http://geocities.com/Proto-language/ProtoLanguage-Monosyllables.htm

[상당구]

, . The owl's cry is the harbinger of death in beliefs around the world; the owl is 'the warner', which is the meaning of PIE *ma:-, 'signal with the hand, *warn'.



There is probably a connection with Vulgar Latin amma, 'owl', but I cannot specify it. It is possible that it represents PIE **ma:-ma:-, with metathesis, to avoid (near) homonymy with *ma[:]ma[:], 'mother', but for this there is no conclusive proof. It is also possible that it represents *ma[:]ma[:], 'always-warner', which is even more likely.



A second Egyptian sign for MHA, with a different meaning, is Gardiner #U1, 'sickle', also for alphabetic (j)m(3): .



The ancient sickle did not have a solid blade but rather had a jagged 'edge' of sharp flakes of flint (teeth) set in a wooden base; because of these triangular flakes, it was natural to characterize 'reaping' cereal grain as 'biting off'. At an early date, MHA was compounded with ?A, 'plant-top', to further specify its normal utilization. This gives us PIE *a(:)me:- (for *a(:)ma:-; cf. Greek amáo:, 'mow, cut'; PIE *ma(:)i-, 'work with a sharp tool', PL MHA-¿E), 'mow'. A second way in which MHA was expanded with through RE, 'cause to become . . .' = 'cause to be bitten' = 'cut off'. It can be seen in m3.j, 'lion', i.e. 'biter (off)'; quite a promotion for what started out as the bite of an ant. We can see this also in PIE *mer- (for **ma(:)r-), 'consume'.

This (#U1) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

We can see the simplex in Sumerian ma₅ (for *mâ₅), 'crush, mangle (also means 'burn' in the sense of 'devour')' which is written with Jaritz #15, 'head and neck in profile with hair around the mouth (really, a gunû (shading with multiple parallel lines, horizontal or vertical) form of #194)', with a superimposed #893d, which depicts a 'flat stone grinding board', which we usually call metate in view of its continued use in some North American Native cultures today: ; the mano, the usually cylindrical 'stone grinder', is not pictured.

An additional reading for #893d is zid₂, which means 'flour'; this is a result of PL T?SE-T?A, 'finger-give' = 'press'; i.e. 'flour', 'what is pulverized by pressure'. While we cannot locate this root in PIE, it can be seen in Egyptian m-Dd, 'press hard on', where the initial m- is a prefix marking a 'tool' (PL MHA). The Old Kingdom determinative for this word is: . Gardiner describes this as 'warp stretched between two uprights' but this is almost certainly wrong. First, the sign does not graphically portray this; and second, the meaning assigned, 'press hard on', does not correspond with such an interpretation from weaving either. I was puzzled by this for quite some time before posting the question to a discussion list, where I received

this kind reference from Juan de la Torre Suárez.

I immediately remembered that I had seen something like this years ago in a travelogue about Italian peasants: it is a poor man's wine-press, suitable for extracting the juice from crushed vegetable material of any kind, operated by twisting a cloth full of crushed material, fixed stationarily between two posts at either end, which causes intense pressure on the contents of the cloth: wringing out the juice. This is only a part of what posted on the website linked above:



Another example is Egyptian where the initial m- is a prefix marking a 'tool' (PL MHA), is m-DH, 'hew timber, stone; build ships'. The DH is an '*axe, build'; and we see it clearly in the Old Kingdom depiction of an 'axe': ; and we can see it in PIE *tek^Þ- (for **t(h)e(:)k^(h)-s-), 'put together the frame of a house; carpenter; axe'. This is PL TSHA-KXHE, 'stand up-work' = 'erection, building'.

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NHA

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #597) depicts a 'heavy weight on a sledge', but also, quite possibly as a separate sign which has been conflated, a 'pestle and mortar'; it reads la₆ (for *lâ₆), which is recorded to mean 'flooding'. If the depiction is a 'sledge', and one of its meanings is 'powerful', I think we can see how the idea of powerful transportation (perhaps not a 'sledge' but a 'raft') could easily be associated with 'water-current'.



The Egyptian sign for NHA is Gardiner #N35, n, which shows 'ripples on the surface of water (-current)': , and is alphabetic n. This can be seen in PIE *lel- (for **la[:]l-), 'swing back and forth, move rhythmically (like an ebbing and flowing current)'.



A second Egyptian sign for NHA is Gardiner #G14, n(r)(.t), which depicts a 'vulture': . If one looks at the various birds represented by the Egyptians in their writing system (50+), I do not believe that any bird of that group shows a clear attempt to portray 'ducking down the head' as does #G14. And a secondary sign, depicting a 'vulture's head', #H4, seems to me to be making the same graphic point to represent 'ducking down': .



To understand why the 'vulture' is associated with 'ducking down', we need to keep in mind that the vulture, whose neck and head are featherless, is designed by nature to be able to stick/duck his head into a crevice of an animal carcass while avoiding contaminative contact with surrounding putrefying animal material by its head and neck; and that, after dining, the vulture will seek water, and submerge its head and neck to wash off accidental bacterial contamination. Also, carrion-feeders will not be regarded as having normal courage.

As a consequence, #G14 and #H4 have taken up the reading nr, PL NHA-RO, 'duck-augmentative = 'duck down low'; and this has been interpreted as behavior accompanying 'great fear'. Egyptian nr(.j)/(.w), accordingly, is recorded to mean 'fear, dread', and 'terrible (inspiring fear and dread)'. The basal meaning of this word can be seen in PIE *la:-, 'hide, conceal'.

The vulture's hooked bill allows it to tear off large chunks of flesh; and this observation was associated with 'gluttony', 'gorging on food'. As a result, we have the PIE s-mobile form seen in *(s)ler- (for *(s)la:r-), 'feast, *eat gluttonously, swallow large, whole, pieces of meat'; without a Sumerian or Egyptian cognate, we cannot specify what PL monosyllable is represented by PIE -*r in this word though there is a good chance it may be RE.

In view of the somewhat odd absence of the sequence *n3 in Egyptian, we might toy with the idea that after n, 3 was modified to r but there is no data to suggest this in PIE or Sumerian of which I am aware.

---

PHA

The Sumerian sign is Jaritz #658, which depicts a 'palm-tree on the ground with multiple palm fronds growing from its top'; and reads pa₉, 'wing, branch, frond'. Jaritz #560 also reads pa with the same meanings but its form, , shows us quite clearly that interpreting what it depicts as 'two stems with a branch growing from each of them' is preferable.

The reading of #560 as sa₆ (for *sâ₆), 'sweet', for PL SHA, is probably secondary in meaning but originated, as sa₇, 'sweet', for #658; #658 also reads sag₉ (for *sâk₉, SHA-KHA, 'satisfy-desire' = 'sweet-tooth'), which also means 'sweet (but better: '(catering to a) sweet- tooth').

The reading sa₇, 'sweet', for #648, is probably secondary since it depicts an 'eyeball with optic nerve' on which there is gunû (shading with multiple parallel lines, horizontal or vertical) hatching: ; accordingly, it suggests that 'beautiful', one of its other assigned meanings, is primary.

There are several additional words of the form sag (for *sâk), all indicating desirable qualities of various kinds, the nuance specified by the sign rather than a unique word:

sag₇ (for *sâk₇) is a reading of #648, which reads sig₇ (for *sîk₇, 'dried out, pale'; properly šik, Jaritz #965, SHE-KHA, see above), and means 'palely beautiful' — a highly desirable quality in Mideastern females then and now, *womanly beauty' (see immediately above);

sag₈ (for *sâk₈) is a reading of #597, which reads kal, and means 'strong, well-muscled, *manly beauty';

we have seen sag₉ (for *sâk₉) above;

sag₁₀ (for *sâk₁₀) is a reading of #648 + #506, 'treasury', the latter of which reads erim/n₂, and means 'beautiful/precious object, treasure/treasure chest/treasury, armory': ; #506 is a combination itself of #458, ''tubular basket tapering toward the top with top-cover'', inset with #700, which depicts a 'bow' .

Sumerian sag (for *sâk) itself is PIE *se:k- (for *sa[:]k-), 'ease up (as a result of satisfaction), lazy, quiet'; and Egyptian zk, 'pass time (idly, as a result of satisfaction)'. To judge by Egyptian jm3, 'date-palm', and Sumerian ^GIŠimmar, 'date-palm', an early name for the 'date-palm' itself was 'what creates a smile, pleasing': PL ?E-MHA-RA, a variant of ?E-MHA-¿E-RA, 'smiling'; see above.



The Egyptian sign for PHA is Gardiner #G40, the 'flying duck', alphabetic p(3): .

This (#G40) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

If the idea of flying as 'action of the wings' was not already implicit in the elements of the Egyptian word for 'fly', p3, the determinative is Gardiner #H5, 'wing': ; this sign may also have had the value of PHA; this is suggested by Sumerian pa₉, 'wing'.



A word which must be mentioned is the rather unusual Sumerian ba-ra-aš, 'fly'. Sumerian ba also reads pa₂; and, in view of the circumstance that we believe this word mustbe related to Egyptian p3, 'fly', and PIE *per-, 'fly', we immediately emend it to pa₂-ra-aš.

Sumerian ra, as we have seen above under RA, means not only 'back' but operations performed on the 'back', like 'beating'. It seems likely, then, that the two syllables should be analyzed as *pa₂-ra, 'beat the wing(s)' = 'fly'.

There is no meaning for aš which conceivably contributes in this context; but Jaritz #1, with which it is written, also reads ru₂. If it is only a phonetic indication of the intended syllable, we can look at ru, written with Jaritz #111, which depicts a 'bent throwing stick'.

One of the meanings associated with it for the reading ru is 'spread out'; and we can see this is PIE *rew6-, 'open', which, in view of the Sumerian r and the semantics, must be reconstructed as RA-FA, 'tall-do repeatedly' = 'open up at the top'; this, of course, requires the emendation of ru to *rû. A confirmation of this reconstruction is Egyptian 3w, 'long (in space or time)', which is written with Gardiner #F40, 'ribs on spinal column with spinal cord extending at both ends': .

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PFHA

The Sumerian sign is Jaritz #118a, which depicts a 'pick in the shape of an ibex horn'; and means 'ibex', the male of which species is bearded. One of its readings is ba₇, which I emend to *pâ_x for the meaning 'ibex' itself. The ibex is short-haired but still a source of wool through combing rather than shearing. One of the readings of this sign, bar (for par₂) means 'fleece'. This presumably represents PFHA-RA, 'ibex-color' = 'white'.



The Egyptian sign for PFHA is Gardiner #E10 (and #E11, OK version), which is used alphabetically as a biliteral for b(3), 'ram': .



The connection of PFHA with 'sheep' is the 'spongy wool', suggesting the texture of a beard, which covers this animal's body; and the apparent beard on some varieties of sheep. Egyptian b3, '*sheep', is PL PFHA-RA, 'spongy'-formant of color adjectives = 'spongy one, fleece-white'. It is somewhat likely that we see this root again in PIE *(s)p(h)er- (for *(s)p(h)a(:)r-), 'pellets of sheep or goat dung'.

In PIE, *per- (for **p(h)a(:)r-) has been transferred to 'cattle', where it shows up as Modern German Farr(e), 'bullock' and Färse, 'heifer'. The transfer of meaning to 'cattle' was inspired by change of residence of speakers from mountains, where sheep were native, to plains, where cattle were preval‎ent.

These (#E10/#E11) are other examples
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

---

QHA

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #114) depicts a 'stone with a vertical stroke on its topside to indicate above surface placement', a 'pebble'. The idea of 'top' led to the idea of a 'stele' — a stone set up on the surface, and the meaning 'high' (for 'humped up'), for which Sumerian has na (for *ñâ), 'high'. As a result of the phonological similarity to na from NA, 'stone', #114 acquired this meaning also when determined by Jaritz #453, the sign that truly designates a 'stone'; see under NA above.

The Egyptian sign for QHA is Gardiner #T19 (and #T20, Old Kingdom form), 'harpoon-head of bone', which is normally read qs: .

An important derivation from this root is PL QHA-SO, which was interpreted in two different ways: as 'hard-skin', it meant 'bone'; but as 'hard-pull', it meant 'comb'. In the latter meaning, it can be found as PIE *kes- (for *(n)ka(:)s-), 'comb'.

In the former meaning (perhaps differently stress-accented as QHA-'SO, it meant 'bone'; it can be seen in PIE as *kost- (for **kost(h)-), 'bone(s)' (QHA-'SO + T?SA, formant of bodily parts', which has been devoiced to *t(h) by contact with *s.). In addition, it appears as *ost(h)-, 'bone', a simplification of **(n)ks't(h)V-, 'rib(s), bone(s). In Egyptian, it is seen as qs, 'bone, harpoon(-head')'.



A second Egyptian sign for QHA is Gardiner #A28, 'man with both arms raised', which is normally read q(3): .

This (#A28) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

For additional discussion of q3, see below under QHE.

A special usage of this word is in PIE *kakka- (for **(n)ka(:)(n)ka(:)-), 'defecate'.

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RHA

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #832) depicts the 'arm of a hanging pan scale', reads la₂ (for *lâ₂), and means 'to fly/hover, to be high (be caused to hover), to hang (from), to carry (cause to hang from), to weigh (cause to be hung from), to pay (weigh out for), to lift (cause to be high), to lessen (cause to be lifted from), to fall back, retreat (fly from), to tie up (cause to be suspended by a rope)', and others. A variant of this sign suggests the outline of wings in flight: . A reduplicated version of the sign (#833) also exists which has much the same meanings as #832: , but favoring transitive interpretations.



The Egyptian sign for RHA is Gardiner #G1, 3, , 'Egyptian vulture'. Egyptian 3, 'vulture, bird', is now recognized to have originally been a type of /r/ (a view I propose in 1975 to the accompaniment of general merriment); in my opinion, a voiceless /r/, which developed easily into /h/ and finally, simple lengthening of the preceding vowel so that C + 3 was used for C alone in syllabic spellings of foreign (mostly Canaanitic) word during Middle Kingdom times.

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SHA

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #807) depicts the 'division of an object into portions' , reads sa₂ (for *sâ₂), and means 'to be equal (to), alike, compare (with)'. We have already seen it above with the reading di, 'portion'. As we said above, the idea behind this is making a correct and therefore normally satisfying division of goods or interests. The basic idea of SHA is to induce immobility through satisfaction.

The Egyptian sign for SHA is Gardiner #G39, , 'pintail duck'. Though it has been assigned the value of z3, z.t, 'pintail duck', is also recorded.

This (#G39) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

Both duck and goose livers are used for paté de foie gras; and the name of this duck suggests it was so utilized, perhaps after being force-fed to artificially fatten and expand the size of its liver.

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #188a), which depicts a 'force-fed duck', and reads se/i, 'be sated, satisfied', for the expected *sê, representing PIE SHA-¿E, 'satisfied-like' = 'full'. This can also be seen in PIE *sa:i-, in Greek áetai, 'sates himself'.

Now we will look at Sumerian sam, a reading of Jaritz #593, which depicts a 'section of thatch': . It means 'food, pasture, plant(s), grass, herb, bread, loaf, strong'; but these meanings are usually connected with the reading u₂ (for *ü₂; PL FE). Jaritz records a combination of #593 + a, which has the Akkadian gloss êpirum, 'feeding, provision for, supply'; I believe this combination of signs should be read sama (for sâmâ).

This, then, can be compared with Egyptian sm (for *zm), 'help, succor'. One of the biliterals used to write this word is 'thatch with a rope and loop indicating pulling, net': . The similarity between the two signs can hardly be overlooked.

And there is a Sumerian combination, u₂-du₃-du₃, which means 'net'. In view of the meaning 'day', we can assume that one of the readings of this sign was *ud/t(u)_x (for *üt(u)_x). And we also have uttu, 'beam of a weaving apparatus'. This is PL FHE-T?SO, 'weave-hold' = 'web/net/seine', seen in PIE *we:dh-, 'net/seine/web'. Now the significance of the 'rope and loop' in the Egyptian biliteral becomes clear: it is to indicates a 'net' or 'seine' that is pulled.

The question then becomes, how do we get from a 'net' to the idea of 'feeding'? The use of the 'net' as a biliteral in Egyptian and as a sign for sam in Sumerian suggests strongly that one name for a 'net' was Egyptian zm and Sumerian sam. There is the faintest trace of this in PIE *sme:-, from which Latin macula, 'mesh for embroidery', is supposed to be derived.

Based on these words, I reconstruct PL SA-MHA, 'plant fiber-professional work(er)' = 'weaver/thatcher/plaiter'. This would justify the association of Sumerian *samâ with this sign. I believe the basic idea behind 'help, succor' and 'feed, provision' is 'satisfy the needs of'; and to convey this idea I reconstruct SHA-MHA, 'satisfied/immobile-ceaseless activity' = 'satisfy', producing further inaction. This would be Sumerian *sâmâ, and explains why 'thatch' (samâ) could be used to write it. There is a possible trace of this root in PIE with Old Indian sa:man-, 'quiet', from PIE **sa:m-.

The reflex of SHA in PIE is simply *sa:-, 'satisfied, satisfy, *satisfying'. This word can be seen as the first element of Sumerian šar₂ (for sâr₂), 'total, perfect, complete', which is PL SHA-RHE, 'satisfied-become'. Our ancestors unfailingly regarded the idea of immobility as an expression‎ of satisfaction brought about by absolutely equal components on both sides of any transaction — this is barter as a moral and ethical principle, the antithesis of caveat emptor. For something to be satisfying, all legitimate parts — from whatever side — had, therefore, to be included. This is the idea expressed by *sâr, 'totality', and the legitimately included parts are set off as a group by inclusion in a 'circle': .

This is Egyptian s3 (for *z3), 'be wise, prudent, satisfied, sated'. The sign with which this word is most frequently written is #Aa17 (LK #Aa18), which depicts a 'basket top with pull cord': , PL SO-RA, 'pull-back' = 'basket-top'. I believe this substitution was made possible by the well-known confusion of s and z from earliest Egyptian; and the more aesthetically pleasing arrangement of the constituent signs. However, we do have a rare spelling with Gardiner #G39, , 'pintail duck', employed because both duck and goose livers are used for paté de foie gras; and the name of this duck suggests it was so utilized. Semantically, *z3 makes perfect sense while s3 is uninterpretable. It is difficult to believe that such an important concept could be missing in PIE; and I believe Pokorny's entry for *k^se/e:-ro-, 'dry', contains our 'missing link' as Latin sere:nus, 'cheerful', really better **sa[:]re-n- for the Latin form; and that its additional meaning of 'dry' is due to confusion with legitimate derivatives of *k^es/e:-ro- (for **k^esa/a:-ro-[?]) like Greek kse:rós, 'dry', derived from a theoretical *KHE-SHA(-RO), 'gray-state' = '*darkened by drying out(-to a high degree)'.

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THA

The Sumerian sign is Jaritz #240, which depicts a 'drop of liquid reaching the ground', and reads ta. This idea is not recorded in the meanings we assign to THA but we may look at the phrase ta-hab, 'drip, soak, ooze, saturate', which could reflect them. Sumerian hab means 'malodorous', and is written with Jaritz #834, which depicts, in this usage, a '(circular) enclosure', here the bounds of an 'open wound or suppurating ulcer' in addition to its other interpreted representations; again, we have no evidence of any earlier variations that would differentiate the interpretation of the depictions. If ta by itself could mean 'drip', as we would assume, #834 may be merely a determinative for the meaning, and not necessarily be intended to be read. In any case, hab (for *hâp) is PL XA-?A-P?FA, 'soft(and resilient)'-stative-'prominence' = 'tadpole/toad', and is seen in PIE *g^we:b(h)-, 'tadpole, slimy, flabby, wobbly, toad'. The PIE cognate appears to be *ta:-, 'dissolve, disintegrate, melt, liquify (from decay)'; from THA, we would, without further extension or compounding, not expect a long vowel; and I reconstruct HHA-THA, 'water/liquid-drip', corresponding to Egyptian jd.t, 'censing, better 'sprinkling'; this word is determined with Gardiner #N4, 'moisture falling from the sky': .

If we attribute some sense of acuity to the Egyptian selection of determinatives, this cannot mean 'censing' (smoke, up) but rather must be 'sprinkling' (liquid, down). In the PIE form *ta:-, the disappearing initial 'laryngeal' lengthens the following vowel.

We can quite possibly, see this root in Sumerian ad_x (for *ât_x), 'corpse', written with Jaritz #112 and #611, which depicts a 'human being'. Jaritz #112 has many readings but one or more of them in the semantic range of 'liquid'. I suspect that the liquid effluvium of a decomposing body is being indicated. If it is, *ât_x would reflect PL HHA-THA.



The Egyptian sign for THA may very well be Gardiner #N4, 'moisture falling from the sky': .

We have already also assigned this sign to RHE but it seems possible that it had a dual employment: 'dew' and 'rain' are both 'sky-borne moisture' though dew, of course, forms from the precipitation of water from humid air through cooling, and does not fall. This was probably not understood by our ancestors; for them, dew probably was conceived as also falling.

A root formed with THA is found in Egyptian dm, 'be sharp, sharpen, pierce'; this represents PL THA-MO, 'damp(en)-smooth' = 'sharpen by whetting'. It can also be seen in Sumerian dam (for tam₂), 'part of a plow, *plowshare', a reading of Jaritz #922: , which depicts Jaritz #919, 'female vulvae', from which a line has been vertically extended to indicate a 'rope (for control)'; and on this vertical rope we find either Jaritz #893c, which illustrates a 'rope' and reinforces the idea of the vertical line: , this version shown illustrated above; or the vertical rope has Jaritz #893b on it: (this version not shown here), which depicts a 'cloth(-wrap)' functioning as a chastity belt, reinforcing the idea of sexual control and exclusivity.

The main reading of #922 is dam, 'spouse', representing PL T?A-MHA, 'side-be active' = 'be domesticated'; this is PIE *dem6-, 'tame, restrain, force'. The reading tam₂ of #922 is based purely on phonological resemblance. PL THA-MO is also to be found in PIE *tem-, 'cut, sharpen'.

A second Egyptian sign for THA in the meaning 'ejaculate' is Gardiner #D53, which depicts a 'phallus with liquid issuing from it': . It is found as a determinative for d3(d3), 'copulate (better, ejaculate)'.

Combined with -HA, a minimally altering semantic formant (animate stative), it can be seen in PIE *ta:-, 'come apart, flow'. Combined with RE, it can also be found in PIE as *ter-, 'twitch, wriggle', correlating with the muscular spasm involved in ejaculation; and *(s)ter-, 'word for impure fluids' since seminal fluid has usually been considered magicaly hazardous, hence 'impure'. This is possibly the basis for *trep-, 'satisfy one's self, enjoy'; the additional formant may be PFHE, 'spray', if this connection is correctly made. And if that connection is correct, there may be a further connection to be made with Egyptian d3b.w, 'figs'. Fig trees produce copious amount of a white, milky, latex sap, which is irritating to the skin.

In Sumerian, the simplex can be found in the phrase ta-hab, 'ooze, drip', having ta written with Jaritz which we have seen above'.

In the fuller form, tar, 'scatter, disperse', we have THA-RE, 'ejaculate-cause to be', with a connection being made between 'dispersal' of 'vegetable seed' with that of 'human seed (seminal fluid)'. It is written with Jaritz #13a, which is an archaic variant: , and depicts a 'stream of liquid fanning out into a spray'.

This (#D53) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

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TSHA

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #456a) is based on an archaic variant of Jaritz #456 which depicted a 'drop of liquid spreading downwards' rather than the 'conical container in which oil is allowed to rise to the top'. We associate it with the reading za₇, the meanings for which appear to have been adopted by the extended form zal(i) (for *zal(ü); exceptionally *ü represented in the writing system as i); it means 'get up (early) [elongate one's self], pass time [elongate state or condition], finish [elongate completely], come to an end [elongate one's self completely]'. These are paralleled by meanings assigned to Egyptian Dr: 'end, end up as, at an end', and, as a preposition: 'until [to the end of that elongated period]'.



The Egyptian sign for TSHA is Gardiner #M37, 'flax-bundle tied off (finished) for transportation', which has been set upright: ; it is normally read Dr.

Sumerian *zal(ü), discussed immediately above, is seen in PIE as *ta:l- (for **t(h)a:l-), 'grow'; and, less faithfully, in *stel- (for **(s)ta[:]l(y)-), 'standing, stand up'. These all represent reflexes of PL TSHA-RHO(-¿E), 'elongate-rise(-like)' = 'set one's self/something upright)'. A transitive use of this word is seen in Egyptian Dr.j, 'wall', the determinative for which (Gardiner #O36), leaves little doubt of the basal meaning of 'stand something up, erect':

See below under TSHE for an example of TSHA incorporating the meaning 'melt'. See above under PFHE for an example of TSHA incorporating the meaning 'elongate'.

Gardiner has the determinative, #D40, which he interprets as a 'man holding a stick': . While this could be true, it seems from the representation more accurate to interpret it as 'flexible cord being extended', i.e. 'elongated'.

This (#D40) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

---

XHA

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #961) depicts a 'fish', and reads ha. The suffix -ha₄-a (= /xa:/) is used to form a plural of mixed items in Sumerian. The association is with 'school of fish' rather than 'fish' per se, a large indefinite animate quantity. Interestingly, this shows up in PIE as the interrogative pronoun 'who?' then 'what?', *k^wé-; and, after removal of the stress-accent on the vowel which Ablaut changes from *é to *o, as an indefinite pronoun, *k^wo-, 'someone, something'.

This morpheme can also be seen in Egyptian jšz.t, 'what?', literally 'quantity? (are) those' (PL ?A, 'here', sign of interrogative; XHA, 'quantity'; SHE-THO, 'individual-collection' = 'those'). This reminds us of French Est-ce que . . . ?. Adding PL MO, 'on', produced the temporal interrogative *k^wom-, 'when?'; adding PL ¿E, formant of adjectives, produced *k^wéi-, which became *k^wi:-, 'how?', 'in association with what?'; adding FA, 'around, produced *k^wéu-, then with assimilation of the vowel to the semi-consonant, *k^wu:-, 'where?'. PIE *k^wé, 'and', is simply 'packed together with'.

The Egyptian sign for XHA is Gardiner #M8, 'pool with lotus flowers', , which reads š3, 'ordain, order, predestine, assign, settle, decide', PL XHA-RE, 'large quantity-count' = 'organize, order, assess'. The rationale for selecting a 'pool with lotus flowers' for this concept is the uncountable, hence, large indefinite quantity of the flowers. It is difficult to visualize how this idea could have been succinctly illustrated with animate items. This sign normally reads š3.

This (#M8) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

As 'fish', it can be seen in PIE *k^wa(:)lo-s and *(s)k^wa(:)lo-s, 'a larger species of fish' (PL XHA-RHO, 'fish-antelope/rise'/augmentative = 'surfacing/large fish' = 'whale').

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FHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #893b) depicts a 'cloth(-wrap)', which is normally read tug₂ for this meaning. However, a 'princess' is also written with this sign; and, in that case reads gi₇, which I emend to g]~]i₇, 'the clothed one'. In addition, #893 is recorded to read up₂ (for *üp₂), which, I believe, is an unknown dialectal form representing PL FHE-P?FE, 'spider-track/animal' = 'spider', or FHE-P?FO, 'spider'-formant of place names' = 'web', seen in PIE *webh-, '*spider, weave, web'. The main dialect (Emegi) response to this word can be found in gib (for *g[~]²ip); and gi₁₆ (for *g[~]²i₁₆), which mean 'wrap around, entangle, prevent, trap', written with Jaritz #110, , which is a reduplication of Jaritz #131, which depicts 'papyrus plant being stripped of its outer covering (skin)', and properly represents K?XE.

We may have "unknown dialectal" form for FHE in Sumerian u₁₃ (for *ü₁₃[?]), a reading of Jaritz #717, which probably depicts a 'spider's web' as well as a 'gob of sputum', discussed above: . Meanings associated with the sign are 'insect' and '(poisonous) saliva (='venom')'.



The Egyptian sign for FHE is Gardiner #P4, 'boat with fishing net': , which is seen in wH', 'fisherman/fowler, loosen, release', a compound of wH, '*net' + ', 'hold': PL FHE-K?XA-T?SO, 'spider/weave-hang' = 'web/net'-'hold'; the first word is PIE *weg-, 'weave, fasten, weaving, gossamer, drop-net (cf. Old Indian va:gurá:-, 'net for catching animals').

A word nearly equivalent in meaning is PL FHE-T?SO, 'spider-arm/hold' = 'weaving, woven material'. It is PIE *we[:]dh-, 'woven material'; this is the basis for one of the more important names of the Sumerian sun-god: Utu (for *Ütu), a reading of #684, which depicts the 'setting sun'. It also reads Ug₄ (for *Ük), probably the 'netter', a reflex of FHE-K?XA, 'drop-net', discussed above; this would be another name for the sun-god, visualized as a 'spider' — rather common imagery for the sun around the world due to net-like appearance of the skies at dawn and sunset as well as the feeling of burning heat brought on by the bite of many spiders. These two Sumerian words are in the form expected from the unknown dialect which represents FHE by *ü (written u) rather them Emegi g[~]i.



A second Egyptian sign for FHE is Gardiner #V29, 'swab', which I prefer to think is rather 'tow', coarse broken hemp or flax fiber prepared for spinning by being loosely woven: , which is seen in w3H(w), 'wreath, garland, necklace (woven together)', and in 'stack, stow, add (weave together)' and other meanings derived from these basic concepts : PL FHE-RE(-K?XA)(-¿E), 'weave-cause to become([so it can]-hang)(-like)' = 'tow, interlace'. We can find this word in PIE *werg^- (for **we[:]r-gy-), 'accomplish, effect, do (as a result of coordinated motions or other actions)'; and we also have derivatives meaning specifically 'prepare for weaving': OHG wirken.

This (#V29) is another example
of an originally aspirated
(pharyngally rather than laryngally)
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

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HE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #574) depicts the 'bed and two banks of a watercourse'; and reads e for *î; 'irrigation ditch, canal'. In addition, it means 'to speak' (probably PL HA-¿E, 'air-like' = 'whisper'; PIE *a(:)i-, 'important(/*secret) speech': Sumerian *ê. The normal word for 'speech' is based on PL ¿E (comparable with Egyptian j, 'speak'). The meaning 'river' is also attested as *i in Sumerian (')i₄ (for *î₄; the initial glottal stop is incorrect), 'river', a reading and meaning from Jaritz #949 (HHA), which most frequently reads *â, and means simply 'water'.



The Egyptian sign for HE is Gardiner #N36, 'channel(-banks) filled with water': , used as a determinative for jtr.w, 'river, Nile'.

This compound means 'two banks (of a river), river-channel', and represent PL HE-T?O(-RO)(-FA), 'river-rounded hump(-raise)(-set)'. It can additionally be seen in PIE *ad(u)-/*ad-ro- (for *e[:]d(u)-/*e[:]d-ro-), 'watercourse ('[pair of] bank[s]/raised')', which has been contaminated by *a[:], 'water' (HHA).

The basic word, albeit contaminated by HHA again, is found in Sumerian addir_x, '(river-)crossing, ford'; this is analyzable as *âd, 'bank' (ad, Jaritz #274, gives no indication through its graphic representation of 'river', or even 'water'; it depicts a 'phallus entering vulvae'; ad₂, Jaritz #11, depicts a 'cocoon'); in any case, neither sign is used to write addir, which is written in a number of ways; typical among them being (addir_x): PA (#560b), which depicts graphically the idea of 'crossing'; over GISAL (#449), an 'ear-shaped oar making a ripple or rudder making a cut in water'; over SI (#188b), which portrays a 'lateral view of a curled horn'; over A (#949), which is 'water': , a combination which is not in Jaritz, which I designate as #1003; the red asterisk indicates this reconstruction for the archaic combination is deduced from the extant cuneiform sign. Now #188b over #949 does exist in Jaritz as #214, which reads dir, 'cross over'; for a discussion of dir (better, *zîr); see discussion above. In view of these considerations, I prefer to reconstruct #1003 as *âd(-)zîr, and to analyze it as 'crossing over from one bank to the other'.

Isolating j with the certain meaning 'river' will always be somewhat problematical in view of the same Egyptian sign representing HHA, 'water'. It may be that jtr.w represents HHA rather than as the PIE and Sumerian forms suggest. If we could find an Egyptian word j and with a meaning related to either 'water' or 'river', and correlate it with a PIE cognate with a clearly reconstructed *e[:]- or Sumerian one with *î, we would have almost certainly identified HE in Egyptian; so far, that has not proved feasible.

However, one only possible cognate may be mentioned: Egyptian jxm.t, 'bank of river', also may mean 'moat' around a fortified place; it possibly is related to PIE *eg^hero- (for **e[:]ghyero-[?]), 'border, canal, embankment', through a common HE-K?XO(-¿E), 'river-cut(-like)', a diversion of a river through canals[?].

Another sign used to write 'speak' is Jaritz #270, which is simply 'five marks' to mean '5': ; and reads i and ia (alone and with the addition of #949, *â); this is very similar to the phonological realization that we would expect as a result of a stative form of 'to go' (HE-¿E-?A), namely *îâ. Provisionally, we will emend this reading of ia to *îâ, and compare it to PIE *ya:-, listed under *e(:)i-, 'to go'. The reading of ia (for *iâ) for #270 implies a PL ¿A-?A, 'many'-stative = 'be many', as the original source of this reading.

Listed as other readings for 'to go' are e₃ and i₁₀; both are the result of a combination #684 + #410; ed₂ is also a reading for #684 + #410. Sign #410, which pictures the 'side-view of a 'foot', , has a large number of readings and meanings, all mostly concerned with movement by foot; but, in view of the reading ed₂ for #684, we will regard it (#410 in this combination) as reading du although it might just be a semantic determinative to indicate 'motion' for this reading of #684. which has a large variety of other meanings not concerned with movement directly .

There is a slight method to the madness in choosing the readings ed₂ and du; I knew that Thomsen (1984) had reconstructed a marû stem (durative) for e₃ which, for an unknown reason, she writes e₃.d rather than simply ed₂. It should be noted at the outset that in many constructions like a₃ . . . e₃, 'bring up', the idea of 'upward motion' is associated with this word, a nuance that seems to have been completely lost in PIE *e(:)i-.

Now it is time to reveal that #410 also reads tu₃; and, for reasons that will subsequently become clear, I emend #684 + #410; et₂.

In Egyptian, we have the word j', 'tomb', written most anciently with a sign as a determinative or ideograph not included in Gardiner's list, which, in my opinion, depicts a 'burial mound, a tumulus': . I interpret this as a reflex of PL ?E-T?SO, 'sharp-branch' = 'pale'; so we conclude that, instead of 'tomb' as a building, the terminology being employed is 'palisade', an area set off for the dead by a fence of stakes. This interpretation of given support by PIE *edh-, 'fence made of pales'.

The same determinative is used for j', 'ascend'. If we reconstruct PL HHE-TSHO, 'rise-circling (i.e. 'climb in the air by circling as birds do')'= 'ascend', we have, what I think is a prototype for j' above. Both ?E-T?SO and HHE-TSHO would have the same graphic expression‎ in Egyptian: j'. This root does not seem to have been preserved in PIE but the Sumerian reflex we would expect is *îtu, and that is what we have deduced as a reading for #684 + #410: ît(t)u from et₂ (#684) + tu₃ (#410).

As the next entry after e₃, Thomsen lists e₁₁.d, 'go up or down, bring up or down'. The word e₁₁ is written with Jaritz sign #809 + #410 (here, just a semantic determinative of 'motion'); sign #809 pictures a 'dark areas in a hill' or better 'cuts in a hill': ; it reads, among others, tul. Before we assign a meaning to this word, it will be of interest to know that tul₂ (Jaritz #867; #834 surrounding #750), , means 'well, tunnel, passage'.

I believe that 'tunnel' and 'passage' are meanings for tul as well. Both tul and tul₂ can be compared to PIE *dhel-, 'excavation'; and we can better understand the symbolism of #809: the 'dark areas in a hill' or the 'cuts in a hill' are 'mining tunnels'. This word can also be found in Egyptian as 'n.w, 'the name of a place which was a source for limestone'; it means simply 'tunnels (= 'the mine')'. The PL word which is the source for these is: T?SO-NHA, 'arm-cause one's self to be' = 'tunnel'.

Another expression‎ of a similar idea is seen in Egyptian 'r, 'ascend', which, in earliest times, had the determinative Gardiner #O41, a 'double stairway', on which, one obviously can 'go up or go down': . This is PL T?SO-RHO, 'arm-rise' = 'ladder-rung'. Egyptian seems to have lost the idea of the 'return descent' but the determinative forcefully brings out the idea of motion in either direction: up or down. This is found in PIE *stel- (for *(s)t(h)o(:)l-), 'set up', from which Middle English stall, 'ladder-rung', is derived. In Egyptian, ladder-rung is being substituted for stair-step. The PIE root, *stel-, is an s-mobile form for which the uncombined form has not survived. Combination with it eliminates the glide (*w) we would expect from this affricate + *o.

PL T?SO-RHO would result in Sumerian tul; and this word, tul_x should be the reading for e₁₁ in the meaning 'go up or down', i.e. 'use a ladder or stairs'.

The verb utilized for what became the PIE copula was not copular in origin: PIE *e(:)s-, 'be', is simply a special usage of *e(:)s-, 'sit' (PL HE-SHA), 'be come across from'-stative = 'be (finished) coming (and demonstrate it by not-moving/sitting down)'; this is the stative form of HE-¿E, 'come across from-like' = 'be coming', PIE *e(:)i-, 'come'; Egyptian jj, 'come'; and Sumerian e (for *î_x), 'come'.

Representing HE-SHA is the Sumerian sign for is₂, '*sit', Jaritz #429, which depicts, I believe, 'buttocks on the ground': , and reads is₂ (for îs₂). To infer an unrecorded meaning from the interpretation of the intended symbolism of an archaic sign is speculative at the very best but, in my opinion, justified here by the accepted reading and meaning of ^G[~]EŠiš-de₃, 'seat'.

The reason is that iš is also a recognized reading of Jaritz #429, which, in this combination we would emend to is₂. We do not have enough data to identify the significance of de₃ (written with Jaritz #339; also reads te₄). In view of the meaning of 'fire' for #339, the combination suggests '(assigned[?]) place at the fire'. On the other hand, du₁₄, a combination of #611 ('human') and #339 ('fire'), suggests to me an unrecognized reading for #339 of du_x, whch might relate to PL T?O, 'lump', which we will see below in SO-T?O, 'skin-lump' = 'leather cushion' = 'seat'.

Comparable to the first element in *is₂-de₃ is Egyptian *jz in what is normally transcribed as st, '(remarkably high-backed) chair/throne', written with Gardiner #Q1, 'seat': . Without any additions but a final feminine -t, this is also the spelling for the goddess Isi(-)s; and this is normally read js.t, which we would emend to *jz.t so that Isis should be interpreted as the 'throne (but possibly, also 'furnace with smoke-stack')', in my opinion, a title for her as Mistress of the Northern Circumpolar Region and then current polestar: Thuban.

However, we believe that PL SO-T?O, 'cushion', corresponding to PIE *sed-, 'seat', exists in Egyptian as st, 'seat', a reading of Gardiner #Q2, which depicts a '(cushioned) litter': . Directly comparable with iš-de₃, we have PIE *se[:]d-, 'reach a place', which I believe is a reduction from **e[:]sed-. In this combination, we propose that de₃ should be interpreted as PL T?A-¿E, 'side-like' = 'place at the side'; and the combination means 'take one's place at the fire-side'. The comitative postposition ('with') is normally written -da; however, there are a few examples of it as de₃; and in Old Babylonian times, this is a more frequent occurrence in subordinate phrases like: a.ša₃ a de₂-a-zu-de₃ . . ., 'when/while you water the field . . .' ('with your watering of the field'), where -da, 'with', would normally (and earlier, exclusively) be expected.



The Egyptian sign for HE is Gardiner #R15, the 'spear decked out as standard': . There are not many 'spears' with rounded tops. Rather, this is a 'censer on a standard with two pellets of incense and two arms holding it up' (the 'pellet' is #N33; a triad of these is the determinative for snTr, 'incense', the fragrance of which 'goes across from' it).

This (#R15) is another example
of an originally aspirated
(pharyngally rather than laryngally)
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

The sign, #R15, as '*sacral censer', represents PL HE-RE, 'smoke-cause to become' = 'cense', and can be seen in Sumerian ir (for *îr), 'aroma, scent, fragrance', written with Jaritz #457, a gunû (shaded with multiple parallel lines, horizontal or vertical) form of Jaritz #456, which depicts a 'conical container in which oil is allowed to rise to the top'; here, 'scented oil' is being indicated: . This can also be seen in Sumerian eren (for *îrin), 'cedar', which is frequently determined by ^ŠIM (Jaritz #436), used for aromatics; this is probably HHE-RE-NA, 'fragrance-thing' = 'cedar'.

But Egyptian j3 could also represent PL HHE-RA, 'smoke-color' = 'orange-red', the color of sunrise. We find Egyptian #R15 employed here in combination with PL P?FO, and j3b(.t), 'place of orange-red', is the 'East'. This analysis is supported by PIE *er- (for **e[:]r-), 'red', contained in *ereb(h)-, 'dark red, brownish tones', which is HHE-RA-P?FE, 'orange-red-formant of animal names = 'fox'; and HHE-RA-P?FO, 'orange-red-trunk' = 'yew', which has scarlet arils or seed covers. The word yew contains the commoner PIE derivative from HHE for 'red': HHE-¿E, 'smoke-like', PIE *ei- (for **e[:]i).

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HHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #339) depicts a 'burning torch with smoke rising from its top'. Among its many readings is ibbi_x, which means 'smoke'. This is a further extension from PL HHE-PFHE, 'smoke-sparks/flame' = 'smoke/roast'; accordingly, we emend ibbi_x to *îpî. The PIE form is also easily obtainable: *eph- (for **e[:]ph-), 'cook (by roasting)'. In Egyptian, it is represented by jb, 'be thirsty (parched by heat)'. Interestingly, this word is determined by Gardiner #E8, 'standing kid': , which seems to be here presented as the exemplar of unslakable thirst.

This word is also written as i-pi₅ (Jaritz #270) and i₃-pi₅ (Jaritz #456). Neither initial component of the phonetically written words ('many' and 'oily/shiny') seems likely to have been the original rendition of *î for 'smoke'. It seems much more likely that #339 had an unrecorded *î_x meaning 'smoke'.



The Egyptian sign corresponding to HHE is Gardiner #M18, 'combination of 'flowering reed' (#M17) [recapturing HE, 'sprout'] and legs walking (#D54)', , which reads j(j), 'come'.

The rationale for connecting 'smoke' with 'come' is that as a person approaches, visually, they appear to rise up from below. With -w, the word becomes PL HHE-FHA, 'come across-do repeatedly' = 'arrive'; Egyptian jw. It may be that the 'pair of legs walking' (#D54) is a graphic suggestion of a reading of -w, the normal dual ending (FA).

But see above for Gardiner #R15, j3, used for 'fragrance' (HE), its proper use, as well as for 'smoke(-color)' (HHE(-RA)), 'orange-red'.

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KHE

The Sumerian sign, Jaritz #770, depicts 'the dome of the sky with marks indicating rain'; it means 'night, black, shadow', and is normally read gi₆ and gig₂, which I emend to *ki_x and *kiki_x. In its reduplicated form, it can be found in Egyptian kk, 'be dark', which has as a determinative Gardiner #N2 and #N3 (Old Kingdom). In PIE, we find a reflex of KHE-¿E, 'gray-like', as *k^ei-, 'dark, gray'; and reduplicated in *kek^- (for *k^ek^-; cf. Latvian sesks, 'polecat'), 'weasel'.

The Sumerian equative ('like, as'), as Thomsen (1984: 108) terms it, is most often written with kim (for *kîm), Jaritz #785, which depicts a 'fuller's club' (KXHE-MHA; etymologically an 'antler hammer', but it possibly depicts an aena, a spiked tool to raise the nap on cloth before shearing it smooth) like Gardiner #U36, discussed below: ; we have already seen it above as the sign used to write dim₂, 'fasten together'.

In the meaning 'like, as', Sumerologists usually transcribe it (#785) as gin₇, based on syllabic spellings like -gi-in but, in a voiced/voiceless relationship we have seen so often, gi also reads ki₂. Also, combined with the 3rd person singular copula am_3,6, it is written #785 + nam, suggesting a reading of gin₇ (but a reading of kinme (which I interpret as kin/kim) is also recorded for the sign; and #785 + ma-am₃ is also found).

As an additional consideration, Thomsen (1984: 46) discusses cases of other words that show an apparently non-motivated alternation of forms in final -m and -n. Finally, we have the fact that 'like' is Akkadian kîma, which I would suspect is a Sumerian loanword. Of course, the evidence can be argued in many ways but I opt for a reading of kim (for *kîm) in the meaning, representing PL KHE-?A-MO, 'other (of two)'-stative-'to a high degree' = '(very) similar'. Neo-Sumerian spellings of ge₂ for this word will simply represent KHE-?A, 'other (of two)-like' = 'similar', seen in Egyptian ky, 'other, another' (PL KHE-?A-¿E, 'other (of two)'-stative = 'similar'. An alternative KHE-¿E, 'other (of two)-like' is probably the source of dialectal Arabic khayun, 'brother ('similar one')'. Jaritz #785 also reads ki₅ (for *kî₅), which is PL KHE-¿E (or KHE-?A), 'similar'. KHE-?A can be seen in PIE *ke:no-s, 'he ('the one here')', and in Anglo-Saxon he:, 'he'.

It is possible that KHE-?A-MO may also be seen in PIE *k^em- (if for **k^e:m-; cf. Old Indian Sa:mulyá-, 'woolen shirt'), 'cover, mask'. We have derivations like Old Norse hamr, 'form'; and hama-sk, 'rage', which Pokorny interprets as 'to dress in an animal-skin'.

The Egyptian sign for Hm is , Gardiner #U36, which depicts a 'fuller's club' (KXHE-MHA, see above), for fulling — soaking and pounding — cloth. This is made certain by Hmw(w), 'washerman, fuller'.

We have had two examples above of Egyptian kj appearing as H in Hw, 'food (also 'oracular utterance')', *kjw, and in Hm.t, 'wife', *kjm.t. In fact, Egyptian Hm (for *kjm), a particle of assurance, written however with Gardiner #N41 as for Hm.t, can be translated meaningfully as 'likewise' or 'like/as (I have said)': xr Hm nfr w3H-jb nHm wj m-' mwt, 'the clemency which has saved me from the arm of death must likewise be good.'

Hm has several other important meanings: in the phrase Hm-nTr, it names the highest order of priests, whom it designates, in my opinion, as simulars of the respective gods they serve. It is also a regular title of the king, usually translated 'Majesty', but contrary to other recorded and expected usage, never as *Hm.k, '*Your Majesty", but always as Hm.f, 'His Majesty', which I think might be better translated as: 'His Image', referring to the king as the mundane embodiment of the supreme god.

The traces of KHE in PIE are quite scant as we have seen above. However, we do have *k^e, 'this'. Since a basal meaning of KHE is 'one of two, the other', it is a natural choice to designate the partner in the speech situation; and, as such, we see it used for the second person singular -k in Egyptian; rather inconveniently, I think, the first person singular independent pronoun and first person singular Old Perfective almost certainly contain K?E, 'penis/male', corresponding to the *g^ in PIE *eg^(h)om, which would not have been differentiable for the Egyptians.

The deixis of the speech situation can be oriented as 'you and I' (here) opposed to 'he, she, it' (there) or 'I' (here), 'you' (there), 'he, she, it' (over there).



The Egyptian signs for KHE are Gardiner #N2 and #N3, mentioned above: #N3 depicts a 'canopy', #N1, signifying 'sky', 'below which is a stylized lightning bolt terminating in a rain-drop' (Old Kingdom form): ;
and #N1, 'below which is a stylized lightning bolt modeled like a w3s-scepter (#S40) at the bottom: .

They are determinatives of kk, 'dark', but it can be reasonably assumed that, at an earlier stage, represented simply k or kj.

A further derivation of KHE is KHE-RA, 'gray-color', 'gray'. It is possible that we have this word in Sumerian gira (for *kira), 'concealment ('obscurity, in shadows[?]'), ('gray[?]') sky', the signs for which may suggest 'crouching under foliage which has been parted' and give us a hint of the core meaning (#750 over #118b over #141, which depicts a 'left lower leg up to the bent knee': ); this combination of three signs does not have an assigned number in Jaritz.

In Egyptian, constituting a second pair of signs for KHE in the meaning 'ghost (from 'shadow'), are written with Gardiner #D28 (and, better, as #D29), , which reads k3, 'ghost', and depicts 'arms extended so as to bring something together'; and , which depicts 'arms extended so as to bring something together, on a stand with incense for religious objects (#R12)'.

These (#D28/#D29) are other examples
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

The sign, #D28, was originally devised for k3(.t), 'work (better 'put together, collect')', which represents PL K?A-RE, 'cup-cause to become', 'to collect (by positioning hands and arms [cupping] to bring something together)'. The determinative, Gardiner #A9, depicts a 'man steadying a tub (#W4) on his head': ; my interpretation of this is that the man has collected something for transport.

This is found also in PIE *ger-, 'put together, collect'; and in Sumerian gar, 'heap up, enclose, *collect', written with Jaritz #970, which depicts a 'tub or cup with a line indicating the level of the material in it' : .

KHE-RA, 'gray', can also be found in PIE; first, in Greek Ké:r, 'death, decay', and Kê:res, 'fates', which I interpret as 'ghosts'; both derived from PIE *k^er-, 'decay ('turn gray/dark')'. This is also Sumerian kir₅, 'underworld', written with Jaritz #112, which is associated with the dead. These correspond to Egyptian , 'ghost'; see above.

It can be seen explicitly in *k^er-, 'dark, dirty, gray colors', though there appears to be a certain amount of confusion with *ker-, 'reddish ('pink')', which represents PL KHO-RA, '(animal) young-color' = 'pink', which can be seen in PIE *ker-, 'cherry'; probably in *ker(6)-, 'burn, glow'; and in *kerem-, 'rowan' (KHO-RA-MO 'reddish-to a high degree' = 'very red'. This may be the basis for Sumerian kur₂, 'strange' if 'red(haired[?])' or 'rosy-cheeked[?]' people were unusual. This reading properly belongs to Jaritz #101a, an archaic variant of the sign depicting a 'crossed-through line', conveying, I think, 'not a familiar one (of ours)': .

The meaning of #101, which depicts a 'branch growing from a stem', is 'grow large'; and the reading kur₂ is derived from PL KXHO-RHE, 'grow, emerge', the proper sign for which is, however, Jaritz #99a (*kûr₉). This word can also be seen in kur₄, 'thick, big ('grown')', which has been mistakenly attached to #834, '(circular) enclosure' because the sign was also interpreted as a 'circular (race) course' by way of its connection with KXHE-FHA-RO(-SO), 'fast-do repeatedly-lip/rim/wheel-(pull)' = 'animal pulled wagon/cart'. Normally, we would expect *kûl but we have identified a certain dialectal variation in the Sumerian response to PL RO; #834 has additionally, for example, the readings and kir₃, which represent Emegi and dialectal renditions of the same word (from *kür). This can be found in the fuller form in PIE *k^ers- [for **k^(h)wers-], 'run'; **k(^)(h)(w)Rsó-s, 'wagon'; cf. Latin currus, 'wagon'; MHG hurren, 'move rapidly'; and in Egyptian p-Hr.t (for *p-Hwr.t), 'runner's course', and p-Hrr (for *p-Hwrr), 'run'.

Finally, we have PIE *ker(s)-, 'dark, dirty', for which we would expect **k^er(s)- since it is, almost certainly, a derivation of KHE-RA + SHA, 'state'. The only explanation we can offer, and it is not completely satisfying, is that this is a very old compound that had the form *kerasá:; and that the first syllable was reduced to *k before it could be palatalized by the *e.

Of course, the ultimate basal meaning of KHE is 'dog', our partner in our evolutionary journey for a very long time. As we might suspect from such a long and beneficial partnership, there are many words which abstract canine behavioral characteristics: for example, KHE-RE, 'dog-cause to become' = 'act like a dog' = 'roll on the ground submissively or playfully, or to pick up protective dust or a covering scent, grovel'. This idea in Sumerian is expressed by kir₃, 'grovel, roll around', written with Jaritz #834, '(circular) enclosure', here simply 'circular motion'. This is PIE *(s)ker-, 'move one's self circularly'; and it is to man's best friend that we owe the term 'circle' derived from Latin circulus, 'little ring', and further from circus, 'circle' — an extremely important cultural concept. It is somewhat likely that this can also be seen reduplicated in Egyptian H3H3, 'stumble, go astray (*roll around)' (from *kj3, KHE-¿E-RE[?]).

Only in PIE of the (proto-)languages being compared here can we see rather unambiguous reflexes of KHE in its earliest meaning of 'dog': *k^won- (for *k^wa[:]n-), 'dog', which is PL KHE-FHA, 'wag the tail like a dog' (PIE *k^e:u-/*k^u:-, 'wag') + NA, 'one'; so the 'hound' is the 'wagger(-tribe)'. KHE-FHA-NA, 'wagger', can be seen in Sumerian kun (for *kün), 'tail', depicting a 'tail' (Jaritz #121), a gunû (shaded with multiple parallel lines, horizontal or vertical) form, which suggests motion, of #120, which also depicts a 'tail' but without gunû. Jaritz #121 is: . This combination is also the source of Modern English howl (PL KHE-FHA-NHA, 'act like a dog-vibrate') rather than AHD's derivation from *ul- which can also be distinguished from the 'wailing' of wolves (PLFHA-¿E-NHA, 'wolf-like/voice-vibrate'; PIE *wa[:]ilo-s).

---

KXHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #900) depicts a highly schematized version of a 'deer head with antlers', or 'hair streaming behind the head from rapid forward movement', and reads kin (for *kîn), 'work'. Before discussing 'fast', I would like to offer in support of this analysis the Egyptian word Hn.w.t, '(pair of tine-collections=) antler(s)', but is translated as 'horns' in both Faulkner and Wörterbuch, which uses, as a biliteral for Hn, a sign not included in Gardiner, depicting an 'antler': . This ancient spelling, which occurs in Pyramid Text 270, has, as a determinative, another archaic sign not cataloged by Gardiner, which appears to me to be an 'oryx-horn', with the ribbed banding schematically indicated: , with an unknown reading. Finally, there is PIE *k^en-to:-, 'hind', which could, just as easily, be formed from a poorly attested **k^en- (for **k^(h)e[:]n–), 'deer', rather an assimilation from *k^em-, 'hornless'

The result of this is that I believe it quite possible that KXHE-NA meant 'antler' then 'deer' but that it could also mean 'fast thing' which seems to have been what characterized 'work' for our ancestors: Sumerian kin (for *kîn), 'work'; PIE *k^en- (for **k^(h)e[:]–), 'exert one's self'; and Egyptian Hn.t, 'occupation, craft' (but a derivation from KXHE-NO, 'fast-collective plural, is possible, perhaps even preferable for 'work'). These would all be related to the form found in PIE: *ke:i- (for **k^(h)e[:]i-, 'fast'), 'set/be in motion'; seen also in *k^e:i-bh- (KXHE-¿E-P?FE, 'deer-like-foot'), 'fast, energetically'; and *k^e:i-gh- (KXHE-¿E-K?XA, 'deer-like-hair' = 'streaming behind from speed'), 'fast, energetically'.



The Egyptian sign for KXHE is Gardiner #F4, 'forepart of lion': , and is read H3(.t). Egyptian H3 represents KXHE-RA-?A, '*deer-rack/*antler-stative = 'topmost/foremost', a meaning developed through the wearing of antlers by leaders to indicate authority, or vice versa. Egyptian H3t represents PL KXHE-RA-?A-T?O, 'foremost-lump' = 'forehead, front'. PL KXHE-RA-?A, 'foremost', can be seen in PIE *k^ra:- (for **k^(h)ra[:]-), 'horn (for *rack of antlers)'.

This (#F4) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

With further extensions, Egyptian H3ty (PL KXHE-RA-?A-T?O-¿E-?A, 'foremost-organ-like-stative' = 'heart'; this is PIE *k^ra:di- (for *k^(h)ra:dia[:]-), 'heart', in Homeric Greek kradíe:, 'heart'. The Egyptian spelling with y (jjj simply indicates a stress-accent on that syllable ('j, /'ya:/) due to the lengthened final vowel.

'Foremost' developed into 'uppermost'; and 'deer' by itself was associated with 'superiority'.

So, the Egyptian sign for Hrw, representing PL KXHE-RO-FA, 'superior-part-set', means 'sky', and shows the 'sky (better a *'(tent-)canopy-parts')' (#N1): . Because of it, the Egyptian sign for 'face', Gardiner #D2, , which represented K?XE-RO, 'bare-part' = 'face', acquired the meaning of 'on, over, above' since both would have been pronounced similarly: /kçaru:/ and /kçar/. This root is seen in PIE *k^ereu- (for *k^(h)ereu-), 'the uppermost on the body, head, top'.

This sign (#N1) also reads pt (for pt and *pj.t), which is PL P?A-THO and P?A-¿E-THO, 'piece-(like-)-collection' = '*tent/canopy, garment of sewn pelts, sky'. It can be seen in PIE *wet-, 'year', and *baita:-, 'goat-pelt' or 'tent'. Since the positions of the fixed stars reoccur at yearly intervals, a new 'sky' would be the repetition of a stellar configuration of a past year.

For PL KXHE-MHA, 'deer-formant of tools' = 'antler-hammer or rake' = 'aena or fuller's club', see above.

One of the important verbal associations of KXHE is 'run (away) fast'. It can be seen in PIE *ke:i- (for **k^(h)e:i-; and *k^e:i-n- for **k^(h)e:i-n-), 'be or set in motion'; the element of speed can clearly be seen in PIE *k^e:i-bh- (for **k^(h)ei-bh-; KXHE-¿E-P?FE, 'fast-like-foot') and *ke:i-gh- (for **k^(h)ei-gh- KXHE-¿E-K?XA, 'fast-like-hair', i.e. 'hair streaming behind the head from rapid forward movement'), both meaning 'fast, vigorous'.

The work ethic was alive and well in ancient times; and the word for 'work' is built on this root: KXHE-(¿E-)NO, 'fast-(like-)collective plural, 'instances of fast activity' = 'work'. This idea can be seen in PIE *ken- (for **k^(h)en- or **k^(h)yen-), 'exert one's self', from which we have Greek dié:konos, 'servant, attendant'; in Egyptian Hn.t (probably for *Hjn.t, based on the determinative, Gardiner #V36, which properly stands for KXHA-¿E-NA), 'occupation, craft', and H(j)nw.ty, 'servant ('worker'); and Sumerian kin, 'work, (quickly delivered) message', written with Jaritz #900, , which appears to depict a 'head with hair blown upward from fast movement', quite possibly, the equivalent of PIE **k^(h)ei-gh-; it also reads kig₂ (for *kîk₂). A word for 'messenger (courier)' is ^LU2kig₂-ga₈-a (for *^LU2kîk₂-ka_x-a), '(man of) streaming hair'.

The idea of vigorous activity suggested repetition; and PIE, in order to creative a punctual (aorist) form for a verb perceived as a durative, added *-s-, derived from SHE, 'single'; but then, as a back-formation, added *-k^(h)-, derived from KXHE, to make it durative again, creating the present tense (durative) formant *-sk^(h)-.

The idea of rapidly (abruptly) leaving an activity suggested completion; and, though this meaning for PIE *-k^(h)- is apparent only in the Greek perfect in -k-, we see it again in the distantly related Etruscan past tense (probably, really an aorist) in -che. This nuance can be clearly seen in PIE *ko:n-, 'complete' in Celtic languages, a derivation from *ken- (for **k^(h)en- or **k^(h)yen-).

Because the deer's antlers were natural hooks for hanging things, KXHE was the initial component of KXHE-QHA, 'hang-be humped over' = 'hang by hook', which is seen in PIE *k^enk- (for **k^(h)e[:]nk), 'hang, swing/sway from a hook-like fastening'; this can be seen in Egyptian 'crook', written with Gardiner #S38, 'shepherd's crook': . Combined with RE, 'apply, use, employ', Hq3 means 'employ the crook to protect and guide the flock', and is used for a 'prince' of Egypt as guardian and ruler: 'rule(r)'.

---

MHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #160) depicts a 'double-ax and bow', and reads me₃ (for *mî_x). When the terminology for war first developed, the object was probably to capture rather than kill opponents ('pounce on, suppress'); this made them available for sacrifice or slavery. Maces were used not because more lethal weapons were unavailable but rather to facilitate incapacitation and capture. The sign is a composite of Jaritz #889 (me, phonetic determinative) over #10 ('labrys, double-ax') over #700 ('reflex bow').

Rather than characterizing an area as 'flat', apparently the Sumerians reserved that concept for objects; and called a flat area 'smooth'; this terminology results in Sumerian mim₂ (for mîm₂; PL MHE-MHE, 'all-smooth'), 'flat space', written with Jaritz #165, which depicts a 'bundle of reeds or rushes rolled at the top into a loop', which is the primary symbol of In(a₂-)anna, 'the eye of the (night) sky', a reference to the pivotal North Star (PL ¿A-¿E-NA, 'pair-of-eyes-like-one' = '(one) eye'; ina₂ (Jaritz #798); see under ¿A). 'All-Smooth' (*Mî-mî) is probably a cult-name for Inanna to indicate her beauty (and female absence/lack of body hair). This divine name is normally written with #165 alone.

Substantiating this line of thought is the term mi₂, '*soft, *smooth, woman', a reading and meaning for Jaritz #919, which depicts 'vulvae and labia': . This sign reads also mim (for *mîm), meaning 'wide/width'; here, an area is again being delimited by containing no obstructions, even tiny ones like hairs. For other terms associated with females, see above and again above in a second entry.

The postulated meaning 'thin' is also acknowledged for Jaritz #919 — but associated with the reading sal. This is almost certainly incorrect. A reading that can, however, be associated with 'thin' is the reading min₂ (for *mîn₂), PL MHE-NA, 'thin-one', which can be seen in PIE with either *men- (for **me[:]n-), 'thin, , reduce, smooth (includes reflexes from MHA-NA, 'bite' — properly **ma[:]n-)'; or, in the closely related form: *mei-n- (for **me[:]i-n-), 'diminish, skinny' (PL MHE-¿E-NA, 'thin-like-one'). If a difference can be perceived, it seems MHE-¿E-NA has a slight bias towards a transitive interpretation. This is also evidenced by the attested form *mi-nú-, ' (better 'made '); this is PL FA, which marks 'repeated set of (transitive) activities'; and implies 'completion of the verbal idea (perfective aspect)'.

Even the postulated 'eel' is attested in Lithuanian ménkė, 'elver, young eel': PL MHE-NA-KHO, 'smooth-one-child'.



The Egyptian sign for MHE (Gardiner #E13) depicts a 'cat'; and is a determinative for mjw, 'cat': . The development is MHE-¿E, 'cat-like' = 'act like a cat, utter cat-sounds/pounce on' + FE, agentive = 'one which utters cat-sounds/pounces' = 'cat' — full circle.



The idea of 'pouncing upon', the preferred method of hunting for the cat, can be seen in PIE *smei-t-, 'throw down, suppress', and s-mobile form of a theoretical *me[:]i-.

Although MHE, '(emerging) worm', can be seen fairly easily in PIE compounds like *wer-m- (for *wo[:]r-me[:]-, 'tunnel-making-worm'), 'worm', and *ter-m- (for *t(h)e[:]r-me[:]-, 'drilling-worm'), 'termite', (and possibly in *mer-, 'dead', if 'wormy[?] (MHE-RHE, 'worm-fall (out)'), so far it has proved surpassingly difficult to locate it in Sumerian or Egyptian with any degree of confidence. To judge by Sumerian mar-gal, 'rain/earthworm', a word based on MHA-RE, 'bite-make', properly originally applied to 'ants' (mar, Jaritz #573, means, among other things, 'louse, parasite), has ousted and replaced a theoretical *mî since the bite of an earthworm is not noticeably painful. Sumerian mar(-)un, Jaritz #543, means 'ant(-hill)'; it is written with Jaritz #339 inserted into the sign for 'ant (Jaritz #536), which suggests a particularly painful bite. Other words for 'ant' read kiši, built on PL K?XE-SE, 'empty-excrement', because of the similarity of the smells of formic acid and urine. Of course, the PIE root for 'ant' is *morwi- (for **ma[:]r-wi-); and Modern English pismire should be considered in this context (from the urinous smell of an anthill).

For the meaning 'soft, pliable', the PL term appears to be MHE (v. Sumerian *mî₂ above); for 'soften', however, it appears that a common process rather than a causative use of MHE was the favored expression‎: (HHA=)MHA-RE, 'water=chew' = '(soak in) water'=(then) chew (to soften)'. This is a well-documented procedure actually still in use in some traditional societies. Of course, we can easily understand than a more general term, MHE-RE, 'soft-cause to become' = 'soften', would, in many applications, be virtually synonymous. Of course, 'chewing' absent 'soaking' can also 'soften'. As a result of this relationship, there seems to be a certain amount of overlap or confusion between the reflexes of these two terms. For example, we had an Akkadian gloss which suggests that mar-mar (Jaritz #573+#573) can also be read *mîr-mîr by juxtaposition with a plene spelling me-ir-me-ir.

We have seen above that Egyptian 'sickle' represents 'bite'; and its fuller form with j-, 'bite off plant-tops' = 'reap with a sickle'. The presumed difference in vocalization in earliest Egyptian between reflexes of ?A and HHA would have consisted principally if not solely in the length of the vowel: /a/ as opposed to /a:/; similarly, in Sumerian, /a/ as against /a:/ — and in neither writing system would the vowel length have been (capable of being) graphically indicated.



This is forcefully illustrated by the Egyptian term jm3.y, 'foetus', written with #U1(!), 'sickle', but in a digraph under #G1, 'vulture (variety that resembles an 'eagle')', the result termed, by Gardiner, #G3: .

I believe this unusual for Egyptian procedure indicates an original slight difference of pronunciation as well as meaning since we can hardly believe that foetal extraction had much to do with a sickle. Or, for that matter, 'chewing': we expect that in this word, the impetus was j-m3, 'water-soften' (HHA-MHE-RE). In this listing, Gardiner cites a spelling of 'renew', s-m3wy, utilizing this digraph, presumably to convey the distinction between 'reaping' and 'softening'.

The Egyptian word for 'new' is written (j)m3, (j)m3w, and (j)m3wy, in our sources. We assert that 'new' is to be understood as 'smooth, soft, supple', and derives from PL (HHA-)MHA/MHE-RE.

Without any trace of the version with HHA- (PIE *a[:]), this is found in PIE *mer-yo- (for **me[:]r-y-o- [but possibly **ma[:]r-y-o-]), 'young (man)'. Similarly, we have PIE *mer- in MHG mer(e)n, 'dunk bread in milk or wine to soften it'; and, with s-mobile, in Modern German schmoren, 'braise (simmer meat in liquid to tenderize)'.

In Sumerian, we have mar₂, a reading of #782, which depicts a 'calf's face', and means 'new': . Its principal reading is amar. (for *âmâr) but also has the reading mar₂

The specialist or alert reader will hardly be able to fail to notice a similarity of #782 to #816, which portrays a '(grape-)leaf', something that clearly is consumed (chewed) with relish in the Middle East and elsewhere to this very day. Whether #782 is simple a variety of 'leaf' or a 'calf's head' is probably unprovable. We further assert that it is somewhat likely that *mâr₂ had an unrecorded variant pronunciation of *mîr in its meaning of 'new', properly 'soft, smooth, supple'.

As a postscript to the discussion of this word-family, we have Egyptian m3m3, 'gingerbread-palm', which can be compared to Sumerian gišimmar (for ^G[~]IŠâmâr-(â)mâr, 'completely soft' [?]), 'date-palm', written with Jaritz #658.

This (Gardiner #G3) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

---

NHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #631) depicts a 'right hand (Jaritz #629) with gunû' (shaded with multiple parallel lines, horizontal or vertical), means 'fool', a more general characterization of *'slippery fingers', one who lets objects and opportunities slide through his (butter-)fingers.

The word 'fool' for Sumerian is recorded as *lîl in a number of forms: lil, lil₂, lil₃, lil₅, and lil₈ — it is obvious, this was a frequently used word. It is, almost certainly, an emphatic reduplication of *lî for NHE with some semantically appropriate meaning. As the definitions make clear, one of the principal uses of PL NHE was as a deprecative.

The fact that Jaritz #945, reading li₇ for NE(-¿E), meaning '*slobber, *slippery', was not used to write any of these permutations of *lîl — nor was Jaritz #100, reading li — suggests to me that *lîl is based on the Sumerian response to NHE, 'what slips through as a result of its own self-originated motion'.

1. *lîl (Jaritz #631), depicts a 'right hand (Jaritz #629) with gunû' (shaded with multiple parallel lines, horizontal or vertical): . My supposition is that what is graphically portrayed is the 'right hand', normally clean, coated with something indicated by the gunû, which has made it 'unclean', 'dirty', and 'slippery'. Based on the alternation in Jaritz #832, la₂ and , with apparently identical meaning, I attribute to #629 an unrecorded reading of *lî_x. This can be seen in PIE *le:i-, 'drip, *slip through';

2. *lîl₂ is written with Jaritz #579, , which means 'rain' (RHE-RHE), determined by ^(LU2), 'human'; the connection is probably primarily phonetic; it depicts a 'wall-mat' for keeping out the rain (but perhaps a 'sheet of rain' coming off the edge of an eave or lower edge of a roof);

3. *lîl₃ is written with Jaritz #918, a combination of #908 ('cover', šu₂) over #823 ('intestine', ba₃), which we would normally expect to bit quite slippery: ;

4. *lîl₅; is written with #1001 (not in Jaritz), a combination of #908 ('cover', šu₂) over #339 ('a burning torch with smoke rising from the top', izi), which we would normally expect to bit quite hot; here, instead of 'butter-fingers', we have the graphic of someone picking up something too hot to hold ('hotsie-totsie'): ;

5. *lîl₈ is written with lu₂, 'man', Jaritz #611, tilted at a 45̊ angle to the right, suggesting 'clumsy feet' or 'slippery surface' leading to a fall: .

It is obvious from this analysis that 'fool' has nothing much to do with intelligence but much to do with lack of common sense leading to slippery escapes and slipping movements (with the exception of lîl₅) although we could think of a too hot object 'slipping through the fingers'.



The Egyptian sign for NHE is Gardiner #N22b, 'two rushes with shoots': . I believe this is a digraph for n. It occurs as n(n)y, 'be weary, inert', corresponding to PIE *le:(i)-, 'slack, soft, tired'; and is PL NHE-¿E, 'worm-like' = 'slack'.

---

PHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #969) depicts the 'head of a mouse with whiskers indicated'; and a reading of this Sumerian sign is piš₂ (for pîš₂), which means 'mouse'. Though we have no Egyptian cognate, the PIE cognate is *peis-, 'squeak'; this is PL PHE-¿E-SE, 'mouse-like-(forcefully) excrete' = 'squeak'; so, for the Sumerians, the mouse was the 'squeaker'. Mice squeak when foraging for food or when otherwise excited.

Another important derivation from PHE is PHE-NHE, 'mouse-come apart', 'nibble, produce sawdust (as from around a mouse-hole)'. This can first be seen in Egyptian pn.w, 'mouse ('nibbler')'. PIE has *pel-, 'dust, meal'; and *pel-, 'gray', from which Old Prussian peles, 'mice', is derived. In addition, there is *ple:-, 'split off, rip off, make a thin piece, flake, splinter'. We also have Sumerian pi-il(i)₅, meaning 'be thin, light'.

Some meanings associated with the reading pi from Jaritz #688 are 'diminish, remove, deduct, reduce'; this is a semantic field we associate with PHE, 'mouse'. This appears to be a purely phonetically inspired association, probably because a reading of *pi_x for #969 was lost. On the basis of pi-il(i)₅, I would add '*make/be thin' to the other meanings associated with pi.



The Egyptian sign for PHE (Gardiner #H3) depicts the 'head of a spoonbill', a bird whose long bill flattens at the tip to become thin. It is possible that p3, represent 'thin-bird' (PL PHE-RHA) was once in use as a name for the 'spoonbill': .

There are several compounds written with #H3, which seems to have had the value p3, suggesting 'thin(ness)': p3q, 'flat, thin, cake'; p3q.t, 'fine (sheer) linen'; p3q.y.t, 'turtle shell, flake'. I believe a PIE root *sper- should be reconstructed to account for Germanic *sparo:jan, from which Modern Engish spare is derived, an s-mobile of a postulated **per-, 'produce a thin sheet of something', PL PHE-RE, 'thin-cause to become'.

This (#H3) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

---

PFHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #688) depicts 'the head of a pointed long-eared mammal on a pole', which, from the reading pi (for *pî), we presume to be a '*spotted hyena'.

The pointed ears being especially prominent on this animal, the meaning 'pointed' was also developed. One of the meanings of this sign is 'wisdom'; and, in this meaning, is read tal₂; tala (for *tâlâ, see below), another reading, means, 'broad, extended'. This is PL TSHA-RHA-?A, 'elongate-suspend-stative' = 'extended (arm), reached out'. We can easily find this in EgyptianD3.j, 'cross, extend (arm) ['cause to cross'], reach out'. It is similarly easy to find the PIE cognate: *ter- (for **t(h)a:ra:-; cf. *tra:-), 'get over to, cross over, bring over'.

I am relatively sure that this sign was also read *pî for the general meaning of 'intelligence', representing PL PFHE-¿E, 'hyena-like' = 'pointed' = 'sharp'. We can see it in the proper form in PIE *(s)p(h)e:i-, 'pointed'; do we not still say: 'sharp as a tack' for 'intelligent'? The association with ears suggests an idea like 'prick up one's ears' was associated with intelligence and wisdom.

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #339) depicts a 'burning torch with smoke rising from its top': . Among its many readings is *pî₅, which means 'spark/flame' in the compound *îpî from PL HHE-PFHE, 'smoke-sparks/flame' = 'smoke/roast'; this word is also written i-pi₅ and i₃-pi₅. For additional details, see above under HHE.



The Egyptian sign for PFHE is Gardiner's #E24, which is used as a determinative and alphabetically for the the biliteral b3, 'leopard' but in that word only, is ; it is, originally, the sign for 'panther', Egyptian 3b.y, 'panther' (see below under RHE).

This (#E24) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

Egyptian b3 is a compound of PFHE, 'hyena/spotted' + RA, 'color'; it designates the 'leopard' as a er, sleeker, and spotted/hyena-like (panther). The leopard was considered by our ancestors to be a spotted panther, the change in fur brought about by hybridization with a lion (leo-). In PIE, **per-d- is considered to be a loanword from some Oriental language. However, the word is quite old. In Sumerian, 'leopard' is recorded as nemur_x, which is probably an Akkadian loanword to judge by Akkadian namru, 'leopard'; but the sign is written PIRIG~ TUR. Sumerian tur, ' ', was discussed above under HHA.

It is instructive in this context that the recorded Egyptian word for 'hyena(-female/pack[?])', HT.t, uses the 'jackal'-determinative (#E17); and that HT is an administrative title in the Old Kingdom (= z3(b)[?]; or possibly, 'court jester'[?]; see below). There is, however, a sparse attestation of a specifically 'hyena' determinative/word-sign being used very early with HT(.t): . In view of PIE *k^e[:]igh-, 'cough, hiccup', it may be that the preserved name for 'hyena', HT(.t), designates it as the 'cougher/hiccuper/laugher', to describe the peculiar vocalization of the hyena that we call its 'laugh'. As adverse as I am to onomatopoeic explanations, this may be the exception that proves the rule: HT would have been pronounced in earliest Egyptian as /kçač/ (cf. PIE *ka:k-, 'laugh at').

Sumerian pirig~ is usually translated as 'lion'. It is written with several signs:

pirig~ (#789);

pirig~₂ (#684);

pirig~₃ (#230);

and as bi₂-ri-ig~₃ (#339 + #132[rig₅] + #347 ('hand-scoop') enclosing #339 ('torch')).

Sumerian pirig~₂ and pirig~₃ are also translated as 'bright'. Thus, it is the usual confused mixture of sign, value, and meaning.

However, here we are a little luckier: sign #789 depicts what appears to be a feline: . The sign above the head of the animal is, fairly probably, #750, which reads u, and, we believe, is being used as a phonetic determinative for the reading ug₂, 'lion'. We have assigned the monosyllable HO to 'lion', and this would result in Sumerian *û. On the basis of PIE *o:k^-ro-, 'very fast', we reconstruct HO-KXHE, 'lion/move across-run/fast/work' = 'charge/attack violently/maul'. We, therefore, emend ug₂ to *ûk₂; and with this word, we can connect Sumerian ug₂, 'be furious', in deed as well as word. We provisionally assume that the correct reading for 'lion' is *ûk₂; and that pirig~ is probably the name for another feline.

Now another Sumerian sign, Jaritz #230, reads pirig~₃ and ug/k/q; and means 'lion' as well as 'roar': . This sign does not apparently have #750 written above it as #789 does; and the later cuneiform renditions seem to be including #664 ('bent knee'; *ga_x) over #684 (which we read here as pir) — both of which inside the simplified form of #789 (#230): ; although the order of inserted elements is in reverse, they seem to be indicating *pir(i)g phonetically rather than the *pirig~ we would expect.

I am going to provisionally assume that, on the basis of Egyptian b3, 'leopard', the Sumerian element *pir should represent 'leopard', and that the meaning 'lion' attached to sign #684 should be, for the reading pir of #684, be emended to 'leopard'. Sign #684 also reads ug₄, which I will emend to ûk₄, and assign to the meaning of 'lion'.

This leaves pirik(i)₃ to be assigned a meaning. The word KHE means 'dog'; and I suggest that pirik(i)₃ represents PFHE-RHE-KHE, 'leopard-dog', a name for the 'hyena' — 'leopard' because of the spots that appear on the coats of both. Though PIE has lost the idea of 'hyena' as a reference, we do have *prek^-, 'sprinkled with spots of color, colorful, often for the designation of color-sprinkled animals, dotted with color'.

In spite of the phonetic similarity, Sumerian pirig~₂ and pirig~₃, 'bright', are based on other elements. The can be referred to Egyptian b3q, 'bright, white, oily, moringa-oil'; and PIE *bhre:g^- (for **bhre:(n)g^), 'gleam, white, birch'. It is also present in PIE *(s)p(h)re:g^- (for **(s)p(h)re:(n)g^-), 'sparkle, sprinkle', the s-mobile form of **bhre:(n)g^-.

This is a rather unusual term in so far as it appears the product of a plant is being used as a color designation: I reconstruct: P?FE-RE-QE, 'extend around-cause to become' = 'gleam' + 'juice' = 'moringa-oil' = 'gleaming'. This is a further derivation of P?FE-RE, 'gleam', which is seen in PIE *bher-, 'gleaming'; Sumerian pir, a reading of #684, that should probably be read instead of pirig~₂ for the meaning 'bright'. The reconstruction of a dorsal nasal rather than a plain dorsal is supported by the Sumerian rendering pirig~, where g~ is believed by most Sumerologists to be a voiced dorsal nasal (/ng/).

The word 'moringa' is derived from Tamil morungai. The sequence labial+r+ng suggests more than a coincidental connection to P?FE-RE-QE but I will not go into the nature of the connection (if it exists) at this time.

The Egyptian equivalent is not so apparently obvious at first sight. None of the meanings assigned to b3 currently are connected with 'gleam'; however, another sign used to write b3 is Gardiner #W10, '(stone) cup/bowl with wick, lamp' (and #W11, Old Kingdom form with two wicks), which will represent PL P?FO-RE: . This is a very suitable graphic representation of 'gleam'; and its employment with b3, 'soul', suggests that the souls of the dead 'gleam' among the stars, which conforms to what we think we know about early Egyptian religious beliefs. The name of the 'lamp' itself, however, originally meant only 'bored out' ('bone-apply'; PIE *bher-, 'work with a sharp tool' Sumerian pur, '(stone) bowl, sacrificial dinner' [Jaritz #646]).

Egyptian 'soul' is also written with the 'jabiru', discussed above, which represents P?FA-RHA, 'jabiru'. Both P?FE-RE and P?FA-RHA would have had the same phonetic outcome in Egyptian: /ba(:)r(a[:])/. The jabiru is, of course, a stork; and storks would have had the widest wing-span of any bird the Egyptians knew. The connection of storks to birth in many folk-traditions around the world may also have aided in connecting storks with souls that would presumably be brought back from the sky to be incorporated into the children new births.

Sumerian par, 'white', is another reading of #684, and represents PL PFHA-RA, 'sheep-formant of colors = 'white'; this is Egyptian b3, 'ram, white one'.

Sumerian #684 is written , depicts the 'rising sun' as it first becomes visible, and in this meaning, should be read as para₁₁ (for *pâra₁₁), '*go up, *become noticeable'; this is almost exactly the same sign we see as a determinative of 'new moon' in Egyptian: , #N12, a Dynasty XVIII variant of #N11, which shows only the 'crescent moon'. We may note in this connection bara₆ (for pâra₆) which is listed as a 'color term'; it is written with #873: , which depicts a 'simple circle', surrounding #889, mi₃, 'stick out', and #161, în₄, 'eye/watch', combining to form *min, 'that which sticks out' (PL ME-NA); in addition to the reading para₆, it also reads men₄ (for *min₄), ''crown').

We can, in turn, see this in PIE *men-, 'stand out, mountain'; and in Egyptian mn.w, 'monument', and mnn.w, 'fortress'. This idea is also present in para₆, which, in addition to meaning 'king' ('outstanding man') means 'color term', which we now interpret to mean 'outstanding, contrastive (color-wise)'. We attribute para₆ (for pâra₆) to PL P?FA-?A-RA, 'prominent-stative = 'outstanding' + formant of colors = 'contrastive'. We can relate this to PIE *bha(:)r-, 'stick out, stand out, protrude'.

We do not find a sign that reads b3 and means 'outstanding' under b3 but under its causative, s-b3, we find 'star' and 'teach', which we interpret as 'cause to be outstanding'; the star 'stands out' against the black backdrop of the nighttime heavens; the teaching consists of 'causing information to stand out, be focused on'. This (s)b3 is written with Gardiner #N14, 'star': ; we attribute this to P?FA-?A-RA, also.

---

QHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #603) reads nir (for *ñî(r)), and depicts 'two trees'. For details, see below. I feel relatively sure that this sign had unrecorded recordings of **ñî and *ñâ in addition to the recorded nir (for*ñîr) and nar₃ (for *ñâr₃). The sign also reads šir₇ (for *šîr₇), which appears to be an Emesal version of *ñîr.



The Egyptian sign for QHE is Gardiner #O41, 'double stairway': . This sign is used as a determinative for 'hill', q3(3).

This (#O41) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

It is difficult to grasp the fine points of the original distinction between QHA-RA and QHE-RA. While QHA-RA (Egyptian q3(.j)) seems to be more connected with 'being tall or high' as a result of previous unbending, something like 'uncoil and be high as a result' (this is certainly what the Egyptian sign, #A28, seems to imply), QHE-RA seems to indicate a process of 'bending over to create a tall angularity'. In any case, QHE-RA, in the form of Egyptian q3(3), is used for 'hill'. As we have seen, initial QH appears in Sumerian as n (for *ñ), a distinction not yet recognized by Sumerologists.

The Sumerians may have also had a problem with this distinction because Jaritz #603, which depicts 'two trees (#133, nun, 'large') side by side', , reads nar₃ (for *ñâr₃) and nir (for *ñîr), which correspond respectively to the meanings 'stretch out' and 'high/tall'. The term 'tall (one)' is used for 'hero'; and is also written with nir₆ (for ñîr₆; Jaritz #597). Sign #603 also reads ri₅ (for *rê_x), represents RA-¿E, '*tall-like' = '*high'.

For *QHE, we would expect *(n)k^- in PIE. To facilitate the pronunciation of the initial nasal, a prothetic *a was added. Thus, QHE-RA initially became PIE *ánk^er-. In time, *ánk^er- was reduced to *á(:)(k^)k^er- through assimilation and compensatory vowel-lengthening. With the addition of adjectival -*y, this became *ák^ri-, seen in Greek *ákris, 'point, summit of a mountain', listed under *ak^ in Pokorny; this corresponding to Sumerian *ñîr and Egyptian q3(3) above.

A common word for 'eat' in Egyptian is wnm; and, it is actually spelled so in many cases. But under the doctrine of 'defective spelling' (which doctrine is itself defective), Egyptologists blithely assume that the word can also be spelled jm or wn, and still represent wnm. In view of PIE *wen- (for PL FA-NA, 'leaf-thing' = 'vegetable'), 'pasturage, fodder', and Sumerian eme, 'tongue', this seems completely unjustified.

One of the spellings that is supposed to read wnm is actually written qq. Instead, this represents QE-QE, 'pointedly angled'-reduplication = 'all toothed' = 'eat'. We can see in Norwegian dialectal agge, 'tooth', this form results in PIE *a(n)k^-(n)k^ó. This, in turn, can be related to PIE *ak^-/*ak^o:-, 'eat'. The latter, as seen in Greek ákulos, 'acorn', probably represents PL QHE-FA, 'pointedly angled-set' = 'dentition'; Egyptian qq could represent *qw as well as qq since doubled signs were anciently read as duals in -w(j) (but perhaps also in -j (PL ¿A; *qj).

For discussion of QHE-MO-RE, 'hammer', see under RE above.

---

RHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #456) depicts a 'conical container in which oil is allowed to rise to the top (but also possibly a 'bag containing crushed oily material, from which oil is extracted by squeezing')', and reads li₂ (for lî₂), and means 'oil, fat, cream, press out (oil)'; this should be analyzed a 'cause to fall, press out'.

Reduplicated, it is seen in Sumerian *lîl₂, 'rain', written with #579, which depicts a 'wall-mat' for keeping out the rain (but perhaps a 'sheet of rain' coming off the edge of an eave or lower edge of a roof): .

The Egyptian sign for RHE is Gardiner #E24, 'panther': ; it is used, however, only as a determinative for 3b(.y), 'panther'. Egyptian 3b is PL RHE-P?FE, 'panther'-formant of animal names = 'panther(-track')'. This can be seen only indirectly in PIE *re(:)bh-, 'to be in powerful motion, attack, *fall upon'. The reading lib/p is attached to Jaritz #657, which we have discussed under KHA above and NHO below. Since lip is the expected response to PL RHE-P?FE, I am going to assume that it also was used for 'panther'.



Another Egyptian sign for RHE is Gardiner #N4, 'moisture falling from sky': ; it is used as a determinative for j3d.t, 'dew' (HHA-RHE-T?A, 'water-fall-drip' = 'dew').

As a verb, RHE means 'to come down, go'; and transitively, 'to put down'. We can see the simplex in Egyptian 3, 'tread'.

---

SHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #657) depicts a 'jackal', reads še₁₁ (for *ši_x), though this reading is not currently associated with this meaning.



The Egyptian sign is for SHE Gardiner #A1, 'seated man', , and had, at one time, the value of z; it means 'individual'; but, in Egyptian, it is used primarly as a determinative for 'man' in many words, including z, 'man, someone, anyone, (no) one (with negative), man of rank'.



A second Egyptian sign for SHE is Gardiner #E17, 'jackal', already discussed above under PFHE: .

The attested Egyptian word for 'jackal' is z3b, which can be further analyzed into z3, 'reddish brown, rust-colored, *jackal-colored' and b, formant of animal names; jackals live singly as well as in pairs; and this bachelorhood appeared notable to our ancestors. This is the black-backed jackal, the body of which is rust-colored. Egyptian z3 is PL SHE-RA, 'jackal-color' = 'reddish brown'. This word can be found in PIE *se(:)r- (cf Old Indian sá:ra-, 'pith of a tree'), 'red, reddish'. This same PIE root stands for PL SO-RA, 'skin-color' = 'pinkish'. The second is found in Sumerian sur₂, 'be furious, angry (i.e. 'red-faced')', Jaritz #610, which depicts a 'head with hair standing erect on it': .

The first can be seen in Sumerian šir₂ (for *šîr₂), 'reddening, sunburn', a reading of #675, pu, '* (venomous) snake', from its similarity to šir₂ (for *šîr₂) for an unrecorded '*creep' (PIE in *ser-p-, 'creep'; Egyptian in z3, 'maggot', i.e. '*creeper'; in z3j, 'creep'; PL SHE-RHE, 'jackal-come' = 'creep').

PL SHE is the first element in Egyptian z(-)nHm, 'creeper-withdraw' = 'locust', which presumably refers to the long absence of the locust between infestations; it is written with the determinative (Gardiner #L4) depicting a 'creeping' rather than the 'flying' insect we might anticipate: . This word, uncompounded, can also be seen in Sumerian si₁₄ (for *ši_x), which has been tentatively assigned a meaning of 'spider, snail'. This is a reading of Jaritz #575, dug, which depicts a 'wine amphora with a pouring spout'; and means 'container with pouting spout, good': .

This choice of associations suggests the edible nature of the animal involved, which might be 'snails' or 'locusts' but more questionably 'spiders'. In view of its use for 'red wine', the reading lut (for *lût) suggests an unknown dialectal variant reading (Emegi should have *lûz) for PL RO-FA-T?SA, 'pink/red', PIE *reudh-; and Egyptian rwD; see above.

As for dug itself, it may be related to PIE *dNg^hú:- through a reconstructed PL T?O-NA-K?XE(-FA), 'lump-thing' = 'tongue' + 'scrape(-do repeatedly)' = '(test-)taste(d)', then 'tasty', but the evidence at hand only permits speculation (no Egyptian cognate identified; Sumerian graphic does not relate directly to bodily part); this would, of course, require and emendation of dug to *du(n)k.

This (#E17) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

---

THE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #14) has already been discussed under ?A. We cannot be certain whether or not an earlier archaic sign made a distinction between a form for ?A and a form for THE but it is likely that a simpler form of the sign existed for THE, perhaps similar to the Egyptian sign below. The normal signs for 'star, *constellation' in Sumerian are mul_{1, 2, 4}.

1. The first value, mul is written by repeating Jaritz #14 three times (Jaritz #228): this can only mean 'constellation'; and potentially verifies our assignment of the meaning 'star' (dir₃ for *tîr_x) to Jaritz #14;

2. Sumerian mul₂ is written with Jaritz #680, the main reading for which is te (for *te/i; it depicts a 'barrier' made of a pole stretched between two cross-shaped pieces at either end: . Some recorded meanings are: 'earthen wall, extinguish, take away' — all associated with blockage or restraint of some kind. My strong suspicion is that these and other semantically related meanings represent PL T?E-?A-¿E, 'wind-stative-like' = 'wrapped around (and, by 'being wrapped around, restrained')'; and should be read de₄ (for *dî_x) for these associated meanings. This would correspond to PIE *de:i-, 'bind'; and Egyptian *djw (for presently read d3j.w; see under T?E above), 'loin-cloth'.


a. Another reading of Jaritz #680 is ten, 'extinguish, calm one's self'; these meanings seem semantically relatable to 'restraint'. If this is true, they would be derived from PL T?E-?A-NA, 'restrain-cause to be' = 'barrier'. Of course, ten would require emendation to *dîn but, in view of the regularly observed confusion of voiced and voiceless stops, I believe this is justified. This word can be seen in PIE *de:-n-, 'garb, *binding, sinew'. In Egyptian, we have d(j)n.j, 'dam, hold back, restrain, retain', which is written with another biliteral for dj, this time with the associated meaning to 'hold back' rather than simply 'wrap around', Gardiner #V11, which depicts a 'barrier stopping movement': . That this reads dj is made virtually certain by its employment for dj.wt, 'shrieking', which is alternatively spelled with five strokes indicating '5', djw, PL T?A-¿E-FA, 'hand-like' = 'finger(s)-number'.

Though this word is, so far as I can see, strictly a PIE phenomenon, I believe PIE *dens-, 'wisdom', belongs here as a reflex of PL T?E-?A-NA-SHA, 'retain-state/condition' = 'retention (of information)' = 'wisdom'. We would expect a PIE form like **de:ns-; and, I believe we can find evidence of such a formulation in Homeric Greek dé:nea, 'advices'.


3. Sumerian mul₄ is written with Jaritz #750 (u) + #563 (gud, and probably should be semantically interpreted as 'heavenly power' or something related. Whether it meant 'constellation' or 'star' ('constellation member') does not seem to have a direct bearing on the questions being discussed here.

4. We cannot be sure how mul(u) is to be analyzed since we lack Egyptian and PIE cognates in the meaning of 'constellation'; however, we may, at least, hazard an informed guess that it represents MO-RHO, 'bulge-rise' = 'risen area'. This would then be cognate with mul(u), Jaritz #228, 'Pleiades, cushion, fullness, filling up, *constellation'. This would, in turn, be cognate with PIE *mel-/*mlo:-, 'raised area'; we should also notice *mola:, 'bank'. Most probably, this is Egyptian mr when properly written with Gardiner #N36, 'channel(-banks) filled with water': . Though it is written incorrectly with Gardiner #U8 (Old Kingdom form; also #U6 and #U7), 'hoe': , Egyptian mr.y.t, 'bank, shore, quay', is clearly related as well (it should be written with #N36; see above). As a result of the reading mul₂, Jaritz #680 records the meanings 'bank-ridge, embankment, quay'. For an explanation of #U8, see ?A above.


a. The Egyptian word mr.w, 'weavers', written with #U8, should be interpreted as PL MO-RO, 'bulge(s)-raise' = 'plait, weave'; and is cognate PIE *mer-, 'plait, weave, bind'. This would be Sumerian mul, and it is possible we see this in 'sandal, shoe', meanings accorded to Jaritz #228, although the sign clearly indicates a primary meaning of 'constellation'.

The conclusions we draw from this data are that the original reading for Jaritz #680 must have been de₄ and *din, for *dî_x and *dîn, and that the meanings 'wrap up/around' and 'hold back, restrain', should be assigned to them; and that te as a reading for #680, and the association of the meaning 'star' with it, is misplaced.

The reading *ti_x should be assigned to Jaritz #14 in the meaning 'star'; and the reading of #14 as dir₃ should be emended to *tîr_x; and also assigned the meaning 'star'; Jaritz #14 should also be interpreted as 'star' on the basis of a sign variant that has not survived to us.

The Egyptian sign for THE is Gardiner #N14, 'star', which is used in writing d(3.t), 'netherworld', really 'night sky filled with stars that are the souls of the dead': .

This (#N14) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

We can see this in PIE *te(:)ra(:), 'star(s)'; this is PL THE-(HA-)RE(-HHA), 'radiate-(stative-)cause to become(-all)' = 'glimmer, twinkle'. It is, however, possible that a s-mobile form that has lost its initial *s- from T?A-RA, 'tremble', has been conflated with this PIE root as well.

Of additional interest may be that Sumerian has te-ri-ta meaning '(divine) instruction'. I think it probable that this represents *tîri-ta, '*from the star(s)'.

A related sign, Gardiner #N15, 'star in circle', , means 'world of the dead', and is an expression‎ for the night sky: PL THE-RE-THO, 'star-collection' = 'nighttime firmament'. The souls of the dead were believed to appear as stars in the night sky.

Sumerian sign Jaritz #816 depicts a '(grape-)leaf', an means specifically 'vine, tendril'; its reading, tin, has been transferred to 'wine' as the product of the vine/tendril: . This is PL THE-NA, 'radiate/stretch-thing' = 'vine'. This meaning is present in PIE as well in Anglo-Saxon thona, 'tendril', derived from PIE *ten-, 'prolong, pull, span, stretch, spread out'. Emesal has mu-tin (for *mü-tin, PL MO-¿E, 'flesh-like' = 'bloody') for 'wine', which is 'blood(iness) of the vine'. The fuller Emegi form is g[~]eš(-)tin written with Jaritz #419, , a combination of #816 under #424, *g[~]²îš₃, '(over)power'. In view of the fact that this sign also means 'ejaculate', we analyze *g[~]²îš₃ as PL FE-¿E-(?A-)SE, 'strong-like-(stative-)emit' = 'semen, ejaculate'.

In the Sumerian culture as in many others, it appears that 'semen' was considered the source of manly strength. This is reflected in two PIE forms: *wi:s-, 'strength (this may also be FE-¿E-?A-SHA; with this, we would need to emend *g[~]²îš₃ to *g[~]²îsâ_x)' (listed under *wei-, 'be strong'), and *wi:so-s (listed probably incorrectly under *weis-, 'flow', PL P?E-¿E-SE, 'urine-like-emit' = '*urinate'), 'poison [probably better 'potent, dangerous substance']'. That the idea of 'semen' underlies these meanings is virtually assured by the existence of Old Indian viStha:-, 'animal semen'. Thus, the Emegi term for 'wine' seems to mean 'strength of the vine'.

There are some Egyptian words which seem to be derived from THE-NA: dn.j, 'share out ('cause to be spread/stretched out (to)'); and dn.w.t, '(extended) families (cf. Old Indian tána-, 'offspring'.

---

TSHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #130) depicts a 'stick with pennant stuck upright in water, used as a height-marker for its rising; the water being shown at four different levels', and reads ze/zi as well as zig/k.

It is recorded as meaning 'rise, raise, swell, muster, expand, levy, issue'. The first is PLTSHE, 'stick into, raise by sticking into'; in this simple form (**t(h)e(:); but see below), it is not found in PIE, but if we add PL K?XA, 'hang', we can see it in PIE *(s)teg-, '(upright, affixed) pole, stick, flag (attached to a pole)'; and *stegh- (here retaining aspiration; an *s-mobile form for which the uncombined form has not survived), 'stick'; or adding QA, 'plant-stem', we have it in PIE *stengh- (for **(s)teng-; an *s-mobile form for which the uncombined form has not survived), 'stick, stalk, stem'; or adding KXHA, 'pointed', we have it in PIE *stek- (for *(s)tek(h)-; an *s-mobile form for which the uncombined form has not survived), 'stake, upright standing pole'; three of these would be Sumerian *zik; **(s)teng- would be Sumerian zi(n)g~.

In the sense of 'upright' as a result of being raised by being stuck into something, the same sign, Jaritz #130, reads zid; it means 'to be right, true, loyal', and literally means 'upstanding'. It can be seen in Egyptian as Dd, 'stable, enduring', i.e.steady', which is written as Gardiner #R11, 'column imitating a bundle of stalks tied together': .

This ceremonial object was ritually fixed upright by being inserted in the ground in an important Egyptian festival, probably connected with ensuring cosmic stability. In PIE, we see it as *(s)t(h)e:-, listed incorrectly under *sta:-, 'stand', as an Ablaut variation of *sta:- (for *(s)t(h)a:-, PL TSHA).

This is doubly incorrect because no genuinely long PIE vowel can undergo *e/o-Ablaut variation while retaining its vowel-length though it can be put in zero-grade.

Both of these forms, **(s)t(h)a:- and *(s)t(h)e:- are *s-mobile forms the two uncombined forms of which have not survived. OHG sta:ti, 'firm, lasting, steady', tells us the proper reconstruction is **(s)t(h)e:d- for PL TSHE-T?A, 'puncture-give' = 'set upright by insertion into something, fixed (upright) in place'. This is, of course, also the basis for Sumerian zid (for *zîd), mentioned above.

An interesting application of TSHE-¿E, 'porcupine-like' = 'bristled' is in a Sumerian reading for Jaritz #818, one of the archaic signs underlying which depicts a swine's head with tusks and three lines to suggest bristles (another archaic sign depicts an 'ass'): ; it reads šah₂ (for šâh₂), 'swine'; but also zeze₂ (for *zîzî₂), 'all bristles', an apt description of swine.

We have discussed Jaritz #116 above in connection with PL TSHE-RE, where we found zir in the meanings 'tear out, remove'; the archaic sign suggests strongly that we are dealing with 'piercing' or 'drilling'.

A further derivation from TSHE-RE is seen in PIE *ter-m-, 'boring insect, termite' (+ MHE, 'worm'; *t(h)e[:]r-me[:]-).

We have an adjectival derivation, TSHE-¿E, 'bristle-like' = 'bristled', as a reading for Jaritz #276, which depicts 'an enclosed fireplace with chimney (furnace)', in which #684, a depiction of the 'rising sun' has been placed: ; the sign reads ze/zi₂, and means (currently read by Sumerologists as zal) 'melt, purify, flow' (also reduplicated as *zê₂-zê₂); there can be little doubt that it depicts a 'kiln'.

We can relate this to PIE *ta:i- (for **t(h)a:i-), 'melt'; and Sumerian *zê₂ would be the predicted response. This is PL TSHA-¿E, 'elongate-like' = 'melt'. Because of the continual confusion in the minds of later scribes between *ê and *i/î, the sign as also been assigned the reading zi₂/zî₂. As zi₂ (for TSHE), it was improperly used in spellings of zir, for which #116 was the proper sign, like zi₂-ir. It also improperly represented PL TSHE-¿E, 'bristled', for which #818 was the proper sign. Having said all that, it was used in ze₂-da, 'bristled-side' (PL T?A) for 'piglet' and, substantiating our assignment of meaning for TSHE, 'porcupine'. This morpheme with PL ¿E, '-like', can also be seen in PIE *(s)tei- (for *(s)t(h)e(:)i-, 'pointed (like a bristle or spine)'.

A specialized use of zî₂ occurs in its use for 'gall-bladder, bile', which, as anyone knows who has had contact with it, is extremely 'bitter'. This is PL T?SE-?A(-¿E), 'conically pointed'-stative = 'piercing'. It can be seen, reduplicated, in PIE *dhe(:)edhn-, 'sour milk',and in Old Indian dádhi-. Bitterness/sourness is conceptualized as mild physical injury.

Jaritz #130 also associates the idea of 'life' and 'breathing' with its reading *zî (but also *šî). This is probably simply T?SE-HHA-¿E, 'teat'-durative-'like' = 'suck (air)'; and in this case, inhale'. This corresponds to PIE *dhe:i-, 'suck'.

The Egyptian sign for TSHE is Gardiner #U28/#U29, , which reads D(3), 'fire-drill'.

These (#U28/#U29) are other examples
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

An Egyptian word written with #U28/#U29 is D3.j, 'extend, pierce, transfix, ferry, pass/cross over, remain over'; with a further extension, D3.w(.t), compensate/compensation'; and D3.t, 'wrongdoing (excess)/remainder'. This is PL TSHE-RE(-FA)(-¿E)(-THO), 'puncture-cause to become(-do repeatedly)(-like)(-collection)'.

We can easily identify a potential PIE cognate: *ter-, 'reach the opposite side, press through, cross over, surpass, go past, bring over, (be) through'. Even though no long vowel is reconstructed, forms like Old Indian tirá:ti-, 'set over', suggests strongly that *te[:]r- should be reconstructed since *e: (Old Indian a:) in zero-grade yields Old Indian i. In addition, PIE **t(h)e[:]r- has the further extension -*u: **t(h)e[:]r-u-, as in tarute:, 'overpowers, conquers'.

It is the Sumerian cognate that is the problem. On a semantic basis, the cognate is clearly *dir(i)(g), 'above, more than, project, surplus'; and, as we have seen above: 'cross over'. We would expect PL TSHE-RE-¿E to produce a final long vowel: *dîrî; and, of course, this form is attested as diri. In addition, since we know of Sumerian *wi *g[~]²i in the main Emegi men's language, it is reasonable to expect that *iw *ig[~]²; we, therefore, analyze dirig as *dîrig[~]², reflecting TSHE-RE-FA.

The problem is that TSHE should appear in Sumerian as *zî. What makes this even more interesting is that we have zir in the meanings 'tear out, remove'; and the archaic sign suggests strongly that we are dealing with 'piercing' or 'drilling'; this corresponds to a transitive employment of this verb: 'cause to pass through', or TSHE-RE as we analyzed above; even more interestingly, *dîr(î/ig[~]²) (Jaritz #214) is written as a combination of Jaritz #188b, currently read si but properly read *zi_x, see above ('lateral view of a curled horn') over #949, â ('water'): .

This looks very much like #949 is a semantic determinative for '(crossing over) water'; and #188b might simply be an indication of the initial consonant and vowel. On the other hand, Jaritz #191, presumably a gunû (shaded with multiple parallel lines, horizontal or vertical) form of #188 with some minor stylistic changes, , reads *dir₂ of unknown meaning; it normal reading is dar.

Might these simply have been confused by the scribe who passed the reading of dir along to us for Jaritz #214? This seems to be the likeliest possibility with the facts at our disposal. We might also notice that one of the meanings attributed to dir is 'become loose' (for *tir_x[?]). This meaning may also originally have belonged to #214 in its reading of dir₂ (not, however, recorded, with this meaning or reading: *tir₂[?]) where it could be related to PL THE-RE, 'spread out-cause to become' = 'loosen up', seen in Egyptian d3, 'become loose, wobble'; and in PIE *ter-, 'wriggle, unsteady'. The upshot of all of this is that I believe dir(i)(g) should be emended to *zîr(î/ig[~]² in the meaning 'cross over'.

---

XHE

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #774) reads, according to the University of Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary še(d)_x, which we emend to *šî(d)_x, for the meanings 'lie down, rest, sleep', which, we believe, is properly 'curl one's self up'. We have seen it above under NO, meaning 'store' and 'sleep'. No other Sumerian sign I have been able to find correlates graphically 'curling up (like a hedgehog)', the basal meaning of this monosyllable, with the meanings 'rest' or 'sleep', and the reading *sî (for XHE(-¿E)) so we must accept that this sign, which depicts a 'sleeping cushion', presumably on a raised bed-platform of some kind, represents our best possibility. We probably will never be able to know but I speculate that *sî was the earliest reading of #774, and was replaced by na₂ ('be inside, *be away in sleep') and nu₂ ('put away, *out of sight sleeping)'.

We can easily see this word in PIE *k^wey6- (for **k^^wey6-), 'comfortably rest' (PL XHE-¿E-?A + stative).



The Egyptian sign for XHE (Gardiner #H7) depicts a 'bird's claw with tensed talons'; and reads š3, 'claw', representing XHE-RE, 'curl around one's self-fingernail' = 'curved fingernail' = 'talon': . In one word where it is used as a biliteral, Š3.t, 'Shat, a country (probably a land where necklaces of strung talons were common or obligatory)', the sign for 'fingernail', Gardiner #T14, which represents RE is also employed in this word so the analysis seems relatively certain for the second element.

Reflexes of XHE-RE can be seen in PIE s-mobile form *skwerb(h)-, '(place of) puncture (as of thorns)', probably from XHE-RE-P?FA, 'clawed-prominence'. Normally, we expect an s-mobile form of a PIE root beginning in *k^^w- to give up both its palatalization and labial glide but this root/stem is attested only in Celtic and Baltic so that may somehow tip the equation in the sense of what reconstruction was possible. The normally expected s-mobile form of *k^^wer- can, however, be seen in PIE *(s)ker-, 'cut', under which we find derivatives such as 'scratch, claw, mole (from its unusually proportionally large claws)'.

This (#H7) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

---

FHO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #688) reads wu (*wû, depicts a 'pair of ears on a neck' ; in view of the longstanding connection of hares with long ears, the animal indicated may be a 'hare', which would require the emendation of wu to *wû. Perhaps another variant may have depicted a 'mouse' since one of the readings is pi, which may stand for PHE. The sign, written without a 'neck', is associated extensively with the meaning 'ear' which means that it also represented FO phonologically.



The Egyptian sign for FHO is Gardiner #E34, 'desert hare', which is normally read w(n): , which is only used to write wn. It is certain that FHO-NA also designated the 'hare'; and we can see a faint trace of it in PIE *swento-, 'fast', an unrecognized s-mobile form of **wo[:]n-, '*run fast (like a hare)' (Egyptian wn.j, 'hasten, hurry'), which can be dimly seen in PIE *wen-, 'strive towards'.

Its most notable use in Egyptian is in wnn, 'to be, exist'. This is PL FHO-NO, 'disperse-put inside' = 'residence, place of occupation'. So, the basic meaning of wnn is 'reside at, occupy'. This can be seen in Sumerian un (for *ûn), 'people, residents, occupents', a reading of Jaritz #578 (itself a combination of #599, e₂, 'house', over #133, nun, '*tree, large'): ; another reading is kalam, 'land, Sumer', i.e. 'area of occupation'. This can be seen even more clearly in #750, which reads un₂ (for *ûn₂), '(rabbit-)hole'; and in #391, unu (for *ûnu), which depicts a 'large residential and/or storage structure', , and means 'domicile/*storage building'.

Though the main entry is misleading, it can be found under *wen- in Pokorny: as in OHG wone:n, 'live, reside at'. This can also be seen in Egyptian wn.t, 'sanctuary in temple (dwelling place of god)'. These ideas are all centered on going into tunnels/passages.

Though the word does not seem to exist in Sumerian or Egyptian, an interesting example of FHO-RE(-MHE)(-¿E), 'tunneler-cause to become(-worm)(-like)', is the basis for words designating 'worms', listed under PIE *wer- (for **wo[:]r-) in *wRmi/o-s, 'worm'.



A second Egyptian sign for FHO, in the meaning 'animals living in tunnels: weasel, ferret, polecat', is Gardiner #F12, 'head and neck of canine animal', ; it looks very much like #688. Gardiner #F12 is normally read wsr, and means 'influential, powerful, strong'. Rather than being connected with meanings we associate with FHO, however, it seems to be employed, exclusively in our extant materials, for meanings associated with FO: 'aural cavity/passage', ws(r).t, 'neck'; 'ears', wsr, 'oar', a large ear-shaped tool. I suspect strongly that the sign has come to be essentially FO-SO, 'ear(-hole)-skin' = '(outer) ear'; and, in the combination with r, means '(outer)ear' + 'done to a high degree' = 'very well-informed (eared)'.

The normal PIE root reconstructed for 'ear' is *o:us-. This appears to me to be the result of a partial reduplication of *wes-, 'turn, *curled at the edges', PL FO-SO, 'ear(-cavity)-pull', in which *wowés- has become *o:wés- then *ó:us-. It is, of course, also possible that the morpheme representing 'ear(-cavity)' has been duplicated: *wéwe, and -*se, 'skin', has been added to the reduplication: *wowés-. Akkadian uznu, 'ear', hints at an unrecorded Sumerian reading of *ûs for this sign, especially in view of PIE *6usen-, 'ear, but we have only the alternation of Emegi g~eštug (for *g[~]²îstug) with Emesal muštug (for *mustug), 'both 'ear', to suggest an initial FO-¿E(-SO), 'ear(-cavity)-like(-skin)'.

This alternative root for 'ear' is seen in PIE *weid-, 'know, *long of ear (FO-¿E-T?SA)'; this same formulation can be seen in a transitive sense, 'give to hear', in Egyptian wD (for *wjD), 'command', written with Gardiner #V24/#V25, 'cord wound on stick, bobbin': . This is seen in PIE *weid-, 'willow, *wicker'.

---

HO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #684) depicts the 'sun at the moment it begins it passage across the sky, sunrise', and means 'sun' and associated concepts related to 'light'; in this meaning, its reading is u₄ (for *û₄). Another reading of #684 is ^(D)Utu, the Sumerian sun-god; this should probably be analyzed as *u₄-tu₂, 'solar heat' (PL THO, 'heat').

Sumerian sign #684 also reads ul₆, for which the meanings 'to be bright, shine' have been assigned. This can be associated with Egyptian hr.w, 'day, daytime, *daylight hours'; both should be derived from PL HO-RO, 'sun-raise' = 'sunrise'. This same root can be found in PIE as *o:r-yo-, '(sun)rise', in English 'Orient', 'place where the sun rises' (HO-RO-¿E, 'sun/light by rising'). My supposition is that Gardiner #N8, 'sunshine', was the earliest biliteral for hr:





The Egyptian sign for HO is the Gardiner #N5, 'sun(wheel)': , which was read as a word-sign for r(j)', 'sun-disk'.

This is used as a determinative or a word-sign for words associated with day and daylight. After our ancestors had invented the wheel, they visualized the sun as a fiery wheel rolling across the sky. This conception led to the Egyptian name for the sun-god, r', which represents PL RO-TSHO, 'lip' = 'wheel-rim' + 'whirl' = 'whirling rim' = 'wheel'. The axle-hub can be seen in the circle within the wheel. This word for 'wheel' also occurs in PIE as *ret(h)-, 'roll, wheel'. That the sun was regarded as a wheel for PIE's is shown by Old Icelandic röðull, 'sun'.

For a discussion of HO, 'lion', see PFHE.

We have, in Egyptian, the word h3.w, 'time'; and an analysis suggests strongly that the literal meaning is 'sunsets' as a measure of time (HO-RHE, 'sun-come down/fall'). It is accompanied frequently by Gardiner #N5, 'sun(wheel)' as a determinative but always over 'three short lines', supposedly the Egyptian sign for masculine 'plural', -w: . And often, by the 'three short lines' without #N5. In this word, I believe the 'three short lines' form a determinative with #N5 to read *h3, '*sunset(s)'.



The PIE transitive equivalent is *or- (for **o[:]r-), 'attack, come down on', based on HO-RE, 'move across-cause to become' = 'charge, tackle, pin down'; it can also be seen in Egyptian h3, 'charge down on, tackle'. Pokorny has conflated quite a number of unrelated roots under the general entry *er-, which are impossibly difficult to distinguish by form (by him or anyone else working strictly from PIE data) but are differentiatable semantically. This word, HO-RHE, is also the basis for Sumerian ur, 'dog' (really 'attacker'), written with Jaritz #945.

This (#N5 + three strokes) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

---

HHO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #805) depicts an 'eye' (Jaritz #798) over 'mat' (Jaritz #893a), which depicts a 'pair of buttocks', and reads u₃ (for *û₃), 'rest, *go/move down'. A second sign, (Jaritz #805a), again depicts an 'eye' (Jaritz #798) but this time over 'cloth(-wrap)' (Jaritz #893b), also reads u₃ (for *û₃) but means 'sleep'.



The Egyptian sign for HHO is Gardiner #A1 following, 'seated man and woman with plural stroke', and means 'progeny': .

It has become disassociated from (what I believe is) its original reading of h(3), 'what comes under' = 'descendant(s), progeny'. The PIE equivalent is *or- (for **o[:]-ro-), 'derive from'.

In the meaning 'rest', we have Egyptian hr(.w), 'pleasing, restful' (PL HHO-RO, 'rest-very'). This can also be seen in Sumerian ul, 'happy', written with Jaritz #786, which depicts a 'bull's head (#563) under a counting mark (#750)': . Here, I believe, the 'head under the mark' should be interpreted as a 'head lowered in rest'. The PIE equivalent is *or- (for **o[:]-ro-), 'pleasantly arouse, tempt, *please'.

This (#A1, following) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

---

, *young, *infant, *(just) born' (#99a)">

KHO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz 99a) reads ku₄; and though the usual reading for this sign associated with ' ' is tu, I believe ku₄ should also be assigned this meaning. The sign depicts a 'plant rising from a hole', an appropriate symbolization of ' , infant, young, (just) born'. Interestingly, in the reading kur₉, it means 'grow'.



The Egyptian sign for KHO is Gardiner #G47, the 'duckling', ; it is normally read T(3). This is KHO-RHA, 'young-bird'.



We may possibly see this word again in PIE *(s)ker-dh-, ' ', where the additional final -*dh may represent PIE T?SA, formant of bodily parts, as in Lakonian kursánios, 'young person'.

This (#G47) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

A passingly interesting derivation is KHO-MO, 'reddish-to a high degree' = 'red'. It can probably be seen in Sumerian kum₂, 'be(come) hot', if this means 'glow red' but the sign, Jaritz #456, gives no clear indication; it does also read zal, 'become bright', which suggests connections to 'fire'. This is PL T?SA-NHA, 'bead-cause one's self to become' = 'be bead-like' = 'flame'. This is seen in PIE *dhel-, 'illuminate, bright', and may also be present in Egyptian DnDn, 'be angry', if this means 'having a red face', as the determinative (#F2, 'head of infuriated bull') perhaps hints: .

In Egyptian, this root only appears with further extensions: Tms, 'ruddy, red', which is KHO-MO-SO, 'red-skin'; and TmH from KHO-MO-K?XA, 'red-hair', both of which mean 'Libyan'; the ancient Libyans were presumably Caucasians.

In a simpler form, KHO, 'red(dish)', is also seen in Egyptian THn.w, 'Libya(ns)', which represents KHO-K?XA-NA-FA, 'red-hair-one-set'. It would not be surprising to me to learn that this word might be the basis for the Hebrew term kôhan, 'priest'; and that the alternate term for 'priest', kômer, has, as its basis, the KHO-MO (Tm) in Tm-H and Tm-s.

As a slight additional bit of information to validate 'reddish' as a meaning for KHO, we have Greek kíraphos and kíra, 'fox', and poetic kirrós, 'golden orange'. These are listed by Pokorny under *k^ei-, 'gray', which derives from KHE-¿E, 'shadow-like'; but I propose that 'golden orange' and '(red) fox' are incompatible wth 'gray', and that they should be derived from a now not presently reconstructed **kei-, 'red(dish)', representing PL KHO-¿E, 'child-like'.

---

KXHO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #893a) depicts 'two halves of an opened mollusc shell, side by side'.

Another sign, perhaps differentiated from it in some manner we do not now know, depicted a 'pair of buttocks'; and read še₃ (for ši₄), 'excrement'. However, it may also be contemplated that 'buttocks' is due to a mere association of related concepts with 'gluteal cleft'; for the meaning, see below.

One of the readings for this variant is tukul, 'weapon'. See above for why this should be read ^(TU)kul, with TU as a determinative for tool.

The emended reading, *kûl from KXHO-RHO had, what appears to us now and at least to some Akkadian scribes, an identical phonological shape to kûl, 'slit, gluteal cleft', derived from KXHO-NHA, discussed above in connection with ^(TU)kul, 'spear'. The archaic sign was also interpreted as a 'pair of buttocks' when '*buttock' is properly Jaritz #5, ba. This led to an number of readings associated with 'buttocks'.

To understand why the mollusc shell served as an emblem of sharp edging, we must realize that in paleolithic times, while stones had points, very few objects available in quantity were naturally sharp-edged outside the shells of certain bivalves. Flint (or a suitable substitute) was, in some locales, a rare or non-existent natural quantity; and without suitable trade-goods, even unobtainable through commerce.



The Egyptian sign for KXHO is Gardiner #L6, , which shows a 'bivalve mollusc shell', which is conventionally read x(3) rather than simply x (see below). It is present in several PIE roots; see below in the EXCURSUS.

This (#L6) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

Two mollusc shells, mounted side by side on a handle, probably served as one of mankind's earliest weapons. It served as a prototype for later axes made of stone and eventually metal. Its sacral nature around the Mediterranean is due to its ancient origin, and associations with the divinity of the waters, symbolized by the planet Venus. It is called the labrys but, to date, no one has proposed a good etymology for this name but an understanding of the prototype mollusc shell opens the opportunity for one.

We have the word from the Greek lábrus, 'double-axe'. It has no Greek etymology but it does have a PIE cognate in the form *le:p-ro-, a derivation from PIE *lep- (for *le:p-), 'peel off, flay, split apart; rind, skin, shell'. This we reconstruct as PL NHE-PHA, 'shell-flat' = 'thin, shell (cf. Greek lepás, 'one-shelled mussel'); adding RO, intensive = 'very thin, shell'(cf. Greek laparós, 'fine, thin'), and FA, set = 'pair of shells' (cf. Greek lépuron (metathesis from *leparu[on]), '(bivalve) shell (mollusc), hull'. It is certainly not unreasonable to suggest a Greek or related language in which PIE p appeared as b.

EXCURSUS

I have long entertained the hypothesis that earliest Egyptian had not yet lost the voicing and vocalic contrasts that later characterize the phonology of the language. The conventional representation of x, Gardiner #Aa1, 'human placenta?', is almost certainly rather a 'hole with shading to represent its depth and consequent shade'; this is supported by Egyptian xx, 'throat', a circular passage', seen again in PIE *ghegh-, 'excavation'.

Rather than 'placenta', we should probably understand 'birth canal'. This, of course, is PL K?XO. I believe I have detected a pattern that shows formerly aspirated counterparts to unaspirated stops and affricates were assigned values of conventionally transcribed unaspirated stops and affricates + 3: here, I believe x, written #Aa1, represents PL K?XO while #L6, read x3, really originally represents PL KXHO .

Presumably, these originally differed in pronunciation as /gGo/ and /kxo/ before collapsing into /xa/ (and possibly /xa:/). The explanation I propose is that 3, though originally a variety of /R/ (probably voiceless), became /h/ (in opposition to Loprieno's proposed /?/) so that Ca + 3 was realized as /Cah/, which lengthened the vowel to /Ca:/.

I further propose that when /kxo/ lost its aspiration, it lengthened that vowel by way of compensation so that /gGoR/ and /kxo/ both resulted in /xa:/.

In late group writing, C3 is often used for simple C. Whether that is the correct phonological course of events or not, words we know from PIE cognates had voiceless aspirated stops and affricates frequently correspond to Egyptian words which employ special signs for C + 3. In this case, a proper sign for x3 (representing PL K?XO-RHE, 'hole-come' = 'protrude, grow') is also in use: Gardiner #M12, 'leaf, stalk, and rhizome of lotus'.

Egyptian x3.w means 'plants', and the causative, sx3, means 'remember'('cause to grow'). The Sumerian cognate is one of the archaic signs which collapsed in Jaritz #99, namely #99a, , which depicts a 'plant rising from a hole', i.e., 'growing', which reads kur₉, and means 'enter'. The PIE cognate is *ghre:-, 'grow' (from **ghere:-).

It is even possible that we have an Egyptian sign which represents PL KXHO-RE, 'cut-apply' = 'cut a mark, measure' as x3: it is Gardiner #U9, 'corn-measure (cask) with grain pouring out', which is used as a determinative for measures of all kinds; and for the word x3j, 'measure'.

It can be found in Sumerian, written with Jaritz #13 (see below), which reads kur₅, 'cut, levy taxes'. This should, of course, appear in PIE as *ker-, and we find it in Pokorny under *(s)ker- (for **(s)k(h)o[:]r-), 'cut' (note also *skora:, 'section'). The idea of measurement by making cuts should be familiar to those who know that English 'score' is derived from *(s)ker- (for *(s)k(h)o:r-). Sumerian and PIE accentuate the idea of 'cutting notches for a tally' while Egyptian illustrates the counting process by showing grain made 'scored' into weighed quantities with Gardiner #U9 .

Egyptian also has x3.y, 'plumb-line' to compare with Pokorny's (*ker-?), 'hang (by a string)'.

Corresponding to KXHO-RE above phonologically, Sumerian has a sign (Jaritz #13) depicting a 'stick split by cutting (slitting)', which reads kur₅, 'cut, slit' : . Its primary reading, however, is kud (also ku₅ ). Virtually the same sign as Sumerian Jaritz #13 is seen in the Egyptian sign for xt , in xt.j, 'cut', which corresponds to Sumerian kud, 'cut', another reading of Jaritz #13, and PIE *(s)k(h)ed- (for **(s)k(h)o:d-), '(cut) piece of wood, cut, split'); these represent PL KXHO-T?O, 'cut-torso' = 'piece of wood'. Egyptian xt means '(piece of) wood'; and in xt.j, -j (PL ¿E) has been added to make it into a verb.

This development can be seen in many other Egyptian phonemes (3 and r [and perhaps n] seem to have been exempted):


§'3 ('hand-drill'), [TSHO];
§ 1. *j3 ('*???'), [HA];
§ 2. *j3 ('*???'), [HE];
§ 1. *j3 ('*???'), [HHA];
§ 2. j3 ('smoke'), [HHE];
§ 1. w3 ('wind, *smell badly' in w3(s)-scepter'), [FHA];
§ 2. w3 (' tow, swab'), [FHE];
§ 1. b3 ('ram'), [PFHA];
§ 2. b3 (''hyena/spotted panther' = leopard'), [PFHE];
§ b3 ('stone oil jar'), [PFHO];
§ 1. p3 ('pin-tail duck, wing'), [PHA];
§ 2. p3 ('spoonbill'), [PHE];
§ f3 ('head and shoulders with raised stick'), [PHO];
§ 1. m3 ('sickle'), [MHA];
§ 2. m3 ('vulture over sickle'), [MHE];
§ 1. *n3 ('*???'), [NHA];
§ 2. *n3 ('*???'), [NHE];
§ h3 ('sunwheel with plural[?] strokes'), [HO];
§ h3 ('man and woman with plural signs'), [HHO];
§ 1. H3 ('kneeling man with upraised arms'), [KXHA];
§ 2. H3 ('lion's head and fore-paws'), [KXHE];
§ x3 ('mollusc shell'), [KXHO];
§ X3 ('oxyrhynchus, mormyrus kannune'), [XHO];
§ s3 ('harness'), [SHO];
§ 1. z3 ('pintail duck'), [SHA];
§ 2. z3 ('jackal'), [SHE];
§ 1. š3 ('pool with lotus flowers'), [XHA];
§ 2. š3 ('bird's claw with spread talons'), [XHE];
§ 1. q3 ('man with raised arms'), [QHA];
§ 2. q3 ('double stairway'), [QHE];
§ 1. k3 ('fumigation vessel'), [KHA];
§ 2. k3 ('ghost, departed shade'), [KHE];
§ g3 ('tied bag of linen/wickerwork-frail'), [QHO];
§ t3 ('kiln), [THO];
§ T3 ('fledgling'), [KHO];
§ 1. d3 ('phallus with liquid issuing from it'), [THA];
§ 2. d3 ('star'), [THE];
§ 1. D3 ('*forearm holding elongated cord'), [TSHA]; and
§ 2. D3 ('fire-drill'), [TSHE].

---

MHO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #315) depicts two or three plants (#669x2; with x3=Jaritz #673) over a) water (#949); b) over a well ['(circular) enclosure'] (#834); or c) over a canal or riverside meadow (variant of #949). When one is traveling in arid regions, water ahead can always be recognized because of the plant growth around or alongside it. This seems a very appropriate way to symbolize 'grow (wildly), spread out around or beside'; and this sign reads mu₂ (for mû₂), 'grow (profusely), *wander'.



The Egyptian sign for MHO is Gardiner #O5, 'winding wall': .

This sign is normally a determinative for winding movement but does function as a biliteral in nm.j, 'traverse (better 'wander across')'. This idea can also be seen in its employment for nm.j, 'lowing of cattle' — here, the sound wavers back and forth. The PIE cognate for nm.j is *nem-, 'let pasture', i.e. 'permit to wander freely in search of food'. This can be seen also in Egyptian nmnm, 'go to and fro'. This is PL NO-MHO, 'stomach-wander' = 'search for food, forage'.

Egyptian writes nm in this word, and in others, with a very peculiar knife: . An alternate sign depicts, what we assume, is the 'knife' without the unusual handle: . We conclude that the "handle" of #O5 is really a modified form of #O24, 'bowl', to indicate a reading with n for the knife. We reconstruct PL NO-MHA, 'stomach-bite off' = 'eviscerate'. In view of Egyptian nm.t, 'slaughter-house', we seem to be in the right track.

In addition, we have Egyptian nm, 'go wrong (of plans), rob, steal'. This is very close to some of the meanings ascribed to PIE *nem-: OHG na:ma, 'forcible taking, robbery'. I assume that this 'evisceration' is figurative in the cutting of a cord bearing a purse, worn around the waist.

We have the word for 'giraffe' in Egyptian as mm(.y), presumably, 'always wandering'. The giraffe feeds independently, and only loosely belongs to a herd. A giraffe territory may be as large as 250 mi.² so he is rightly characterized as a 'wanderer'.

In more northern climes, in the absence of giraffes, MHO was re-assigned to horses, which also have a large range.

---

NHO

In this variant version of #657 (shown above: #657a), it has Jaritz #894 on its head to phonetically suggest *lû (NHO) as its does for the meaning associated with KHA (RHO). This sign reads lu₉ for 'fox'. The severely pointed muzzle and long ears of some of the archaic representations all point to the identification of the sign with the fox; and with the jackal (#657, without added #894; SHE; še₁₁ [for ši_x]).

The fox is folklorically associated with cleverness, 'charming', and deception. It is therefore no surprise to find Sumerian lul, 'deceive, prevaricate, tell lies'. We find this word in PIE *leud-, 'cower, lurk, flatter, betray, deceive' (PL NHO-FHA-T?A, 'deceive-frequentative-iterative-give' = 'give repeated deception'); and in *leugh-, 'lie' (PL NHO-FHA-K?XA, 'deceive-frequentative-iterative-hang' = 'attach repeated deception').

As for the reading nar(i), 'singer', the connection is probably through recitation of heroic and flattering tales rather than through musical melody. It is probably to be analyzed as PL QHA-RE, 'elevate-apply' = 'exaggerate' (for *ñâr(i)); and the related meaning of 'high' seen in Jaritz #603, nar₃ for ñâr₃ (PL QHA-RE, 'elevate-apply = elevate') and nir (for *ñêr), which is PL QHA-¿E-RA, 'elevate-like-tree' = 'high tree', which we can see is appropriate for ; but also, possibly *ñîr for QHE-RE, see above.

Additional support for this identification is provided by the reading puh for Jaritz #657, which corresponds to PIE *pu/u:k- (for **pu:k(h)-), 'bushy(-tailed)', the basis for English 'fox' (PL PHO-FHA-KXHA, 'blow up-frequentative-iterative = 'bushy' + 'pointed (reed)' = 'bushy tail').



The Egyptian sign for NHO is the Gardiner #G34, 'ostrich': . This assignment of meaning was made due to the ostrich's habit of 'hiding its head' when faced with danger. The spellings of 'ostrich' are sometimes made with Gardiner #D41, 'forearm with palm of hand downwards' (see NO above).

---

PHO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #675) depicts a '(venomous) snake', and reads pu; although the meaning of 'snake' for pu is not recorded, I feel this assignment is justified ('what causes itself to swell up/blow=hiss').

A basic derivative of PHO, 'blow', is PHO-FHA, 'blow-do repeatedly' = 'blow (air) on'; this is seen in Sumerian bu₅ (for *pû_x), 'blow on', written with Jaritz #871, which depicts a '(circular) enclosure (#834)', here, probably for 'leather bag/pouch(/cheek)', into which 'three counting marks (#823; as a defective phonetic determinative since it reads ba₃[?]; or possibly as an unrecognized reading of *û_x representing PL FHA, '(animate) set', corresponding to Gardiner #Z2, 'three strokes', reading w, and denoting 'plurality[?])' have been inserted: .

This is PIE *pu/u: (for *p(o)[:]ú[:]-), 'blow out'.

For Egyptian bw (for earlier *fw), 'detest', see below under PFHO.



The Egyptian sign for PHO is Gardiner #I9, 'horned viper', which is alphabetic f: .



One of the more interesting roots derived from PHO in the sense of 'sniff' is PHO-NA, 'blow-thing' = 'nostril'. In its unextended form, it can be found in PAA *pon-, 'face (for 'nostril'; note Akkadian pânu, plural, for 'nostrils' = 'face'); as would be expected, Orel and Stolbova (1995) have incorrectly reconstructed it as *pa/in- and Ehret (1995) with *pand-, 'peak', comes closer to the correct PAA reconstruction for 'nose': *pondz-. So far as I can determine, Bomhard did not even try. With the extension T?SA, formant of bodily parts, we find it easily in Egyptian fnD, 'nose'. Throughout many PIE-derived languages, this extension has been lost but Ossetic has preserved it as finĵ, 'nose'; from PHO-NA-T?SA.

PL PHO-NA, 'nose, 'breathe (properly 'in/exhale')', is the basis for PIE *pneu- (for **pno-ú-, 'sniffed/blew'), 'breathe' from 'breath' (PHO-NA-FA).



The Egyptian sign for PHO in the meaning 'blow out, hiss, snarl', is not included in Gardiner's list: , which depicts a 'man's head and shoulders with raised stick', which shows the agressive threat that would accompany a 'snarl'; it is very rare, found only in Pyramid Texts, and has no recognized reading. It is used as a determinative for f3, 'threaten'.

This is also found in PIE *per- , 'hiss, snarl'; PL PHO-RE, 'blow-cause to become'.

This (' head and shoulders of man with raised stick';
not in Gardiner)
is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

---

PFHO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #867) is composed of Jaritz #834, '(circular) enclosure', into which Jaritz #750, 'flat or slightly depressed circumscribed area/palm/shallow depression', has been inserted, reads pu₂ (for pû₂), and means 'cistern, beat, *stamp on, *trample'.

Jaritz #867 must be and has been above interpreted in various combinations discussed on this essay as a 'tunnel (entrance), (spoked) wheel(-rim), border of an open wound or ulcer, shallow depression in the land containing a lush meadow, race-course, skin-bag, lip, ring, (perhaps) toad', and simple 'circular motion', as well as 'cistern, well'. We have seen #867 above in the meaning 'tunnel' which relates to 'well' because of the circular passage they have in common.

One of its readings (#867) is pu₂; and one of the meanings ascribed to it is 'cistern'. According to Pokorny, PIE words for 'well, cistern', are derived from **p(h)o[:]ú/ú:-, 'beat, stamp, trample'; and since #867 has the assigned meaning 'beat, deepen', it is reasonable to connect these meanings with 'cistern' as 'what is deepened by beating'. In addition, the attested forms are very frequently derived from **p(h)o[:]wéi-, the exact parallel to *bwj, the Egyptian word we will emend below to *bwj(3) from bj(3).

Another meaning which is ascribed to pu₂ (for *pû₂) is 'bad smell'. It is doubtful that this can be rationally connected with 'cisterns/beating/*stamping', but, on the basis of PIE *pu/u:6- (for **p(o)wa:-), 'smell badly', we can recognize it as a reflex of PIE PHO-FHA-HA, 'blow on-do repeatedly-state' = 'be in a state in which airs of corruption are emitted, as dead and decaying animal/vegetable material' = 'bad smell'.

Amazingly, with a further extension, this occurs in Modern English and German as fooey and pfui (PHO-FHA-HA-¿E; plus '-like' = 'smell bad'). Had this extended root existed in Sumerian, it would have been first *pû₂-i then become *pü₂, which would have untransparently still have been written pu₂. Some old words never die — they just smell that way.

Without the stative formant, PHO-FHA-HA, i.e. PHO-FHA, can be seen in PIE *pu/u:- (for **p(o)ú-), 'blow on'; and Sumerian bu₅ (for *pû_x), 'blow on', discussed above under PHO, where in properly belongs. Egyptian bw(j), 'detest (have a bad smell in the nose)', which utilizes a determinative not in Gardiner, perhaps depicting a 'two mushrooms/toadstools growing in a storage place for human solid/liquid waste', an environment in which mushrooms thrive: ; which can, in turn, be further related to PIE *pu/u:6-, ' smell badly', through PHO-FHA-HA. The two mushrooms may be a graphic pun to suggest -wj, the normal masculine dual ending, in bwj.



The Egyptian sign for PFHO, meaning 'stamp, trample (like an elephant [?]), crush', is Gardiner #U16, which depicts a 'sledge with heavy weight, and a jackal's head at its front': , which was run over the already extracted ore to pulverize it for refining; the 'crushing', termed, at the earliest time, *b, but extended to bw for PFHO-FHA, 'stamp-do repeatedly' = 'trample'; then extended by -¿E, '-like', to produce PFHO-FHA-¿E, 'pulverize'.

The significance of the jackal's head is probably that its (and that of other canids) jaws were believed powerful enough not just to shatter bone but to pulverize it; a belief reached from the powdered condition of bone found in canid droppings. If this was the spotted jackal, it is also possible that a formulation like *PFHE-FHA(-¿E), 'hyena/spotted-wolf' = 'jackal'[?] ('do as a jackal' = 'pulverize' [?]), was in use for it; this would have had the same outcome in Egyptian as PFHO-FHA(-¿E): /pwa:wa:(î)/.

This sign is used sporadically in spellings in several permutations of what is currently rendered as bj3, all of which have some connection with mining or ore processing. I am of the opinion that whether or not the words specifically refer to the processing phase or not, it was used for the mining process with an eye to its final phase: crushing the ore for refining. Neglecting for one moment the final -3, I believe this root should be reformulated as *bwj, reflecting PFHO-FHA-¿E, in all associated forms.

There is additional data to suggest that this is correct.

In addition to the many other signs used in this set of words, we frequently find Gardiner #F18, 'tusk of elephant': . If we are correct in suspecting that PFHO originated as 'elephant', and was transferred to 'cattle' only in their environmental absence as the then current animal providing a threat of being trampled, we can regard it as a phonetic pointer towards PFH(O) as opposed to P?F(O) when b was written.

Incidentally. The Egyptians had no taboo against illustrating the 'elephant', which is Gardiner #E26: . The attested name for 'elephant', 3b(.w), is, in view of Old Indian ibhá-H, 'elephant', almost certain to be emended to *jjb(.w), PL ?E-¿E-P?FE, 'tooth-like' = 'tusk'-formant of animal names. It is written with Gardiner #U23, 'knobbed, decorative hair-pin': ; the first element is seen in PIE *a[:]i-, 'pointed', PL ?A-¿E(-P?FE), 'plant-top-like' = 'pointed(-digit)'.

The words I have been emending to *bwj are also more frequently written with the Egyptian sign for 'well, cistern' (#N41/#N42 - scarcely discernible difference, not illustrated; the difference may be between a 'well' and a 'cistern'): .

I believe #N41 is a phonetic determinative that reads *bwj, indicating that the words for 'mining' should be read *bwj(3) rather that bj(3); and that bwj(j) represents, in this word, either PHO-FHA-(HA-)¿E, 'smelling bad', or PFHO-FHA-¿E, 'pulverize'.

If #N41/#N42 represents PFHO-FHA-¿E for a shallow depression created by pulverizing the surface rock, then the only problem is that we have no attestation of bwj with this meaning existent in Egyptian. But this would be the explanation for its use in these related words.

Wells and cisterns in desert environments are not unusually unpleasantly fragrant so there is nothing per se that rules out a connection between them and a word meaning 'bad smell' or 'smelling bad'.

But the words connected with this concept are based on PHO, Egyptian f, rather than PFHO, Egyptian b. To see why this could yet be true, we will need to take a look at another Egyptian word that is, almost certainly, derived from PHO.

We have mentioned the Egyptian word bw, 'detest', above. If it derives from PIE PHO-FHA-HA as we have suggested above, it should be seen in Egyptian as *fwj rather than *bw(j).

Theoretically, at least, Egyptian should have been able to maintain a difference since voiceless affricates and stops did not merge as they did in Sumerian and PIE. PL PHO-FHA should appear in Egyptian as *fw while PFHO-FHA should appear in Egyptian as bw, the latter of which, apparently is the case. The problem is that Egyptian during the Nostratic Pontic phase would have had /p^wawa:/ for PHO-FHA and /pf^wawa:/ for PFHO-FHA, which could not be maintained, and was simplified to /p^w[a:]wa:/, thus merging with /p^wawa:/ from PHO-FHA; yet, the result being interpreted as deriving from bw so fw was lost.

So whether a cistern or well was pounded out of bedrock (bwj) or was bad smelling (fwj), they both woud have been seen in Egyptian as bwj. I assert then that Egyptian bw(j), 'detest', derives from a lost *fw(.j). Although the sequence C + w occurs with every Egyptian consonant except w and X (the last, probably unmotivated; the first, probably phonological), it does not appear it any word following f.

The sign designating the nugget of ore to be crushed is not listed in Gardiner's list, and depicts a stylized 'nugget of ore': , which we read as RA(-¿E), 'vertebra(-like)' = 'nugget'. At an early date, this specific sign was replaced by Gardiner #N33, 'grain of sand' ( but here: 'pulverized/powdered ore'): .

Thus, the complete word was bwj-3, 'ore', *nugget for pulverization', as in bj3.w (for *bwj3.w), 'produce of a mine'.

Other words in which PFHO may be presumed to be the initial component are PIE *per- (for **p(h)o[:]r-), 'beat (if for 'stamp apart'; PFHO-RE, 'stamp-cause to become' [?])'; and, a more complicated situation is found with *p(e)is- (for **p(h)o[:]i-sa[:]-), 'stamp apart' (PFHO-¿E-SHA, 'stamp-like-state-condition' = 'stamped apart' ='pounded grain, pressed grapes' [?]).

The former is also found in Sumerian pur (for *pûr), 'stone jar', a reading and meaning ascribed to Jaritz #646, which depicts a 'stone jar': .

The Egyptian sign for PFHO in the meaning 'beat out, pulverize', is Gardiner #W2: , which depicts a '(stone) oil-jar', produced by pulverizing the interior to hollow it out; in the form we have, it is written b3s but as a word sign for the goddess Bastet. If b3s can be emended to *b3z, it would represent PFHO-RE-SHA, '(hollowed out by) pulverization'.

This (Gardiner #W2) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

---

QHO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #62) depicts a 'sack/bag', possibly under circumstances used as a 'trap'. It bears a noticeable similarity to two Egyptian signs used in the Middle and Old Kingdoms (Gardiner #T26 and #T27) for bird-traps . Though Jaritz #62 does not have a recorded reading of *(n)kû, when it is inserted with #99a, which depicts a 'plant rising from a hole' , it is Jaritz #63, , and reads šeq₅ (for *šê(n)k²₅), 'be silent', which represents PL SE-?A-QHO, 'emit-stative-catch' = 'be silent'. Also note Akkadian šaqummatu, 'hush', which appears to indicate a dorsal nasal in second (or third) position in this root. 'Being silent' is conceptualized as 'being unable to speak through constriction of the vocal apparatus' not 'making no noise whatsoever'.

Jaritz #99a also reads gur₈, which I believe is a phonetic pointer to a reading of *(n)g[~]³ur_x, an unknown dialectal form for an expected *(n)g[~]³ul_x, for Jaritz #63, which would correspond to PL QO-RO, 'catch-to a high degree' = 'be silent', found in Egyptian gr, 'be silent'.



The Egyptian sign for QHO (Gardiner #V33), , depicts a 'bag of linen', normally read *g(3).

This (#V33) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

This syllable originally designated an animate being, a constrictor snake, an explicit sign for which was avoided for apotropaic reasons; and, for which, at the earliest date, a 'white-fronted goose', , Gardiner #G38, was substituted prophylactically.



Another sign was sporadically in use to graphically portray the actual deprivation of air rather than the associated choking, Gardiner #F10 and #F11 (Old Kingdom form; illustrated at right), 'head and stretched neck of a cervine or bovine'; and frequently, the bottom of the neck is furnished with an open hook with a short bar running through the middle of the open hook laterally (also, a bar without the open hook; illustrated here), to indicate stoppage (of air): , which is used as a determinative for g3, 'be choked'.

The reason for the gooset being substituted for a depiction of the dangerous constrictor snake is its coughing honk, which suggested choking through constriction. So the 'being strangled one' was substituted for the 'strangler'. The original meaning can still be seen in the name of the earth-god, Geb: PL QHO-P?FE, 'strangle-track/animal' = 'constrictor snake'; but, of course, QHO-P?FE could also be interpreted as the 'one being strangled-track/animal'; and so we also have gb, 'goose'.

This meaning can be seen in derivatives like g3g3, 'cackle' (QHO-RE, 'strangle-cause to become'), gw3 (QHO-FHA-RE, 'strangle-do repeatedly-cause to become'), 'be choked', and gw3w3, 'strangle-hold'.

This can be seen in its simplest form again in PIE *kwak- (for *(n)kwo[:](n)kw-), 'croak (of frogs), cackle (of geese)', which is PL QHO-QHO; this may very well be the basis for English 'honk' if it is not purely imitative.

So great was the fear of the Egyptians of constrictor snakes that Geb is never accompanied by such a depiction even though, as earth-god, that was his avatar or earthly manifestation.

Egyptian has another sign reading g3, which is Gardiner #V32, depicting a 'wickerwork frail': .

It correlates with meanings like g3.w (for *gw[3]), 'be narrow, constricted', and is a result of QO-FA(-RE), 'catch-do repeatedly(-cause to become)' = 'restrict movements' = 'trap'. This is shown even more clearly by an Old Kingdom sign which #V32 replaced, depicting a 'basket with tie-rope', not found in Gardiner: .

I propose *gw as an emended reading for this sign and for #V32 (but possibly also *gjw) because of PIE *ang^hú-s, 'narrow', which I believe is a result of *angw- + -*i + -*u (QO-¿E-FA); cf. OHG angi, 'narrow'.

Another important derivation of QO is QO-¿E, 'narrow-like' = 'constricting', which appears in PIE as *ang^w(h)i-, '(constrictor-)snake', from *angw- + -*i.

The unextended monosyllable can be found in PIE *ank-, 'compulsion' (QHO).

---

RHO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #894) depicts a '(circular) enclosure', here a 'wheel rim (Jaritz #834: see RO above) with four spokes (or, if Jaritz is correct, an inset Jaritz #560, which has the value of lu₉ [for lû₉])'; in my opinion, Jaritz #834 has, itself, a value of *lu_x, which is a substantial reinforcement for #894's reading of lu.

It appears that 'antelope' has become 'goat' because the sign points to the use of a brace of goats for a wheeled goat-cart, the preferred transportation of Thor it might be remembered. This sign also means 'human being', an improper assignment of meaning to lu (for *lû) which properly belongs to Jaritz #611, lu₂, which actually depicts a person , and represents PL RO-?A, 'raise-stative' = 'adult'. For the proper word for 'goat', see KHA above.

In the meaning 'jump', we have Sumerian lu₉ (for lû₉), 'flare up', written with Jaritz #560: ( , a reduplication of Jaritz #101 , which depicts a 'branch growing from a stem', and means 'grow (large), swell up, bud'; it reads bulug[~]₃ (for *bulû(n)g[~]³₃; PL P?O-NHA-FA-QO, 'swell-cause itself to be'-frequentative-iterative-ball' = 'swelling bud'; PIE **b(h)leu(n)g-, 'swell up, bud').



The Egyptian sign for RHO (Gardiner #G38) depicts the 'white-fronted goose, anser albifrons': . The reason for the application of the term 'jumper' to these geese may be that they have been observed to achieve flight with a single jump.

---

SHO

The Sumerian sign is quite possibly Jaritz #893a, which depicts a 'pair of buttocks', and graphically portrays 'the behind (back side) of someone or something that is being followed'. It presumably reads, for this meaning: su₅ (for *sû₅). For more detail about its use for this monosyllable, see below under the Egyptian sign proposed here for SHO.




The Egyptian sign for SHO is Gardiner #V17 and #V18 - Old Kingdom, illustrated here, which depicts a 'harness', perhaps also used as a 'halter' before bits came into use.



The word SHO, 'follower', is found in the phrase beloved of Egyptologists: šms(.)w Hrw, 'follower(s) of Horus', written with Gardiner #T18, which is analyzable into šm, 'tight-wrapped bundle containing provisions and a knife', a 'military expeditionary field pack' (#T18): + s(.)w, 'follower (clan-member)'.

Egyptian šm is PL XHA-MO, 'pack together-to a high degree' = 'tightly pack'; and we can see it again in PIE *(s)kamb- (for *(s)ka[:]m-b-), 'tie up'. While I have no doubt that a military expedition utilized field-packs for personal supplies, I think the application here refers rather to a 'tightly packed' group of men, a column in military order: rank and file = 'disciplined expeditionary army'. Sumerian records haman for Jaritz #560; and though this sign has connections with both 'bundles' and 'warfare', we simply do not have any more information to enable us to make even an educated guess.

This leaves -s(.w) as the human component of the expedition: PL SHO, 'clan-member, follower'. We have seen the example of SHO + RE above, in the meaning 'harness', 'what causes something to follow', written with #V18, Old Kingdom form.

Among the many meanings and readings associated with Jaritz #893a, 'pair of buttocks', is su₅ (for *sû₅) . Though it is not currently connected by Sumerologists with the meanings 'hunt, pursue' (rather, this is tuku₇), I think there is a good possibility that here the sign is designating '*be at the back side of/behind, *follow', and may also be read as *sû₅.

In addition, another orphan reading of #893(a[?]) is suš (for *sûš), which corresponds formally to PIE *sek^w-, the normal root meaning 'follow' if the underlying PL form is SHO-XHE. What makes the connection among these slightly more of interest is that *sek^w- (for **so[:]k^^w-) is a technical term of hunters, really more 'track' than simply 'follow'. Formally, we can analyze it as 'follow-pay attention' = 'follow (by signs/scents/tracks)'.

It remains to be determined if we can find an Egyptian cognate of Sumerian *sûš and PIE **so[:]k^^w-. I believe it can be but the way will be circuitous. The Egyptian equivalent we would expect would have the form sš. There is, in fact, a recorded Egyptian word usually transcribed as sšm, 'lead, guide'. Anyone's first inclination would be to regard this as a simple causative of šm, 'go'; but it is not written with s preceding the sign for šm, which would be the normal practice.

Rather, it is written s + Gardiner #T31, hesitantly identified by Gardiner as 'knife-sharpener(?)', which makes little sense in this semantic context; and accompanied about 50% of the time by m. Unless one subscribes to the itself defective 'defective writing' theory, at least part of the time, the reading should have been simply *sš. If this word can be abstracted from the attestations of sš(m), it would correspond to the predicted Egyptian form from SHO-XHE, 'follow (by signs/scents/tracks)'.

The 'knife-sharpener(?)' is written with the sign to the top left: , while the top right sign, a combination of #T31 and Gardiner #D54, 'legs walking', which is also used, presumably to indicate motion. At the bottom right is Gardiner #T33, another 'knife-sharpener(?)', which Gardiner believes, I think, rightly is the early prototype for #T31. Can this be a 'knife-sharpener'? In my opinion, highly unlikely. Firstly, what is the functional significance of the obvious loop at the right side of all depictions? While I do not doubt that a 'knife-sharpener' could have had such a loop for simple carrying, the Egyptians portrayed no inessential details and did portray all essential ones.

I believe #T33 represents a 'dousing rod', used to magically locate water or game. The transmitted meaning, 'lead, guide', suggests game rather than water as the stimulus for this magical rod when suspended by the loop on which, would indicate by its motion the location or direction to be followed to find the game.

Thus, I suggest that the meaning 'lead, guide', be emended to 'detect the desired objective'; and that the nuance is 'take the lead'. I realize that this may be one of the more complex arguments made in this paper; and I would not bother to make it if we did not have 100+ pages of regular correspondences in form and meaning.

These (#V17/#V18) are other examples
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

For PL SHO-HA-MO, 'unitary', see above under SE.

---

THO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #684) depicts the 'rising sun', and means 'sun' and associated concepts related to 'light'; in this meaning, its reading is u₄, which represents PL HO, 'sun'. It also means 'heat' and 'dry', and in these meanings, it should be read as tu₂ even though this reading and that meaning are not presently connected. Another reading is ^(D)U(-)tu, the Sumerian sun-god; this should probably be analyzed as *u₄-tu₂, 'solar heat'.



The Egyptian sign for THO is Gardiner #U30, , which reads t(3), and depicts a 'potter's kiln; it also means 'heat'.

This (#U30) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

The normal reading of this sign (#U30) is t3, '(highly) hot, kiln', PL THO-RE, 'heat-cause to become' = 'heat up', which is seen in PIE *ter-s-, 'dry, dry out, heat, roast, singe, sear, scorch'. The final *-s- is PL SHA, formant of states or conditions.

The kiln depicted in #U30 is seen in Sumerian Jaritz #635, which means 'melt; it reads du₁₉ (for tu_x): .

Another meaning for PL THO-RE, 'compact-cause to become', is 'land raised up from the river by silting and subsequent drying and compaction' = 'earth', which is seen in Egyptian t3, 'land': , which depicts 'flat alluvial land with grains of sand'; and is seen again in PIE *ters-, 'land'. This last is a result of the addition of SHA, formant of states or conditions: THO-RE-SHA, 'earth-state of' = 'solid earth', a useful distinction for river dwellers.

In the meaning 'compact', we have the formation THO-FHA, 'compact-do repeatedly' = 'compact itself'. Here, we can point to Sumerian tu₁₀ (for tû₁₀), 'be weighty, massive', which is written with Jaritz #141 (probably, with the same meaning: *tû₁₁), which depicts a 'left lower leg up to the bent knee', inside which is written, as a phonetic determinative, Jaritz #684, which reads tu₂: ; this sign (Jaritz #141) is probably meant to symbolize 'stamping earth with the foot to compress and compact it'.

This word is seen in Egyptian tw.t, 'full, entire, complete'; and in PIE *teu- (for **to:u-), 'swell'; and also in *stew6- (for **(s)to:w6-), 'be(come) compact, gather (intransitive)'. It is also present in Etruscan tuthi (for *thûthî), 'community'.

The Egyptian sign for tj is Gardiner #U33, , which depicts a 'pestle'.

---

TSHO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #721) depicts a 'sail with rigging', and reads tu₁₅; it means '(whirl-)wind' and 'cardinal direction'.



The Egyptian sign for TSHO is Gardiner #O29, which depicts a 'hand-drill': , which is normally read '(3), representing principally TSHO-RE. For a discussion of a number of the associated meanings, please see above.

This (#O29) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

---

XHO

The Sumerian sign (Jaritz #122) depicts a 'sitting bird', which is here equated with 'squatting'.



The Egyptian sign for XHO is Gardiner #K4, 'oxyrhynchus, mormyrus kannune', which reads X(3): .

This (#K4) is another example
of an originally aspirated
Proto-Afrasian consonant
the Egyptian sign for which
has come to be read as
the consonant + 3.

As can readily be observed, some morphemes like XHO have a very representation in the vocabulary whether for semantic or phonological reasons.

Above, we have seen XHO as 'squat', one of the more easily recognizable and straightforward extensions of this root — but one which so far has not provided an identifiable Egyptian cognate. There are, however, a couple of outside possibilities.

Egyptian has X3X3.tj, 'storm', which, if it represents PL XHO-RHA, 'spiral-fly' = 'swirl into an apparent spiral', might reflect 'XHO; but unfortunately with no Sumerian or PIE cognate. This is somewhat supported by X3b(.t), 'curl (spiral)', as on the red crown of Lower Egyptian, which was presumably a curling (spiraling) bird feather. The determinative is Gardiner #V1, 'coil of rope (wound into a spiral)': . In addition, there is the Egyptian word X'q, 'shave'. The determinative used with it is Gardiner #U37, which is supposed to depict a 'razor' with a handle (which, I interpret as a lock of hair and an apparatus for rolling it into a spiral curl while somehow it is set) but I think may represent an apparatus for curling hair: . Let the reader be the judge.

The PIE root *k^wel-, in some of its meanings, probably incorporates XHO because of the spiraling appearance of a wheel in motion; but, beyond that, little can be stated with any assurance; the principal possibilities for the second element are NHA and RHO but others, like NHE are not inconceivable.

PL XHO should appear as PIE *k^w; and it does so in 'squat, relax'. Of course, there are some s-mobile forms which begin *(s)k- which might represent XHO but because of the phonological modifications caused by it, these are inherently less reliable and convincing. So for additional cognates of Egyptian reflections to XHO, we shall have to look to Sumerian, where it should appear as *hû, bearing in mind that, principally, hu also represents XO. But I can presently find only those in Sumerian I would prefer to associate with XO.

Unsatisfactory , I know, but I cannot invent what is not there.