|
Strategy | Tactic |
Avoidance | Avoiding a topic, concept, grammatical construction, or phonological element that poses difficulty |
Circumlocution | Describing an object or idea with a definition (e.g., You know, that thing you open bottles with – for corkscrew) |
Approximation | Using an alternative term which expresses the meaning of the target lexical item as closely as possible (e.g., ship for sailboat) |
Word coinage | Creating a nonexistent L2 word based on a supposed rule (e.g., vegetable-ist for vegetarian) |
Nonverbal signals | Mime, gesture, facial expression, or sound imitation |
Prefabricated patterns | Using memorized stock phrases, usually for "survival" purposes (e;g., Where is ... ? How much is ... ? (morphological components are not known to the learner) |
Code switching | Using an L 1 word with L 1 pronunciation while speaking in L2 (e.g., Je serais à la rehearsal – for repetition) |
Appeal to authority | Asking for aid either directly (e.g., What do you call ... ?) or indirectly (e.g., rising intonation, pause, eye contact, puzzled expression) |
Keeping the floor | Using fillers or hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think (e.g., well, now let's see, uh, as a matter of fact) |