovascular and renal outcomes in patients independent of baseline diabetes status in the EMOEROR-Reduced trial (Packer et al., 2020) and significantly improves cardiac function and quality of life in HFrEF patients in the EMPA-TROPISM trial (Santos-Gallego et al., 2021). The clinical trial to investigate the effects of SGLT2i on HFpEF is still in progress (Anker et al., 2020).
Although the beneficial effects of SGLT2i in heart failure can be attributed to improved volume status, glucose-lowering, etc., the exact mechanisms of achieving the cardiac benefits of SGLT2i are not fully delineated (Santos-Gallego et al., 2021). SGLT2i can induce a persistently low level of ketone body production, mainly β-OHB. Mechanistically, SGLT2i decreases the level of glucose in the blood and increases the production of glucagon, which promotes ketogenesis. On the other hand, SGLT2 receptors present on the surface of pancreatic α-cells can act as glucose sensors (Bonner et al., 2015). Furthermore, SGLT2i can increase lipolysis and the subsequent production of ketone bodies in the liver (Taylor et al., 2015). Ketone bodies use less oxygen to generate the same amount of ATP as glucose and fatty acids (Puchalska and Crawford, 2017). Thus, the diabetic hearts can benefit from the SGLT2i treatment. Mildly elevated ketone levels can promote fuel efficiency and reduce ROS formation, which might improve cardiac function and the prognosis of heart failure (Oh et al., 2019). In addition to inducing ketosis, SGLT2i can mediate other effects, like the natriuretic effect, plasma volume contraction, to reduce cardiac preload. Also, through lowering blood pressure and arterial stiffness, cardiac afterload can be reduced (Selvaraj et al., 2020). In addition, SGLT2i can attenuate Nlrp3 inflammasome activation in isolated macrophages, which has also been proved in diabetic patients with cardiovascular diseases (Kim et al., 2020). Since SGLT2i′s targets are mainly located on the renal proximal tubular epithelium, SGLT2i mediated natriuresis may account for its hemodynamic improvement effect (Sano, 2017). To what degree SGLT2i′s cardiac protection is mediated by β-OHB remains challenging to clarify. Verma et al. showed that empagliflozin, or β-OHB, can enhance cardiac metabolism in diabetic mice by increasing ATP production rates without affecting cardiac efficiency (Verma et al., 2018). In a study using a novel ketone probe and magnetic resonance spectroscopy, empagliflozin was shown to be able to increase circulating β-OHB levels but not myocardial ketone body utilization in spontaneously hypertensive heart failure (Abdurrachim et al., 2019a). This suggests that SGLT2i may be beneficial to the heart, mainly via β-OHB through its non-oxidative functions. Furthermore, SGLT2i can improve glycemic regulation via an insulin-independent mechanism (Ferrannini and Solini, 2012). The therapeutic application of SGLT2i could lead to weight loss (Merovci et al., 2014), correction of hyperinsulinemia (Matsubayashi et al., 2020), and reduced hyperleptinemia (Vickers et al., 2014). SGLT2i could also modulate inflammation via IL-1β (Nakatsu et al., 2017) and Nlrp3 inflammasome (Sukhanov et al., 2021). These features together contribute to SGLT2i′s therapeutic effects in patients with heart failure.
Among multiple classes of antidiabetic agents, SGLT2i showed significant cardiovascular benefits, which might be attributed, at least partially, to its ability to increase the concentration of ketone bodies, especially β-OHB. SGLT2i is beyond its initial objective as an antidiabetic drug and the ongoing studies could further uncover the underlying molecular mechanisms. With a better understanding of the mechanism, we are on track to develop novel heart failure treatments in patients with or without diabetes.
Potential Therapeutic Applications of β-OHB
Given the benefits of exogenous β-OHB in patients with heart failure, several therapeutics have been developed to deliver β-OHB. β-OHB infusion in patients with HFrEF can significantly improve cardiac output and reduce systemic vascular resistance in a dose-dependent manner without impairing the myocardial external energy efficiency (Nielsen et al., 2019). Oral forms of β-OHB include 1,3-butanediol (Scott et al., 2019), medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) supplementation (Brunner et al., 2021), KEs, and ketone salts (Stubbs et al., 2017). Among them, KEs are the most promising therapeutics, with smaller effective doses and fewer side effects. KEs are typically comprised of several ketones or ketogenic precursors, and their decomposition products can be directly absorbed into blood as ketone bodies or their precursors (Clarke et al., 2012). Several clinical trials have been carried out to test KEs’ effects in healthy and cardiovascular disease conditions. KEs can reduce blood glucose, free fatty acids, and triglyceride levels (Stubbs et al., 2017), as well as lower plasma insulin, ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1, and peptide tyrosine levels in healthy adults (Stubbs et al., 2018). More ongoing studies are testing the effect of KEs in pre-diabetic patients. These studies will determine whether regulating ketone levels can become a promising therapeutic strategy in diseases with metabolic disorders like diabetes and heart failure.
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