2. 종교개혁자 칼빈의 생애(The life of Calvin, The Reformer)

II. The life of Calvin 1. Childhood and Life at La Marche School Calvin was born on July 10, 1509, in Noyon, Picardy, northern France, as the second son of Jeanne Le Franc and Gérard Cauvin. His real name is João Cauvin. His mother, the daughter of an innkeeper in Cambrai, gave birth to Calvin and four more children, and died when Calvin was young.  The cause of death is unknown. Calvin's father, who served as a notary public for cathedrals and registrar for ecclesiastical courts, died in 1531 of testicular cancer. Gérard and Jeanne Le Franc had five sons. First son Charles became a Roman Catholic priest, but in 1537 he was accused of heresy and died excommunicated. The second was Calvin, and the third, Antoine, joined Calvin in Geneva and served as Calvin's faithful collaborator. Two other younger siblings, Antoine and François, died young. After Le Franc's death, Gérard remarried and gave birth to two daughters. The name of one of these two was Marie. The first school Calvin attended was the Collège des Capettes a Noyon, a boys' school in Noyon. At the age of 12 he was appointed secretary of the clergy, and he was shaved to signify his devotion to the Catholic Church. At that time he was patronized by the Montmors family. In August 1523, 14-year-old Calvin moved to Paris to study with the boys of Montmorency. Calvin first stayed with his uncle Richard in Paris, but after two months he settled at the College de la Marche. There he learned Latin grammar from Mathurin Cordier. Cordier taught his children to love Jesus first of all, and although Calvin had only been there for a few months, he was impressed with Cordier. He later continued his teaching in Geneva in 1562 at Calvin's request. Montaigu University After completing his Latin course at La Marche, Calvin moved to the University of Paris at the end of 1523 and continued his studies by studying philosophy and rhetoric. While in Paris, Calvin changed his name to Ioannes Calvinus (Latin: Ioannes Calvinus), and later became known as Jean Calvin (French: Jean Calvin). In Montaigu, Calvin was taught by Erasmus and Rabelais, who were humanists and had a great influence on the Reformation. During this time, Calvin became acquainted with the four sons of Guillaume Cop, the royal physician to King François I. Loyola, who began his studies in Paris in 1528, also attended the Montague College at the same time as Jean Calvin, but it is not known whether the two met. Jean Calvin in his youth - law study In 1527, Calvin's father came into conflict with the church councilor of Noyon over duties. He encouraged Calvin to study law rather than theology, fearing that his scholarship might be revoked due to friction with the church and hoping for his son's success. At the urging of his father, around the beginning of 1528 Calvin moved to the University of Orléans, where the famous jurist Pierre Taisan de l'Estoile lectured. Other friends he made during this period included François Daniel, François de Conan, and Nicolas Duchemin. In 1528, he was introduced to the Reformation by his cousin Pierre Robert Olivetan. Later, in the summer of 1529, Calvin, along with his friends François Daniel and Nicolas Duchemin, moved to the University of Bourges to attend the lectures of Andrea Alciati. Calvin stayed for eight months in Bourges, where he learned Koine Greek, essential to the study of the New Testament. Calvin returned to Paris in March 1531 with Nicolas Duchemin's Antapologia. He wrote the foreword to this book on March 6, 1531, which became Calvin's first published work. While Calvin was in Paris, he heard that his father was seriously ill, and immediately rushed to Noyon, where Gérard died on May 26, 1531. Because of Gérard's excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church two years before his death, Calvin's older brother Charles had to negotiate with the Church's Chapel Society for the burial of his father in the churchyard. Returning to Paris, Calvin settled in the Collège Fortet, where he studied Hebrew. Here he gets to know Jacques Lefebvre d'Étaples. Later, in 1532, after obtaining the legal qualification licencié ès lois, on April 4 he published a commentary on Lucius Annaeus Seneca's De Clementia on Tolerance. He returned to Orléans in May and completed his law studies before returning to Paris in October 1533. conversion Calvin showed signs of conversion from the end of 1529 to the beginning of 1530 when he was studying law. A later speech in 1533 gives direct evidence. Calvin gave a couple of conflicting descriptions of his conversion. The first description of conversion appears in his commentary on the Psalms. Here he recorded that his conversion came as a result of a sudden change of heart at the call of God. “God subdued me by a sudden conversion and brought my heart into a frame of docility, which was firmer in that respect than I had anticipated earlier in my life.  Having received some taste and knowledge of true piety, I was at once inflamed with a desire to advance, and pursued them with less zeal than before, although I did not completely discontinue them.” In the second testimony, he described a long process of inner turmoil, and also showed a glimpse of mental and psychological agony. “I was deeply disturbed by the suffering, and even more anxious by the misery of eternal death. Bound by a sense of duty, blaming my past life, I begged with moans and tears for the first time to let me go your way. And now, O Lord, all that is left of this poor man is not a shield, but only to beg me not to judge me with your fearful words and cast me into the wilderness. Scholars have debated the correct interpretation of these conflicting testimonies, and most agree that the time of conversion coincided with leaving the Roman Catholic Church. These two testimonies are not contradictory, but reveal a contradiction in memory.     《Institutes of the Christian Religion》 On November 1, 1533, at the inauguration ceremony as the dean of the University of Paris, Nicolas Cobb gave an inaugural speech on the necessity of reforming the Roman Catholic Church, citing Christian philosophy, the relationship between law and the gospel. This speech, which reveals Luther's thoughts, soon became the starting point of the French Reformation, and Calvin wrote this speech. Faculty members denounced it as heretical, and the Paris National Assembly challenged the content of the speech. Afterwards, Nicholas Cobb flees to Basel before being summoned. Francis I was determined to persecute the “accursed Lutheran heresy.” Calvin, who wrote Cobb's speech, also sneaked out of the city before being arrested, leaving behind books and letters the following year, and moved to Saintonge, south of Paris, in late 1533 or early 1534. Calvin, using the pseudonym Charles d'Espeville, stayed from December 1533 to April 1534 in the house of Louis du Tillet, parish pastor of Claix and councilor of the Protestant church in Angoulême. And while he stayed there, he prepared to write the book the first edition of "The Institute of Christian Religion". Also, at the time, it was customary not to receive a church salary if anybody did not become a minister when Calvin turned 25, so he gave up the minister of Roman Catholic Church. Calvin took a risk and lodged in the house of Étienne de la Forge in Paris. Quintin Thieffry, a Flemish preacher and famous Anabaptist leader, seems to have met here as well. Michael Servetus, who was studying pharmacy in Paris, wanted to meet Calvin, but Servetus didn't show up at the meeting place, so the meeting didn't happen. Calvin went with Du Tillet to his supporters in Poitiers by way of Claix. And Calvin also preached in Saint Benoit, outside the city. Calvin left Poitiers and traveled to Orléans with Du Tillet, where he wrote 《Psychopannychia》. On the night of October 17-18, 1534, following the incident of the Placard, Francis I took action, and in November hundreds were arrested and many executed over the course of several months, including Calvin's sponsor and close friend La Forge. Anti-Protestant sentiment in Paris grew more and more vicious. In 1535 Calvin and Du Tillet, fleeing the persecution against Protestants, went via Strasbourg to Basel, a city protected by the religious reformer Johannes Oecolampadius. Calvin lived in Basel under the pseudonym Martianus Lucanus and had fellowship with Oswald Myconius, the successor of Ocolampadius, and Wolfgang Capito, a minister in Strasbourg. In addition to this, Calvin made friends with the scholar Sebastian Münster, the lawyer Bonifacius Amerbach, and his future comrade in Geneva, Pierre Viret. On June 4, 1535, a French translation of the Bible was published by Olivetan, with recommendations in Latin written by Calvin himself. The second recommended introduction before the first page of the New Testament was anonymous, but after 1545 it was attributed to Calvin. Calvin also participated in the revision of this translation. During this period, Calvin wrote a recommended preface to the sermons of Bishop Chrysostom, one of the fathers of the ancient church, and continued to work on the Institutes of the Christian Religion, completing the book in 1535. Calvin dedicated this book to King Francis I of France. The first Latin edition of The Institutes of the Christian Religion was published in Basel in March 1536 and quickly spread throughout Europe, which led Calvin to lead the Reformation. In February 1536 he also became acquainted with Heinrich Bullinger. Erasmus settled in Basel in June 1535 and died on July 12 of the following year, but it was not known whether Calvin met him. - Political Asylum In February 1536, just before the publication of The Institutes of the Christian Religion, Calvin traveled to Italy with Louis du Tillet under the pseudonym he had previously used, Charles d'Espeville. During this time, he stayed for several weeks with fellow reformers at the court(palace) of Ferrara, Duchess Renata, daughter of King Louis XII and relative of King François I. At Ferrara, Calvin met with Protestants fleeing from France, including the French poet Clement Marrot. Calvin and Du Tillet returned to Basel via Aosta. When a special amnesty was promulgated in France, which permitted the return of exiles but required them to sever ties with heresy publicly within six months, Calvin immediately returned to France. After visiting friends in Paris, he has a premonition that he will leave France forever, so he disposes of the estate he inherited in Noyon and leaves Basel with his younger brother Antoine and younger sister Marie. Calvin planned to go to Strasbourg, which was a free imperial city, and finish his studies quietly, but when the 6th Italian War broke out, he decided to detour to Geneva to avoid the movement of the army. - First stay in Geneva 1536~1538 After gaining independence from the Duchy of Savoy in 1526, Geneva formed a mutual defense alliance with Bern and Friborg, and in 1536 it grew into a city with a population of about 10,000. However, the Bishop of Geneva, Pierre de La Baume, tried to restore the Duke of Savoy's influence in Geneva, supporting him. Meanwhile, using Bern, which had become a Protestant state after 1532, as an opportunity, Guillaume Farel and those who helped him tried to accept the Reformation movement into Geneva from October 1532. Eventually, with Berne's help, Geneva succeeded in gaining complete independence from the influence of the Duke of Savoy and the Roman Catholic Church. On May 21, 1536, all citizens of Geneva took an oath to accept the Reformation under Farel's leadership. Appointed official pastor of Geneva in 1534, Farel heard of Calvin's arrival in Geneva and visited him. And he requested him to remain and to help the revival of protestant church in this city. Calvin at first refused, but eventually agreed, later recalling it as follows. “Then Farrell, who was working incredibly zealously to spread the gospel, made every effort to lock me in the castle. And when he realized that I was about to pursue private study on the outskirts, and that he had obtained nothing for his solicitation, he cursed me back.  He said that God would surely curse my peace if I hesitated to help in such a time of great need. Frightened by his words, and conscious of my own timidity and cowardice, I gave up my travels and intended to use whatever talents I had to defend my faith.” — Calvin, Preface to Commentaries on the Psalms At the time Calvin accepted Farel's proposal, he had no basis for the Reformation. Calvin returned to Basel, took care of a few things, and at some point before September 5, 1536, began his duties as a Bible teacher(reader) at St. Pierre's Church in Geneva, expounding the Epistles to Paul. In 1537, a record is found that he acted as a pastor even though he had never been ordained. As a result, he was able to perform baptism, wedding ceremony, and ministry despite being a lawyer. In October of that year, Calvin attended a public religious debate in Lausanne with Farel and Pierre Biret, and impressed others with his knowledge of the Fathers. According to one theory, Calvin had such a great memory that he could accurately quote the writings of Augustine, the Church Father of Hippo, down to the number of pages and lines in the book. He attended another religious council in Bern before returning to Geneva. exile At the end of 1536, Farel drafted the Confession, and Calvin wrote about the reorganization of the church in Geneva. On January 16, 1537, Calvin and Farel submitted the article "A Study on Organization of Church  and Worship in Geneva" to the city council, replacing the writings they had written. In this article, the frequency and method of Holy Communion, the reason and method, excommunication, the requirements for confession of faith, the use of congregational hymns in the liturgy, and the revision of the marriage law were described. The city council accepted the text the same day. Year after year, however, the city council begins to alienate Calvin and Farel. The city council has been reluctant to enforce the requirement for a profession of faith, as so far only a small percentage of professed citizens have met the requirement. On November 26, two pastors, Calvin and Farel, held a heated debate in the city council over this issue. However, France at the time wanted to ally with Geneva, and since both Farel and Calvin were French, the city coucil members doubted their loyalty. Finally, the conflict began when the city of Bern, an ally of the Swiss Church Reformation, proposed to harmonize church ceremonies. The first suggestion was to celebrate the sacrament with unleavened bread. However, the two ministers rejected Bern's proposal, and the rule did not apply until a Zurich church council was convened to make a final decision. The City Council ordered Calvin and Farel to use unleavened bread for Easter. However, the two pastors protested against this and did not take Holy Communion at the Easter service, which caused a commotion during the service, and eventually the next day, April 25, 1538, the city council ordered Calvin and Farel to leave Geneva. The two later stopped by in Bern and Zurich to claim their innocence. Accordingly, at the Council of Zurich, which was held, Berne was made to mediate between the two with Geneva. However, in the end, the two pastors returned to Basel after being rejected by Geneva. A few weeks later, Farel joined the church in Neuchâtel, but Calvin remained in Basel and devoted himself to his studies. At this time, Martin Bucher and Wolfgang Capito proposed to come to Strasbourg, but Calvin refused at first, saying that Farel had to go with him. However, in September 1538 he moved to Strasbourg, and took citizenship a few months later. Sojourn in Strasbourg 1538-1541 St. Nicola's Church in Strasbourg, where Calvin took office in 1538, was rebuilt in the 19th century. While in Strasbourg, Calvin did not stay in one church in particular, but worked in the order of St. Nicola's Church, Saint-Madelin's Church, and Neuf Abbey, which was a church belonging to the former Dominican Order. Since then, he has served as pastor of a church of 400 to 500 people, preaching twice a week. He celebrated the Lord's Supper every month, and encouraged the congregational chorus of Psalms. He also began work on the second edition of "The Institutes of the Christian Religion, which he did not like the original catechism. In 1539, Calvin reorganized the existing book, which was in the form of questions and answers, in a way that systematically listed the core doctrines. At this time, he expanded the total number of books from 6 to 7, almost tripling the amount. Also at the same time, 《Commentary on Romans》 was also being worked on and published in March of the following year. In this book, the epitome of exegesis and development of Calvin's commentary appears. Instead of using the Vulgate, he translated the Greek passages directly. Calvin, in his dedication, highly praised the work of his predecessors, Philippe Melanchthon, Heinrich Bullinger, and Martin Bucer, but carefully distinguished and criticized his own work from theirs. Also during this period, at the request of several people, he wrote 《Treatise on the Lord's Supper》, which explains the meaning of the Lord's Supper to the laity, and published it in Geneva in 1541. His marriage At this time, people around him made him to  propose to her, and Calvin replied to this as follows. "I am against celibacy, but I am not married yet and probably may never be. If I get a wife, it will be because I can dedicate myself to the Lord, freed from many worries." Several bride candidates appeared, and among them was a noble lady. Calvin planed the marriage on the condition that she would learn French. A wedding date was set for March 1540, but the wedding never took place because Calvin did not like it. Calvin later wrote, "I never would have thought of marrying unless the Lord had taken my wisdom completely." Instead, in August of that year, he married Idelette de Bure, a widow with two children. Geneva's re-invitation Geneva reconsidered the expulsion of Calvin. As Berne and Geneva quarreled over land, the alliance was blunted and church members dwindled. Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto wrote a letter to the Geneva City Council asking them to return to Roman Catholic church, and the City Council was looking for a church adviser to respond. At first Pierre Biret was asked for advice from the city council, but when he refused, the council went to Calvin. At that time, there was a Guillermin faction, a supporter of Farel and Calvin, in Geneva, and Mathurin Cordier and Amie Perrin, who belonged to this group, did not like the newly appointed ministers. Calvin agreed and strongly defended the Genevan position on church reform in Responsio ad Sadoletum. In February, the Articulant's faction and Guillermain's faction overcame their differences, and Calvin found that there were people in Geneva trying to bring him back. On September 21, 1540, the town council ordered Amie Perrin, councilor of Guillermain fraction, to find a way to summon Calvin. An ambassador from geneva arrived during Calvin had religious talk in Worms. Calvin, however, responded with horror to this proposal, saying that he would rather die a hundred times in some other way than to stand on the cross on which he died a thousand times a day like when he first stayed in Geneva. However, in a letter to Farrell of October 24, he adds: “But knowing that I am not my own master, I cut out my heart and offer it to the Lord as a sacrifice.” During the six months when Martin Bucer and Calvin plan to visit Geneva to decide next steps, Pierre Biret temporarily serves as religious adviser in Geneva. The city council unanimously called Calvin back on May 1, 1541, and eventually in early 1541 Strasbourg decided to lend Calvin to Geneva for six months. Calvin returns to Geneva on September 13, 1541 with an official escort and carriage. 2nd Stay in Geneva 1541~1554 Geneva Reform - The six-member city council, Calvin, and four other Genevan ministers began drafting a new canon law, and on September 26, submitted a new draft to the city council. The Council of Geneva supported this, and on November 20, 1541, it passed the Canon Law 《Ordonnances ecclésiastiques》. The ordinance stipulates regulations for four teaching positions: pastors who preach and conduct sacraments, teachers who teach believers in the faith, elders who provide discipline, and deacons who take care of the poor. The city Council also called for the creation of the Consistory of Geneva (the governing body), an ecclesiastical governing body composed of elders and pastors, creating a specialized body to judge matters within the church without civil jurisdiction. The Consistory could pass judgment, especially excommunication as the most severe penalty. However, the city authorities challenged this power, and on March 19, 1543 the City Council left all judgments to be executed by the government. In 1542, Calvin published 《The Style of Prayer and Church Hymn》, adapted from the liturgical book used in Strasbourg. Calvin recognized the power of music and he hoped it would help him read the Bible. The original Strasbourg Psalter (English edition) contained 12 psalms by Clément Marot, but Calvin added several hymns of his own composition to the Geneva edition. In the same year, he wrote the Catéchisme de l'Eglise de Genève, a theological reorganization of the catechism he had previously written based on Martin Luther's Greater Catechism. At the time, many clergy in Geneva were wielding tremendous power, while Calvin was arguing for a separation between church and politics. As a result, many historians are debating whether Geneva was a theocratic political system. Calvin preached over 2,000 sermons during his ministry in Geneva. Calvin initially preached twice on Sundays and three times during the week, but at the end of 1542 the city council permitted him to preach only once on Sundays. In October 1549, however, he was again required to preach twice on Sundays, and every other weekday on every other weekday. Sermons usually lasted over an hour and did not use separate notes. Occasionally a secretary would try to record the sermons, but few sermon records survive until 1549 when Denis Raguenier, a professional clerk, was assigned to record all the sermons. It is eval‎uated that Calvin's preaching style has maintained a consistent appearance without changing over the years. Also, Calvin was famous for explaining one theme after another in several sermons. Typically, between March 1555 and July 1556 he delivered 200 sermons on Deuteronomy. Idelette and Calvin left no descendants. Little is known about Calvin's private life, but it is known that his brother Antoine's family and his own family all lived in his large house provided by the parliament. Also, on July 28, 1542, a son, Jacques, was born between Calvin and Idelette, but he died soon after being a premature baby. Idelet also died on March 29, 1549. Calvin writes of his wife: “I lost the best friend of my life. ... In her lifetime, she was a helper in completing my duties. She has never stood in my way in the slightest way.”  For the remainder of his time in Geneva, Calvin maintained friendships from his childhood with Montmord, Cordier, Cobb, Farel, Melanchthon, and Bullinger.— Calvin, Preface to Commentaries on the Psalms At the time Calvin accepted Farel's proposal, he had no basis for the Reformation. Calvin returned to Basel, took care of a few things, and at some point before September 5, 1536, began his duties as a Bible teacher(reader) at St. Pierre's Church in Geneva, expounding the Epistles to Paul. In 1537, a record is found that he acted as a pastor even though he had never been ordained. As a result, he was able to perform baptism, wedding ceremony, and ministry despite being a lawyer. In October of that year, Calvin attended a public religious debate in Lausanne with Farel and Pierre Biret, and impressed others with his knowledge of the Fathers. According to one theory, Calvin had such a great memory that he could accurately quote the writings of Augustine, the Church Father of Hippo, down to the number of pages and lines in the book. He attended another religious council in Bern before returning to Geneva. Exile from Geneva At the end of 1536, Farel drafted the Confession, and Calvin wrote about the reorganization of the church in Geneva. On January 16, 1537, Calvin and Farel submitted the article "A Study on Organization of Church and Worship in Geneva" to the city council, replacing the writings they had written. In this article, the frequency and method of Holy Communion, the reason and method, excommunication, the requirements for confession of faith, the use of congregational hymns in the liturgy, and the revision of the marriage law were described. The city council accepted the text the same day. Year after year, however, the city council begins to alienate Calvin and Farel. The city council has been reluctant to enforce the requirement for a profession of faith, as so far only a small percentage of professed citizens have met the requirement. On November 26, two pastors, Calvin and Farel, held a heated debate in the city council over this issue. However, France at the time wanted to ally with Geneva, and since both Farel and Calvin were French, the city coucil members doubted their loyalty. Finally, the conflict began when the city of Bern, an ally of the Swiss Church Reformation, proposed to harmonize church ceremonies. The first suggestion was to celebrate the sacrament with unleavened bread. However, the two ministers rejected Bern's proposal, and the rule did not apply until a Zurich church council was convened to make a final decision. The City Council ordered Calvin and Farel to use unleavened bread for Easter. However, the two pastors protested against this and did not take Holy Communion at the Easter service, which caused a commotion during the service, and eventually the next day, April 25, 1538, the city council ordered Calvin and Farel to leave Geneva. The two later stopped by in Bern and Zurich to claim their innocence. Accordingly, at the Council of Zurich, which was held, Berne was made to mediate between the two with Geneva. However, in the end, the two pastors returned to Basel after being rejected by Geneva. A few weeks later, Farel joined the church in Neuchâtel, but Calvin remained in Basel and devoted himself to his studies. At this time, Martin Bucher and Wolfgang Capito proposed to come to Strasbourg, but Calvin refused at first, saying that Farel had to go with him. However, in September 1538 he moved to Strasbourg, and took citizenship a few months later. Sojourn in Strasbourg 1538-1541 St. Nicola's Church in Strasbourg, where Calvin took office in 1538, was rebuilt in the 19th century. While in Strasbourg, Calvin did not stay in one church in particular, but worked in the order of St. Nicola's Church, Saint-Madelin's Church, and Neuf Abbey, which was a church belonging to the former Dominican Order. Since then, he has served as pastor of a church of 400 to 500 people, preaching twice a week. He celebrated the Lord's Supper every month, and encouraged the congregational chorus of Psalms. He also began work on the second edition of "The Institutes of the Christian Religion, which he did not like the original catechism. In 1539, Calvin reorganized the existing book, which was in the form of questions and answers, in a way that systematically listed the core doctrines. At this time, he expanded the total number of books from 6 to 7, almost tripling the amount. Also at the same time, 《Commentary on Romans》 was also being worked on and published in March of the following year. In this book, the epitome of exegesis and development of Calvin's commentary appears. Instead of using the Vulgate, he translated the Greek passages directly. Calvin, in his dedication, highly praised the work of his predecessors, Philippe Melanchthon, Heinrich Bullinger, and Martin Bucer, but carefully distinguished and criticized his own work from theirs. Also during this period, at the request of several people, he wrote 《Treatise on the Lord's Supper》, which explains the meaning of the Lord's Supper to the laity, and published it in Geneva in 1541. His marriage At this time, people around him made him to propose to her, and Calvin replied to this as follows. "I am against celibacy, but I am not married yet and probably may never be. If I get a wife, it will be because I can dedicate myself to the Lord, freed from many worries." Several bride candidates appeared, and among them was a noble lady. Calvin planed the marriage on the condition that she would learn French. A wedding date was set for March 1540, but the wedding never took place because Calvin did not like it. Calvin later wrote, "I never would have thought of marrying unless the Lord had taken my wisdom completely." Instead, in August of that year, he married Idelette de Bure, a widow with two children. Geneva's re-invitation Geneva reconsidered the expulsion of Calvin. As Berne and Geneva quarreled over land, the alliance was blunted and church members dwindled. Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto wrote a letter to the Geneva City Council asking them to return to Roman Catholic church, and the City Council was looking for a church adviser to respond. At first Pierre Biret was asked for advice from the city council, but when he refused, the council went to Calvin. At that time, there was a Guillermin faction, a supporter of Farel and Calvin, in Geneva, and Mathurin Cordier and Amie Perrin, who belonged to this group, did not like the newly appointed ministers. Calvin agreed and strongly defended the Genevan position on church reform in Responsio ad Sadoletum. In February, the Articulant's faction and Guillermain's faction overcame their differences, and Calvin found that there were people in Geneva trying to bring him back. On September 21, 1540, the town council ordered Amie Perrin, councilor of Guillermain fraction, to find a way to summon Calvin. An ambassador from geneva arrived during Calvin had religious talk in Worms. Calvin, however, responded with horror to this proposal, saying that he would rather die a hundred times in some other way than to stand on the cross on which he died a thousand times a day like when he first stayed in Geneva. However, in a letter to Farrell of October 24, he adds: “But knowing that I am not my own master, I cut out my heart and offer it to the Lord as a sacrifice.”During the six months when Martin Bucer and Calvin plan to visit Geneva to decide next steps, Pierre Biret temporarily serves as religious adviser in Geneva. The city council unanimously called Calvin back on May 1, 1541, and eventually in early 1541 Strasbourg decided to lend Calvin to Geneva for six months. Calvin returns to Geneva on September 13, 1541 with an official escort and carriage. 2nd Stay in Geneva 1541~1554 Geneva Reform - The six-member city council, Calvin, and four other Genevan ministers began drafting a new canon law, and on September 26, submitted a new draft to the city council. The Council of Geneva supported this, and on November 20, 1541, it passed the Canon Law 《Ordonnances ecclésiastiques》. The ordinance stipulates regulations for four teaching positions: pastors who preach and conduct sacraments, teachers who teach believers in the faith, elders who provide discipline, and deacons who take care of the poor. The city Council also called for the creation of the Consistory of Geneva (the governing body), an ecclesiastical governing body composed of elders and pastors, creating a specialized body to judge matters within the church without civil jurisdiction. The Consistory could pass judgment, especially excommunication as the most severe penalty. However, the city authorities challenged this power, and on March 19, 1543 the City Council left all judgments to be executed by the government. In 1542, Calvin published 《The Style of Prayer and Church Hymn》, adapted from the liturgical book used in Strasbourg. Calvin recognized the power of music and he hoped it would help him read the Bible. The original Strasbourg Psalter (English edition) contained 12 psalms by Clément Marot, but Calvin added several hymns of his own composition to the Geneva edition.  In the same year, he wrote the Catéchisme de l'Eglise de Genève, a theological reorganization of the catechism he had previously written based on Martin Luther's Greater Catechism. At the time, many clergy in Geneva were wielding tremendous power, while Calvin was arguing for a separation between church and politics. As a result, many historians are debating whether Geneva was a theocratic political system. Calvin preached over 2,000 sermons during his ministry in Geneva. Calvin initially preached twice on Sundays and three times during the week, but at the end of 1542 the city council permitted him to preach only once on Sundays. In October 1549, however, he was again required to preach twice on Sundays, and every other weekday on every other weekday. Sermons usually lasted over an hour and did not use separate notes. Occasionally a secretary would try to record the sermons, but few sermon records survive until 1549 when Denis Raguenier, a professional clerk, was assigned to record all the sermons. It is eval‎uated that Calvin's preaching style has maintained a consistent appearance without changing over the years. Also, Calvin was famous for explaining one theme after another in several sermons. Typically, between March 1555 and July 1556 he delivered 200 sermons on Deuteronomy. Voltaire, along with Luther and Zwingli, described Calvin as follows: "If they condemn the celibacy of priests and open the gates of convents, it is to turn society into convents.Performances and feasting were expressly forbidden in their religion.And for more than 200 years not a single musical instrument was allowed in the city of Geneva.They condemned secret confessions and forbade joint confessions." This was done in the same way as repentancs in Switzerland, Scotland and Geneva. Idelette and Calvin left no descendants. Little is known about Calvin's private life, but it is known that his brother Antoine's family and his own family all lived in his large house provided by the parliament. Also, on July 28, 1542, a son, Jacques, was born between Calvin and Idelette, but he died soon after being a premature baby. Idelet also died on March 29, 1549. Calvin writes of his wife: “I lost the best friend of my life. ... In her lifetime, she was a helper in completing my duties. She has never stood in my way in the slightest way.” For the remainder of his time in Geneva, Calvin maintained friendships from his childhood with Montmord, Cordier, Cobb, Farel, Melanchthon, and Bullinger.  - Rise of the Opposition However, his ministry in Geneva soon met with severe opposition. Opposition to Calvin united in 1546, whom Calvin called laissez-faire, but they preferred to call themselves patriots and spiritualists. They claimed to be exempted from both canonical and civil law by irresistible grace, and were wealthy and politicians, most of whom were related. At the end of January 1546, card maker Pierre Ameaux, who had once conflict with the governing body, accused Calvin for his doctrine, calling him Picard, an insult to France. However, Ameaux was punished by being forced to repent by marching through the city asking God for forgiveness. A few months later, Ami Perrin, who had been trying to bring Calvin to Geneva, publicly turned against Calvin. Ami Perrin married the daughter of François Favre, a merchant settled in Geneva, and both Perrin's wife and father-in-law had had previous conflicts with Consistory(the governing body). A Geneva court announced several celebrities, including Perrin, had violated the law banning the dance. Perrin ignored the court's summons, but appeared before the consistory(the governing body) after receiving a letter from Calvin. Perrin's mother, who was also sued separately, fled the day before the court meeting. In 1547, Ami Perrin was appointed Military Minister of the City, and the majority of the citizens' representatives, the magistrates of Geneva, were occupied by anti-Calvin’s party. On June 27, an anonymous threatening letter written in the Genevan dialect was found on the pulpit of St. Pierre's Cathedral where Calvin was preaching. The City Council set up a commission of inquiry and eventually arrested Jacques Gruet and beheaded him on July 26. Calvin was not opposed to the civil court's decision.  The laissez-faire continued to insult appointed ministers and challenge the authority of the governing bodies. In such a situation, the Congress did not set the exact position of Calvin while admonishing and supporting Calvin. Calvin's authority seemed to have hit rock bottom in February 1552, when Perrin was elected First Citizen's Delegate. At the time, in a situation where the laissez-faire dominated the City Council, Calvin requested his resignation from the parliament on July 24, 1553, but the request was not accepted. The opposition had the power to discredit Calvin, but not to the extent of expelling him.  - Michael Servetus (1553) However, on August 13, 1553, the situation changed completely when Michael Servetus appeared in Geneva. Servetus was a bold critic of the Trinity and infant baptism, and in July 1530, after a dispute with Johannes Oecolampadius, he was exiled from Basel. He later went to Strasbourg to distribute pamphlets against the Trinity, which Martin Bucer publicly refuted and expelled Servetus. Servetus returned to Basel and published two dialogues on the Trinity, which were met with great reaction by both Protestants and Roman Catholics, and the Spanish Inquisition ordered his arrest. After this, Servetus stopped by Geneva, was arrested, and brought before the Geneva court. The prosecutor and governing body of Geneva dragged on the trial to harass Calvin, but Servetus' heresy was known throughout Europe at the time, so Servetus was eventually burned at the stake.  - Back to Reform After the death of Servetus, Calvin was praised as the defender of Christianity. Calvin continued to criticize the decision which gave the City Council the right to excommunicate, arguing that the governing body should have the right. Philibert Bettelier, who had been excommunicated for insulting a minister in the past, during Servetus' trial, pleaded with the city council to restore Church member again. But Calvin protested that The City Council had no legal power to overturn excommunication. Afterward, Calvin believed that The City Council would oust him, and in a sermon on September 3, 1553, he hinted that he might be removed from office, but The City council decided to reconsider Calvin's appointment. However, on September 18, The City council voted in favor of Calvin and handed over the power of excommunication to the governing body. However, Betellier protested against the council's decision and demanded to restore himeto be the church member to the 200 members (Deux Cents), another administrative body. The council of 200 overturned the decision of the city council, and the ministers protested against this decision and sought the opinion of the Swiss church, as in the case of Servetus. More than a year later, on January 22, 1555, the Swiss church decided to retain Calvin's office and handed over the right of excommunication to the consistory(the governing body). In the elections of February 1555, the libertines'(laissez-faire) fell down completely. The large influx of French refugees into Geneva, coupled with the decision of the Swiss Church, resulted in Calvinists winning the majority of the civic and municipal councilors. Later, on May 16, the libertarians took to the streets drunk and tried to burn down the houses of French people. Henri Aulbert, the citizen's representative, tried to stop it by carrying the scepter given to the citizen's representative, but Perrin snatched it, grabbed it, and waved it over the crowd.  This action of him was perceived as an attempted coup. Later, another civic representative appeared and ordered Perrin to accompany him to the city hall, ending the disturbance. Later, with Calvin's approval, the death penalty was sentenced to 12 laissez-faire. Three were executed, and the other three, including Perrin, escaped the city. When the work in Geneva was over, Calvin turned his eyes to the outside world.  - Calvin's last years 1555-1564 Jean Calvin at the age of 53 Since then, no one had challenged Calvin's authority in Geneva, and all of Europe had praised his reputation as a reformer distinct from Martin Luther. Calvin and Luther initially had a deep respect for each other. However, a conflict arose between Luther and Ulrich Zwingli over the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, and Luther classified Calvin into the Zwingli camp. Calvin took an active part in the debate between Lutheran and Calvinist Reformed churches. At the same time, however, Calvin was appalled at the fact that the Reformed Church was not well united. Calvin established friendly relations by concluding the Consensus Tigurinus(The Unity Creed), a concordat between the Church of Geneva and the Church of Heinrich Bullinger's Zurich. Also, Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, reached out to him when convening a church council for the unity of all evangelical denominations, but Cranmer did not accept it. Calvin accepted Protestant refugees from the reign of Mary I in Geneva in 1555. Under the protection of the city, famous Reformed Church leaders such as John Knox and William Whittingham also came to Geneva at this time, which served as an opportunity for Calvin's doctrine to spread to England and Scotland.  - Calvin Collage, a Swiss secondary school Geneva Academy Calvin envisioned a collège (French: collège) as an educational institution for children. On March 25, 1558, the place was decided, and on June 5, 1559, the following year, the school opened. It was also in 1559 that Calvin obtained citizenship. The schools established in this way were divided into a collage, or private school (Latin: schola privata), which was a preparatory school for boys and taught grammar, and an academy (French: académie), or public school (Latin: schola publica), which was an institution of higher education. For this purpose, Calvin invites Mathurin Cordier, a teacher in Lausanne, and Emmanuel Tremelius, a professor of Hebrew (English version) in Cambridge. Although both rejected the request, Théodore de Vez granted the request and took over as principal. Five years after opening, there were 1,200 students in the collage and 300 students in the academy. This academy became the forerunner of the University of Geneva, and the collage is now the Calvin Collège.  - Calvin's influence on France Calvin also tried to reform his country, France. The Protestant movement was vigorous in terms of vitality, but it was a situation where no systematic direction was presented. Encouraged by the financial support of the church in Geneva, Calvin developed his activities to promote the Protestant cause in France.  Understanding is described as: He supplied doctrine, liturgy, and new moral and religious ideas, and created ecclesiastical, political, and social institutions in harmony with them. His natural leader, he carried on this work with his personal appeal. His voluminous correspondence with French Protestants brought home the lessons of his treatises, not only with much enthusiasm, but with endless labor and considerable wit. Between 1555 and 1562 more than 100 ministers were sent to France. Nevertheless, King Henry II of France severely persecuted Protestants according to the Edict of Chateaubriand, and when the French authorities complained about missionary activity, the pastors in Geneva denied official responsibility.  - Calvin's Illness and His End Calvin became weak from 1556 and fell ill with a fever at the end of 1558 and was seriously ill until the beginning of the following year. Calvin feared that he might die before the final revision of The Institutes of the Christian Religion was finished, so he resumed his work and finally published it with a great expansion to the point that the author himself refered to it as a new work. In the previous edition, the 21 chapters were expanded to 80 chapters, which were more faithful to the existing content than the addition of new themes. While preaching shortly after waking up from his bedside, Calvin had a violent coughing fit, his voice convulsing. The blood vessels in his lungs burst, and he was steadily weakening. In the end, the sermon given at St. Pierre's Cathedral on February 6, 1564 became the last sermon of his life. He drew up his will on April 25, leaving a small sum to his family and the county of College. A few days later, ministers came to see him and bid him farewell, and this farewell was recorded in [Last Greetings to Ministers - Discours d'adieu aux ministres]. Calvin recalled his life in Geneva and painfully recalled the hardships he sometimes suffered. On May 2nd, the elderly Farel, who had sent a short letter, also visited Calvin, and on the 19th he held a regular meeting with other ministers at his house. Calvin died on May 27, 1564 at the age of 54. He was initially buried in Geneva, but so many people came to see his grave that other reformers feared being accused of cultivating a new kind of saint cult. Eventually, the next day, he was buried in an unmarked grave in the Royal Cemetery. The exact location of the tomb is unknown, but in the 19th century a stone stele was installed to mark the tomb, which is said to be Calvin's tomb.