Gettysburg Address Explanation

# Executive Summary The **Gettysburg Address** (delivered Nov. 19, 1863) is one of Abraham Lincoln’s most celebrated speeches.  Given at the dedication of the Soldiers’ National Cemetery near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania – four months after the bloody Battle of Gettysburg – the 272-word address succinctly reframed the Civil War as a test of the American founding principles of liberty and equality.  Lincoln invoked the Declaration of Independence (“Four score and seven years ago… dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal”), honored the fallen Union soldiers, and called for a “new birth of freedom” that would ensure “government of the people, by the people, for the people”.   Lincoln prepared several manuscript copies.  The **“Bliss Copy”** (his final, signed text) is often cited as authoritative, but five primary versions (Nicolay, Hay, Everett, Bancroft, Bliss) differ in wording, punctuation, and style.  We present all known versions verbatim and compare their variants below.  Each sentence of the Address is then analyzed in depth: meanings of phrases, 19th-century connotations, and Lincoln’s rhetorical strategy.  Key words and Biblical or historical allusions are explained.  We catalog rhetorical devices (e.g. anaphora in “we cannot dedicate…consecrate…hallow”, parallelism and triplets like “government of the people…”, antithesis between the dead and living, allusions to founding texts, appeals to ethos/pathos/logos), with examples from the text.   Finally, we survey the Address’s reception and legacy: contemporary reactions were divided along partisan lines (Republican newspapers praised it as eloquent and inspiring, Democratic ones criticized or ignored it), and over time the speech became enshrined as a foundational American text (often memorized in schools and evoked in civil rights rhetoric).  Historians debate Lincoln’s intent (was he elevating equality as America’s core ideal?) and note shifts in wording (e.g. Lincoln’s later inclusion of the phrase “under God” in drafts).  We outline how the Address is used in teaching – as a concise model of rhetoric and civic values – and propose discussion questions for students (such as the meaning of “new birth of freedom,” the significance of Lincoln’s allusions, and the relevance of “of the people, by the people, for the people”).   Overall, this report provides a comprehensive, sentence-by-sentence exegesis of the Gettysburg Address, grounded in primary texts and scholarship.  It integrates historical context (Civil War, Gettysburg battle, cemetery dedication) with linguistic and rhetorical analysis, with full citations.  Tables are used to compare text variants and list rhetorical devices (with line references).  Two Mermaid diagrams present a timeline of key events and an entity-relationship map of people, places, and documents involved.  ## Introduction Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address is a remarkably short yet profound speech delivered during the American Civil War.  On November 19, 1863, Lincoln addressed a crowd at the dedication of the Soldiers’ National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, four-and-a-half months after the Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg.  Though lasting only about two minutes and containing just 272 words (ten sentences), the Address has become one of the nation’s most famous and oft-quoted texts.  Lincoln’s purpose was twofold: to honor the Union soldiers who fell at Gettysburg and to articulate the broader meaning of the Civil War.  He framed the war as a test of whether the United States – “a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal” – could endure.   The Gettysburg Address consists of five main sentences (or passages) which correspond roughly to five paragraphs in later copies.  Lincoln wrote multiple drafts.  Several of these – known by the names of his secretaries or copyists – survive: the **Nicolay Copy** (Lincoln’s original draft written in Washington), the **Hay Copy** (a draft written soon after), the **Everett Copy** (a fair copy given to Edward Everett, the main orator that day), the **Bancroft Copy** (sent to historian George Bancroft), and the **Bliss Copy** (written after the speech and signed by Lincoln).  These versions differ in punctuation, spelling, and choice of words (for example, the phrase “under God” appears only in the later copies).  We first present all known versions verbatim in the table below, noting their variant readings.  Subsequently we analyze the Address sentence by sentence.  For each sentence, we explain the meaning of key phrases, their 19th-century connotations, and the historical references Lincoln alludes to.  We examine the syntax (for example, Lincoln’s use of parallel clauses and subordinate clauses) and the rhetorical effect (how Lincoln persuades, evokes emotion, and invokes authority).  We highlight important words and phrases – such as *“conceived in Liberty,” “a new birth of freedom,”* and *“of the people, by the people, for the people”* – explaining their origins and resonance in 1863.  We compile a list of rhetorical devices (anaphora, parallelism, antithesis, chiasmus, allusions to the Declaration of Independence and Biblical language, appeals to ethos/pathos/logos) with examples from the text and line references.   Finally, we discuss how the Gettysburg Address was received at the time and how it has been interpreted by historians.  Initially, Lincoln’s audience heard it in the shadow of Edward Everett’s 13,000-word oration (Lincoln’s own remarks were understood to be the “few appropriate remarks” expected from the President). Contemporary newspaper coverage varied: **Republican** papers broadly praised it as a poignant dedication, while **Democratic** papers criticized or even ignored it (some later issued retractions of their earlier slights).  Over time the speech’s stature grew, especially after Lincoln’s assassination in 1865 (Senator Charles Sumner called it “monumental” and lamented Lincoln’s self-effacing line about being “mistaken” about the world’s attention).  Modern scholarship debates Lincoln’s intent and wording (for example, did he mean to subtly redefine the war’s purpose in terms of equality, and why did he add the religious phrase “under God”?).   In the final section we consider pedagogical use: the Gettysburg Address is widely taught as a model of eloquent civic rhetoric and is analyzed in English and history classes.  We note available teaching resources (Library of Congress, Gilder Lehrman Institute, etc. have lesson plans) and we propose discussion questions that encourage students to reflect on themes like democracy, sacrifice, and Lincoln’s rhetorical choices.   Throughout, we emphasize authoritative sources.  The primary texts come from the Library of Congress, published facsimiles, or Lincoln archives.  Contextual and analytical points cite major historians (e.g. Garry Wills, Allen Guelzo) and reputable references (LOC, NPS, History.com, etc.).  Tables are used for clarity, and two mermaid diagrams depict the chronology of events and the relationships among people, places, and documents involved. ## Background and Historical Context The **Civil War** was in its third year by mid-1863. In July 1863, the pivotal **Battle of Gettysburg** took place in south-central Pennsylvania.  Over three days (July 1–3) Union and Confederate armies clashed, resulting in unprecedented casualties.  The Union Army of the Potomac (under Gen. George Meade) repelled Gen. Robert E. Lee’s invasion of the North.  Casualties were staggering: roughly 23,000 Union and 28,000 Confederate soldiers were killed, wounded, or missing.  The defeat compelled Lee’s army to retreat and marked a turning point in the war.  Thousands of bodies lay strewn across the Gettysburg countryside.  In the weeks after the battle, local citizens and officials moved to properly bury and honor the Union dead.  One leader was **David Wills**, a Gettysburg lawyer and friend of Governor Andrew Curtin.  Wills helped acquire land on Cemetery Hill (the site of repulsed Pickett’s Charge) for what became the **Soldiers’ National Cemetery**.  Reburial of Union soldiers began on October 27, 1863.  A dedication ceremony was set for October 23, but was postponed to mid-November at the request of Edward Everett – a prominent Massachusetts statesman – so that he could prepare a major oration.   On November 2, 1863, David Wills formally **invited President Lincoln** to attend the November dedication.  In his letter he tactfully told the President that Everett would be the main orator and asked Lincoln “formally to set apart these grounds to their sacred use by a few appropriate remarks”.  Lincoln accepted, offering his thanks for accommodations at the Wills House (Wills’s Gettysburg home).  Lincoln arrived in Gettysburg on the evening of Nov. 18 and stayed with Judge Wills.  That night, he probably drafted and revised his brief speech, possibly with his secretaries John Nicolay and John Hay present.  (Late tradition holds that Lincoln warned his stepdaughters not to interrupt his sleeping in the morning.)   The next day, November 19, 1863, a large crowd gathered on Cemetery Hill.  Edward Everett began at around 11:00 AM and delivered a two-hour, 13,000-word oration on the significance of Gettysburg.  In the afternoon, President Lincoln stepped to the podium.  Despite illness (he later suffered a mild smallpox outbreak) and fatigue, Lincoln spoke extemporaneously for just a few minutes (reports say 2–3 minutes total).  His words were brief compared to Everett’s, but **intended to consecrate the cemetery** and inspire the survivors.  Wills himself, who was seated on the speakers’ platform, later noted that Lincoln’s contribution was to deliver “a few appropriate remarks”, which indeed turned out to be the 272-word Address. Today’s knowledge of the Address comes from Lincoln’s prepared copies (which he revised by hand) and contemporaneous newspaper reports.  No verbatim stenographic record exists, so exact punctuation is uncertain.  Lincoln signed the last draft (the Bliss Copy) on November 19, 1863, which is why it became the “standard text” for publication.  Other copies (Nicolay, Hay, Everett, Bancroft) were written by Lincoln around the time of the speech.  We present these primary texts below. ```mermaidtimeline    title Timeline of Gettysburg Address events    1861-11 : Lincoln elected President    1863-07-01 : Battle of Gettysburg begins    1863-07-03 : Battle of Gettysburg ends (Union victory)    1863-10-27 : Reburial of Union dead begins    1863-11-02 : Lincoln invited by David Wills to speak    1863-11-18 : Lincoln arrives in Gettysburg (stays at Wills House)    1863-11-19 : Everett’s oration; Lincoln delivers Gettysburg Address    1865-04-09 : Civil War ends (Lee surrenders at Appomattox)``` ## Versions of the Gettysburg Address Lincoln wrote **five known copies** of the Address, as well as giving Everett a fair-copy manuscript.  Below we list them by name and date, with the text of each verbatim.  (Unless noted, each copy is in Lincoln’s handwriting.)  Punctuation and capitalization vary among versions.  A comparison table of key textual variants follows. | **Version (Date)**            | **Text (verbatim)** ||-------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|| **Nicolay Copy (draft, 11/19/63)**        | Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle field of that war. We come to dedicate a portion of it, as a final resting place for those who died here, that the nation might live. This we may, in all propriety do. But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate we can not consecrate we can not hallow, this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have hallowed it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here; while it can never forget what they did here. It is rather for us, the living, we here be dedicated to the great task remaining before us that, from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here, gave the last full measure of devotion that we here highly resolve these dead shall not have died in vain; that the nation, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. || **Hay Copy (draft, late 11/63)**          | Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met here on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of it, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense, we can not dedicate we can not consecrate we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they have, thus far, so nobly carried on. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom; and that this government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. || **Everett Copy (copy by Lincoln, 11/19/63)**    | Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives, that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here, have, thus far, so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devotion that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. || **Bancroft Copy (Washington, Nov/Dec 1863)**   | Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives, that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devotion - that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. || **Bliss Copy (final, Washington, Nov. 1863)**    | Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate—we can not hallow—this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.  | **Table 1:** *Known versions of the Gettysburg Address, verbatim (Lincoln’s manuscripts and fair copies). Variants include wording, punctuation, and phrasing. (See sources.)*  We have italicized nothing here, but **see discussion below** for key differences. ### Textual Variants Comparing the versions above reveals small but notable differences: - **Opening:** All begin “Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth...” (an echo of the Declaration of Independence).  Some drafts insert commas differently (e.g. *Nicolay:* “brought forth, upon this continent”; *Bliss:* no comma after “forth”).  The Hay, Everett, Bancroft, and Bliss copies capitalize *Liberty*; Nicolay and Bliss do not.  Bancroft uniquely uses “on this continent” instead of “upon”. - **Battle description:** Most say “battle-field” (with or without hyphen); Nicolay writes “battle field” as two words.  Hay adds “met here on a great battlefield” (introducing “here” which others omit). - **Dedication phrase:**  The Nicolay version uniquely ends the second sentence with “This we may, in all propriety do.”  In all others (Hay, Everett, Bancroft, Bliss) this is replaced by “It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this”. - **Ground consecration:**  The familiar line “we can not dedicate… we can not consecrate… we can not hallow this ground” appears in all, but punctuation varies.  Nicolay and Hay omit commas between “dedicate” and “consecrate”; Bliss uses long em-dashes; Bancroft misses a comma after “consecrate”.  Nicolay uses “hallowed it” (past tense) while all others use “consecrated it”. - **Memory of speech:** All versions include the famous line about the world “little note” and “little remember” vs “never forget.”  Hay omits the word “but” before “can never forget”; Bliss adds an extra comma after “note”.   - **Unfinished work:** The wording of the penultimate sentence has minor shifts: e.g. Hay says “unfinished work which they have thus far, so nobly carried on” while Nicolay writes “we here be dedicated to the great task remaining before us”.  The phrasing of Lincoln’s intent (“unfinished work” vs “great task”) and the placement of “rather” or “thus far” differ slightly.  - **Final resolve:**  Key differences appear in the closing sentence.  All include the idea “that these dead shall not have died in vain” and “that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom” and the famous triple “government of the people, by the people, for the people.”  The **"under God"** clause appears in the Everett, Bancroft, and Bliss copies but not in Nicolay or Hay.  Also, punctuation differs: Bancroft and Bliss use long dashes to link phrases, whereas Hay and Nicolay use semicolons or none, and Nicolay adds an extra comma (“that the nation, shall have a new birth”).   In summary, the **Bliss Copy** (Lincoln’s signed fair copy) is often taken as the “official” text, but Lincoln’s handwritten drafts (Nicolay, Hay) and the other copies contain alternate readings.  The table above shows each version in full.  Key variant phrases include *“upon/on this continent,” “dedicate… consecrate… hallow,” “hallowed it” vs. “consecrated it,” “in all propriety” vs. “fitting and proper,”* and especially the inclusion of *“under God”* only in later copies.   ## Sentence-by-Sentence Analysis We now analyze the Gettysburg Address line by line.  For clarity, we use the wording of the Bliss Copy as the base text (it is the most polished version) while noting variants.  We explain the meaning, syntax, historical allusions, and rhetorical effect of each sentence. 1. **“Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”**     - *Meaning:* Lincoln begins with “Four score and seven years ago” (87 years), referring to 1776 (the Declaration of Independence).  “Our fathers” means the American Revolutionaries.  He says they brought forth a *new nation* (the United States) on this continent, *conceived in Liberty* (born out of the idea of liberty) and *dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal*.  This recasts the war as tied to the Founders’ ideals.     - *Allusion & Context:* By recalling 1776, Lincoln links the Civil War to the Revolution.  He deliberately echoes the Declaration (“all men are created equal”), suggesting that the war tests those founding promises.  (Notably, he omits reference to the Constitution or slavery here, focusing instead on the Declaration’s ideal.)  Historian Allen Guelzo notes that this “score and seven” phrasing may allude to Psalm 90:10 (“threescore years and ten”), giving a slightly Biblical tone.  The capital “Liberty” and “Father” echo the language of reverence for the Republic’s founders.     - *Syntax and Effect:* Structurally, this is a complex sentence but starts emphatically.  The clause “four score and seven years ago…” sets a historical frame.  Parallel structure is used: “conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition…” – two past participle phrases modifying “nation,” creating a poetic cadence.  The solemn, almost archaic phrasing (“four score and seven”) lends gravity.  By invoking revered predecessors and lofty ideals, Lincoln establishes ethical **ethos** (he stands as heir to the founding fathers).  The effect is to invoke patriotism and to remind listeners of the Union’s birth and its principles.   2. **“Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure.”**     - *Meaning:* Lincoln shifts to the present: the nation is at war (the Civil War).  This war is a *test* of whether the nation—indeed any nation founded on equality—can survive (“long endure”).  In other words, the battle will prove whether self-government is viable.     - *Connotations:* Lincoln implies that the stakes are global: democracy is under trial.  As Guelzo argues, 1863’s United States was almost alone among major nations in being an enduring democracy; its survival would answer critics who doubted “the people’s capacity to govern themselves”.  This sentence appeals to **logos** (it states the argument of the war as a test) and elevates the Union cause from mere military victory to defending democracy itself.     - *Syntax:* The phrase “testing whether…can long endure” is a dependent clause that makes the sentence logically forward-moving.  The parallel with “nation” repeated (and the phrase “so conceived and so dedicated” echoing the first sentence’s clause) creates a sense of rhetorical symmetry.  The word “now” opens the sentence, contrasting the past (“four score and seven years ago”) with the present struggle.  Lincoln speaks plainly here (“civil war”), ensuring immediate clarity.     - *Historical Reference:* Lincoln almost quotes founder Thomas Jefferson’s idea of equality (1776) by saying “any nation so conceived and so dedicated.”  This broadens the scope: if the U.S. fails, all similarly founded republics might fail.   3. **“We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live.”**     - *Meaning:* Lincoln tells the audience that they have gathered on the very ground of the recent battle (“we are met on a great battlefield”).  They have come to dedicate part of it as a cemetery—a “final resting place” for soldiers who “here gave their lives so that that nation might live.”  The phrase “that that nation might live” emphasizes the sacrifice: Union soldiers died to preserve the country.     - *Historical Significance:* This sentence concretely ties the war’s high purpose to the location.  It honors the fallen by saying their death was not in vain: they died to keep the nation alive.  The use of **anaphora** (“that that nation might live”) and the chiasmus-like structure (“died…that… might live”) make the phrase memorable.  In Nicolay’s version, it appears slightly differently as “died here, that the nation might live”, but the meaning is the same.     - *Syntax/Rhetoric:* The first clause is short: “We are met…” This simple statement underscores unity (“we all meet here”) and the gravity of location. The second sentence is longer and balanced. It uses formal diction (“dedicate,” “final resting place”) and one subordinate clause (“that that nation might live”). The relative clause “who here gave their lives” honors the soldiers.  Overall, this sentence is solemn and reverent, using respectful tone.   4. **“It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.”**     - *Meaning:* Lincoln bluntly states that dedicating the cemetery is appropriate and necessary.  The word “altogether” emphasizes “entirely” right or just.     - *Rhetorical Effect:* This short sentence is a humble segue.  It contains a modest note of deference (“fitting and proper”) rather than grand heroics.  By contrast, the Nicolay copy had “This we may, in all propriety do,” an older style phrasing.  Lincoln’s phrasing here elevates the ceremonial tone.  He does not elaborate on this point, which underlines the idea from the next sentence—that the real dedication was already accomplished by the soldiers themselves.   5. **“But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate – we can not consecrate – we can not hallow – this ground.”**     **“The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract.”**     - *Meaning:* Lincoln now says that the living cannot truly make this ground sacred (“dedicate… consecrate… hallow”) by their words alone.  The real sanctification was done by the soldiers’ sacrifice.  The “brave men, living and dead, who struggled here” have already consecrated the ground through their blood and valor, far beyond any ceremony the living can perform.  In other words, their actions have given it sacred meaning.     - *Rhetorical Devices:* This is perhaps the most famous part of the speech, notable for its **anaphora/parallelism** (“we can not… we can not… we can not…”).  Repeating “we cannot” emphasizes the limits of the living’s role.  The three-part repetition (a triplet of clauses) builds rhythm and force.  The three verbs “dedicate, consecrate, hallow” reinforce the same idea in escalating solemnity (and all are synonyms relating to making something sacred).  This triplet is often cited as a model of persuasive repetition.     - *Word choice:* “Poor power” contrasts with the soldiers’ great deeds.  Lincoln humbles the speakers by calling their words inadequate in the face of battlefield sacrifice.  **Pathos** is strong: evoking “the brave men… who struggled here” appeals to emotion and respect for the fallen.  The phrase “living and dead” juxtaposes audiences (the survivors) with those who died, emphasizing unity with the fallen.  This also serves as a subtle **antithesis** (alive vs. dead) and an alliterative touch (“poor power”).     - *Connotation:* To “consecrate” or “hallow” something in 19th-century usage implies making it holy. Lincoln is saying the soldiers’ blood already consecrated the soil.  It has Biblical echoes (e.g. “sacrifice … sanctified”), casting the soldiers’ sacrifice as almost a religious act.  This also implicitly equates the Union cause with a sacred mission.     - *Syntax:* Punctuation in different versions varies (Bliss uses em-dashes).  Lincoln’s insertion of “in a larger sense” (Hay) or “in a larger sense” (Bliss/Nicolay) shows a pivot: he moves from literal ceremony to a grander moral point.   6. **“The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.”**     - *Meaning:* Lincoln predicts that history will likely overlook the words spoken at Gettysburg (even his own words), but it will always remember the soldiers’ actions and sacrifice.  He is being modest (and ironically incorrect), deferring fame to the slain heroes.     - *Irony and Humility:* This statement is often quoted for Lincoln’s humility.  Ironically, history did “note” and “remember” his words profoundly.  Historians remark on Lincoln’s modesty here.  After his death, Senator Sumner corrected Lincoln’s prophecy: the world did note and will never cease to remember his words.     - *Rhetoric:* The sentence uses a **contrast/antithesis**: “little note…nor long remember” vs. “never forget.” The triplet structure continues (“little note, nor long remember, but … can never forget”).  This parallelism reinforces the contrast.  It appeals to reason (logos), acknowledging human forgetfulness versus the enduring honor due to deeds.  By including himself as part of “what we say” the phrase again lowers his own importance.     - *Allusion:* The phrasing echoes common tributes to sacrifice (that deeds are immortal).  It’s also subtly an **anaphora** inversion because it repeats “here” at end of both clauses (“here” at end of “we say here” and “did here”), tying together the speaker and the soldiers in place.   7. **“It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced.”**     - *Meaning:* Lincoln shifts from past to present duty.  He says that *the living* (survivors and citizens) must take up the cause (“unfinished work”) that the soldiers began.  The fallen “fought here” and moved the cause forward; now the living must dedicate themselves to completing it.     - *Key Phrases:* “the living… dedicated” mirrors religious language (the living must dedicate themselves as the dead already consecrated the ground).  “Unfinished work” refers to winning the war and securing the nation’s ideals.  “Nobly advanced” lauds the soldiers’ achievements so far.     - *Rhetorical Devices:* Note the somewhat inverted word order (“it is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here”) – the priority is on “us the living” and “to be dedicated” (passive).  This construction emphasizes the obligation of the living audience.  **Parallelism** appears in “us the living… dedicated here… unfinished work… fought here… advanced.”  The repetition of “here” (“fought here… dedicated here”) emphasizes the setting.     - *Syntax:* Complex subordinate clauses abound.  “Which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced” embeds a relative clause with additional modifiers (“thus far, so nobly”).  The effect is formal and lofty.     - *Connotations:* The idea of an “unfinished work” conveys continuity from Gettysburg to the ongoing war effort and beyond.  This sentence raises the emotional stakes by making the audience responsible.  It appeals to **ethos and pathos**: honoring the fallen with superlatives (“nobly”) and challenging the living’s resolve.   8. **“It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion.”**     - *Meaning:* The sentence continues the thought: the living must dedicate themselves to the great task ahead.  Specifically, they must take the example of the dead’s ultimate sacrifice (“last full measure of devotion” – i.e. giving their lives) as inspiration for redoubling their efforts for the cause.  In short, we honor the dead by carrying on their mission with renewed zeal.     - *Rhetoric:* This is perhaps one of Lincoln’s most famous lines.  Notice the **parallel phrasing** and the repetition of “devotion”: *“increased devotion… last full measure of devotion”*.  This repetition underscores the magnitude of sacrifice.  The concluding clause is a **hypophora** of sorts: “for which they gave… devotion.”  The long buildup emphasizes duty.     - *Devices:* The structure uses a pause (dash) before “that from these honored dead,” which heightens the solemnity.  The phrase “last full measure” is famously poetic – it echoes a soldier’s oath in the American military hymns (“the last full measure of devotion” appears in Civil War era songs) and intensifies the formality.  This line is an appeal to **pathos** (honoring fallen soldiers) and to **logos** (making logical cause-and-effect: because they sacrificed, we resolve not to let it be in vain).     - *Historical Resonance:* Lincoln’s elevation of soldierly sacrifice to moral example became a standard patriotic theme.  It echoes Biblical language of sacrificial devotion.   9. **“…that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom.”**     - *Meaning:* Continuing from above, Lincoln says: *“we resolve”* as our pledge that the soldiers’ deaths will not be meaningless. The nation will experience “a new birth of freedom,” implying that their sacrifice will lead to a revitalized America (free and united).  The phrase “under God” (present in later copies) adds a religious dimension, suggesting divine sanction of the new birth.     - *Connotation:* This phrase became a rallying cry.  “New birth of freedom” evokes both the Declaration’s promise and Lincoln’s own recent Emancipation Proclamation (Jan 1863), hinting that the war’s outcome might permanently expand liberty (especially for the enslaved).  By saying “this nation, under God,” Lincoln is both patriotic and pious, placing the Union’s fate in a moral register.  Allen Guelzo and others note that in 1863, monarchy was often seen as superior to democracy; here Lincoln affirms faith in democratic “government of the people.”     - *Rhythm:* The phrasing is an example of a **negative construction** (“shall not have died in vain”) followed by a promise (“shall have a new birth of freedom”).  The repetition of “shall” adds emphasis.     - *Rhetorical Impact:* This is the high point of moral vision in the address.  It explicitly ties the dead soldiers’ sacrifice to a renewal of America itself.  The religious undertone (“under God”) turns the cause into a kind of divine mission.   10. **“—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”**     - *Meaning:* Lincoln concludes by defining the essence of the nation’s government: it is *of, by, and for the people* (a phrase suggesting democracy).  He confidently asserts that such a government will endure and not “perish from the earth.”  The implication is that the preservation of the Union will ensure democracy’s survival, worldwide.     - *Rhetorical Devices:* This line is a textbook example of **parallelism and tricolon** (three phrases all ending in “people”).  It is also an epistrophe because “the people” is repeated at the end of each clause.  It has become one of the most quoted lines in political oratory.  The structure is balanced and memorable; it translates complex political principle into simple, poetic terms.     - *Connotation:* By ending on “people,” Lincoln emphasizes that the government belongs to ordinary citizens.  In 1863 this was a radical idea against prevailing autocracies.  Some (like Wills) have noted parallels to Pericles’ Funeral Oration in ancient Greece, but Lincoln’s phrasing is distinctly **American democratic** rhetoric.     - *Finality:* The statement is declarative and reassuring.  Lincoln’s choice to repeat “people” draws an emotional and patriotic response.  The concluding promise that democracy “shall not perish” is a strong positive note – it gives hope that the sacrifices were not in vain.   Each sentence above uses tight, formal language and employs several rhetorical techniques.  Noteworthy **words and phrases** with special connotations include: - **“Our fathers”** (founders), **“new nation”**, **“conceived in Liberty”** – tie the Civil War to the American Revolution and its ideals.- **“Testing whether… can endure”** – the war as a trial of democracy (reminiscent of global debates on government).- **“Dedicated to the proposition”** – uses lofty abstract language (in an era, “proposition” signaled philosophical principle).- **“Fitting and proper”** – a modest, somewhat legalistic phrase indicating propriety and respect for tradition.- **“Hallowed”** and **“consecrated”** – with religious overtones, implying holiness of sacrifice.- **“Honored dead,” “last full measure of devotion”** – formal, poetic phrases evoking ultimate sacrifice (the latter echoes contemporary patriotic hymns).- **“New birth of freedom”** – a transcendent phrase implying both renewal and concrete emancipation (and echoing themes from the Revolution).- **“Government of the people…”** – a definitive phrase in democratic theory (later inscribed on the Lincoln Memorial). Lincoln’s syntax is typically formal and periodic, but he also uses short sentences (Nos. 3–4) for contrast.  Overall, the speech moves from past to present to future, creating a rhetorical arc: from the founding (sentence 1), through war (2–4), to sacrifice (5–6), to duty (7–8), to hope (9–10). ## Rhetorical Devices Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address is replete with classic rhetorical figures.  The table below catalogs major devices with examples from the text (using the Bliss version for reference) and brief commentary.  Each example is cited by line or clause for clarity. | **Device**           | **Example**                                                                                 | **Explanation**                                                                                                       ||----------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|| **Anaphora / Parallelism:** Repetition at the beginning of phrases                    | “*we can not dedicate*—*we can not consecrate*—*we can not hallow* this ground.” | Repeating “we can not” (anaphora) triples the verb, emphasizing the inability of the living to consecrate the ground.  This parallel structure adds rhythm and force. || **Parallelism / Tricolon:** Balanced three-part phrase                                    | “*government of the people, by the people, for the people*”                   | Three parallel phrases ending in “people.” This tricolon with epistrophe highlights the democratic ideal, making it memorable and poetic.                                || **Alliteration/Epiphora:** Repeated sound or word                              | “*Four score and seven years ago our fathers...*” (repeated “ar” sound) “note... nor long remember... but it can never forget” (repeated “not/never”) | Alliteration: the sound “our,” “score,” and “years” softly echo.  Epiphora (word end repetition): “remember… forget.” These subtle patterns emphasize key contrasts (note/forget). || **Antithesis / Contrast:** Juxtaposing opposites                                       | “*For those who here gave their lives that that nation might live*” “*living and dead*”                     | “Gave their lives... that that nation might live” is a poignant antithesis (death vs. life). The phrase “living and dead” also contrasts survivors with fallen.            || **Chiasmus (sort of):** Balanced inversion                                        | (Implicit) “*The world will little note… but it can never forget*”      | There is a chiasmus-like inversion in the structure “little note / never forget,” highlighting Lincoln’s ironic humility.                                             || **Anaphora (Ethos):** Invoking authority or tradition                           | “*Four score and seven years ago our fathers... conceived in Liberty...*”  | Refers to the nation’s founders and Declaration (“our fathers,” “Liberty”), establishing ethos by aligning Lincoln with revered ancestors and founding ideals.        || **Allusion (Historical):** References to earlier texts/events                 | (1776 Declaration) implied by “*all men are created equal*” (Pericles) (“ancestors… sacrifice… survivors” – see Thucydides) | Directly echoes the Declaration’s principle (“created equal”).  Garry Wills and others note structural parallels to Pericles’s Funeral Oration.      || **Allusion (Biblical/Religious):** Scriptural resonance                            | (Bible) “*under God* shall have a new birth of freedom”                     | Invokes divine sanction (“under God”), infusing the cause with religious significance.  Gopnik observed Lincoln’s language as deeply Biblical, unlike Everett’s classical style.  || **Pathos (Emotional Appeal):** Evoking pity/sorrow                         | “*the brave men, living and dead, who struggled here*”                            | Honors the soldiers’ bravery and sacrifice. This phrase humanizes the dead (“brave men”) and appeals to emotion, stirring patriotic pride and sorrow.                    || **Ethos (Moral Authority):** Establishing credibility                         | “*conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal*” | Citing the nation’s founding principles and the Declaration lends moral weight. Lincoln presents himself as a guardian of those ideals.                                   || **Logos (Logical Appeal):** Presenting a reasoned argument                 | “*testing whether that nation... can long endure*”                                | Frames the war as a test of the principle of equality. It appeals to reason by connecting the military struggle to an existential question about government and society. || **Tricolon with Climactic Build:** Repeated structures gaining emphasis          | “*that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation... shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people... shall not perish from the earth.*” | Stacked clauses (“dead shall not... nation shall have... government shall not...”) build to a climax: the enduring survival of democracy.  Each clause expands upon the last. | *Table 2:* *Rhetorical devices in the Gettysburg Address, with examples from Lincoln’s speech (Bliss Copy)*. These devices demonstrate Lincoln’s skillful rhetoric.  For example, the anaphora of “we can not” powerfully underscores human limitations.  The famous triadic phrases (e.g. *“dedicate–consecrate–hallow”* and *“of the people, by the people, for the people”*) leverage both **parallelism** and emotional resonance.  Lincoln famously uses everyday language (“*we are met*,” “*we have come*,” “*we cannot*”) rather than lofty classical diction, a style deliberate for broad appeal.  At the same time, he incorporates grand concepts (Liberty, equality, God) to inspire **ethos** and **pathos**.  Allen Guelzo notes that Lincoln’s language “slips… into a type of slang” and “the sound of the King James Bible,” making complex ideas accessible and stirring.   In sum, the Address is a masterclass in concise rhetoric.  It uses the Brevity and cadence of triplets and balanced clauses to make its message memorable.  Each sentence carries weight through these devices and Lincoln’s careful word choices, which we have detailed above. ## Reception and Historical Significance At the time, the Gettysburg Address did not immediately achieve fame.  It followed Everett’s grand oration, and newspaper reports varied widely in accuracy and emphasis.  Across the Union states, **Republican**-leaning newspapers typically praised Lincoln’s remarks as eloquent and fitting for the occasion.  For instance, some Republican editorials called it a moving dedication to the fallen.  **Democratic** papers, by contrast, often gave it scant attention or criticized Lincoln.  As historian Gabor Boritt summarizes: *“Most of the Democratic papers tried to hide, or entirely ignore, the president’s speech”* (at the time, Democratic leaders saw it as political grandstanding).  (Decades later, a pro-Lincoln newspaper even retracted its original denunciation.)   Newspapers also mangled phrases: one Illinois paper reported Lincoln’s opening as “Ninety years ago” instead of “Four score and seven”.  This suggests many listeners had difficulty capturing his exact wording.  Overall, initial public reaction was **mixed** and lacked universal acclaim.  Yet within months, the Address began appearing in commemorations and anthologies.   By the late 1860s, Lincoln’s text gained prestige.  Union veterans and officials cited it as expressing the war’s meaning.  Lincoln’s assassination in April 1865 further canonized the speech.  Senator Charles Sumner famously wrote that Lincoln had been *“mistaken”* when he doubted the world would remember his words: on the contrary, Sumner said, the Address was now “sanctified by the martyrdom of its author” and had become a *“monumental act”*.   In the 20th century the Gettysburg Address became ingrained in American memory.  Presidents often quote it (e.g. Kennedy, Obama) and it is inscribed at the Lincoln Memorial.  The phrase *“government of the people, by the people, for the people”* in particular has become shorthand for American democracy.  Scholars note that it has been translated into dozens of languages and memorized by generations of students.  It is studied as an example of powerful civic oratory (e.g. classroom resources dissect its rhetoric).   Contemporary historians and critics continue to analyze the Address’s **meaning and origins**.  Some debate whether Lincoln’s purpose was primarily to honor the dead or to redefine the war’s purpose in terms of equality and national rebirth.  The Address’s allusion to 1776 rather than 1787 (Constitution) has been discussed as a deliberate choice to emphasize equality over legal compromise.  Lincoln’s addition of the words “under God” in some drafts (a phrase absent in the earliest copy) has sparked interest in his religious views and how the speech was intended to sound.  Scholars also examine sources Lincoln may have consulted: parallels to Pericles’s Funeral Oration (as noted by Garry Wills) or the influence of the King James Bible (as Adam Gopnik observes) are points of historiographical discussion.   Another debate concerns **authorship and transmission**.  Some have questioned why Lincoln’s different drafts vary; historians attribute this to evolving phrasing and to Lincoln revising by hand.  The fact that Lincoln delivered the speech without reading from a long script (and that newspaper reports only partially captured it) means the exact spoken words are uncertain.  However, no serious doubt remains that Lincoln himself composed it (his secretaries aided only by writing it down).  Lincoln’s own high regard for the Address is reflected in his answer to a colleague after the speech: “They have gone it better than I said it” (Lincoln happily conceded Everett had admired it).   In short, the Gettysburg Address went from a modest ceremonial remark to a cornerstone of American historical memory.  It is now universally cited as embodying the Civil War’s legacy and the nation’s foundational ideals. ```mermaiderDiagram    LINCOLN ||--|| WILLS : visited    LINCOLN ||--o{ NICOLAY_COPY : wrote    LINCOLN ||--o{ HAY_COPY : wrote    LINCOLN ||--o{ EVERETT_COPY : wrote    LINCOLN ||--o{ BANCOFT_COPY : wrote    LINCOLN ||--o{ BLISS_COPY : wrote    DAVID_WILLS ||--|| NATIONAL_CEMETERY : established    NATIONAL_CEMETERY }|--|| GETTYSBURG : located_in    DAVID_WILLS ||--|| WILLS_HOUSE : hosts    WILLS_HOUSE }|--|| GETTYSBURG : in    EDWARD_EVERETT ||--|| NATIONAL_CEMETERY : spoke_at    EDWARD_EVERETT ||--|| ORATION_MANUSCRIPT : delivered    NICOLAY_COPY }|--|| WHITE_HOUSE : written_at``` *Figure:* *Entity-relationship diagram of key people, places, and documents. Abraham Lincoln (with secretaries Nicolay, Hay) authored the various **Gettysburg Address** copies.  Judge David Wills established the Soldiers’ National Cemetery at Gettysburg and invited Lincoln.  Edward Everett delivered the main oration at the cemetery dedication.* ## Pedagogical Uses and Discussion Questions The Gettysburg Address is a staple of American education.  Its brevity and depth make it ideal for teaching history, rhetoric, and civic ideals.  It is often introduced in middle and high school curricula.  Teachers use it to discuss the Civil War’s causes and goals, the ideals of the Declaration, and the nature of citizenship.  Resources abound: the Library of Congress and National Park Service provide primary documents (including Lincoln’s manuscripts) and guided analysis, and institutes like Gilder Lehrman offer lesson plans. For rhetoric classes, the Address is a classic case study in persuasive writing.  Students analyze its sentence structure, figurative language, and appeals to ethos, pathos, and logos.  For history classes, it prompts discussion of American identity and the meaning of democracy.  For English, it is used to demonstrate powerful yet accessible vocabulary and the impact of rhythm and repetition. **Sample discussion questions** for students might include: - *“Why does Lincoln begin with ‘Four score and seven years ago…’? What effect does this opening have?”* (Expected discussion: It links to 1776, making Americans reflect on the Revolution and their founding principles.)  - *“What does Lincoln mean by ‘a new birth of freedom’? How might this phrase relate to the Emancipation Proclamation?”* (This examines Lincoln’s choice to invoke broad renewal, possibly hinting at ending slavery.)  - *“Why do you think Lincoln repeats ‘we can not dedicate – we can not consecrate – we can not hallow’?* What is the purpose of this repetition?” (The answer should address emphasis through repetition – it’s a refusal, highlighting the soldiers’ prior consecration.)  - *“Who is Lincoln’s intended audience *in this speech*? Who else might be listening (or reading) now?”* (Locally, the dedication attendees; nationally, the American public via newspapers; and future generations as rhetoric.)  - *“What is the significance of the phrase ‘government of the people, by the people, for the people’?* Can you think of any other place where similar phrasing appears?” (Students often connect it to democratic theory or identify echoes in other speeches.)  - *“Identify examples of ethos, pathos, and logos in the Address.”* (Ethos: invoking founders; Pathos: honoring the dead; Logos: presenting the war as a test.)  - *“How did different newspapers react to the speech, and why?”* (Prompt students to recognize partisan bias in historical sources.)  - *“What might Lincoln mean by saying ‘the world will little note… but it can never forget what they did here’?”* (Encourages thinking about modesty and historical legacy, as well as irony of hindsight.)  - *“How does Lincoln define America in this speech?* What ideals does he stress?” (Equality, liberty, democracy.)  - *“Consider the impact of adding ‘under God’ in some versions. How does this change the tone or meaning?”* (Students can debate the insertion of religious language in public oration.)   In sum, teaching the Gettysburg Address involves both its historical setting and its literary qualities.  By analyzing each sentence and device, students gain insight into Lincoln’s rhetoric and the 19th-century world.  These questions and themes help connect the text to broader concepts of democracy, sacrifice, and national purpose.   # Sources Primary sources for the text of the Gettysburg Address include Lincoln’s manuscripts (transcribed by LOC and others).  We have drawn on authoritative collections (e.g. Library of Congress archives, NPS site) for context and original quotations.  Scholarly analysis comes from major historians and publications, including Allen Guelzo, Gabor Boritt (via Dickinson College blog), and the Cornell Chronicle (summarizing Guelzo).  We also used trusted educational sources (History.com, National Park Service).  All quotations and data are cited above with page/line references as ``.