Taxonomy developed by Dornyei (cited in Brown,2000:128)
⦁Avoidance Strategies
1. Message abandonment: Leaving a message unfinished because of language difficulties.
2. Topic avoidance: Avoiding topic areas or concepts that pose language difficulties.
⦁Compensatory Strategies
3. Circumlocution: Describing or exemplifying the target object of action (e.g. the thing you open bottles with for corkscrew).
4. Approximation: Using an alternative term which expresses the meaning of the target lexical item as closely as possible (e.g. ship for sailboat).
5. Use of all-purpose words: Extending a general, empty lexical item to contexts where specific words are lacking (e.g. the overuse of thing, stuff, what-do-you call–it, thing ie).
6. Word coinage: Creating a nonexisting L2 word based on a supposed rule (e.g., vegetarianist for vegetarian).
7. Prefabricated patterns: Using memorized stock phrases, usually for“survival” purposes (e.g., Where is the ___ or Comment allez–vous? where the morphological components are not known to the learner).
8. Nonlinguistic signals: Mime, gesture, facial expression, or sound imitation.
9. Literal translation: Translating literally a lexical item, idiom, compound word, or structure from L1 to L2.
10. Foreignizing: Using a L1 word by adjusting it to L2 phonology (i.e., with a L2 pronunciation) and/or morphology (e.g., adding to it a L2 suffix).
11. Code-switching: Using a L1 word with L1 pronunciation or a L3word with L3 pronunciation while speaking in L2.
12. Appeal for help: Asking for aid from the interlocutor either directly (e.g., what do you call…?) or indirectly (e.g., rising intonation, pause, eye contact, puzzled expression).
13. Stalling or time-gaining strategies: Using fillers or hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think (e.g., well, now, let’s see, uh, as a matter of fact)
13 Taxonomies of Communicative Strategies_DioJin.pdf