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14. Kitty Hawk
Back there in 1953 with the Huntington Cairnses
(A skylark for them in three-heat phrases)
Part One, Portents, Presentiments, and Premonitions
Kitty Hawk, O Kitty,
There was once a song,
Who knows but a great
Emblematic ditty,
I might well have sung
When I came here young
Out and down along
Past Elizabeth City
Sixty years ago.
I was, to be sure,
Out of sorts with Fate,
Wandering to and fro
In the earth alone,
You might think too poor-
Spirited to care
Who I was or where
I was being blown
Faster than my tread—
Like the crumpled, better-
Left-unwritten letter
I had read and thrown.
Oh, but not to boast,
Ever since Nag’s Head
Had my heart been great,
Not to claim elate,
With a need the gale
Filled me with to shout
Summary riposte
To the dreary wail
There’s no knowing what
Love is all about.
Poets know a lot.
Never did I fail
Of an answer back
To the zodiac
When in heartless chorus
Aries and Taurus,
Gemini and Cancer
Mocked me for an answer.
It was on my tongue
To have up and sung
The initial flight
I can see now might—
Should have been—my own
Into the unknown,
Into the sublime
Off these sands of Time
Time had seen amass
From his hourglass.
Once I told the Master,
Later when we met,
I’d been here one night
As a young Alastor
When the scene was set
For some kind of flight
Long before he flew it.
Just supposing I—
I had beat him to it.
What did men mean by
THE original?
Why was it so very,
Very necessary
To be first of all?
How about the lie
That he wasn’t first?
I was glad he laughed.
There was such a lie
Money and maneuver
Fostered overlong
Until Herbert Hoover
Raised this tower shaft
To undo the wrong.
Of all crimes the worst
Is to steal the glory
From the great and brave,
Even more accursed
Than to rob the grave.
But the sorry story
Has been long redressed.
And as for my jest
I had any claim
To the runway’s fame
Had I only sung,
That is all my tongue.
I can’t make it seem
More than that my theme
Might have been a dream
Of dark Hatteras
Or sad Roanoke,
One more fond alas
For the seed of folk
Sowed in vain by Raleigh,
Raleigh of the cloak,
And some other folly.
Getting too befriended,
As so often, ended
Any melancholy
Götterdämmerung
That I might have sung.
I fell in among
Some kind of committee
From Elizabeth City,
Each and every one
Loaded with a gun
Or a demijohn.
(Need a body ask
If it was a flask?)
Out to kill a duck
Or perhaps a swan
Over Currituck.
This was not their day
Anything to slay
Unless one another.
But their lack of luck
Made them no less gay,
No, nor less polite.
They included me
Like a little brother
In their revelry—
All concern to take
Care my innocence
Should at all events
Tenderly be kept
For good gracious’ sake.
And if they were gentle
They were sentimental.
One drank to his mother
While another wept.
Something made it sad
For me to break loose
From the need they had
To make themselves glad
They were of no use.
Manners made it hard,
But that night I stole
Off on the unbounded
Beaches where the whole
Of the Atlantic pounded.
There I next fell in
With a lone coast guard
On midnight patrol,
Who as of a sect
Asked about my soul
And where-all I’d been.
Apropos of sin,
Did I recollect
How the wreckers wrecked
Theodosia Burr
Off this very shore?
’Twas to punish her,
But her father more—
We don’t know what for:
There was no confession.
Things they think she wore
Still sometimes occur
In someone’s possession
Here at Kitty Hawk.
We can have no notion
Of the strange devotion
Burr had for his daughter:
He was too devoted.
So it was in talk
We prolonged the walk,
On one side the ocean,
And on one a water
Of the inner sound;
“And the moon was full,”
As the poet said
And I aptly quoted.
And its being full
And right overhead,
Small but strong and round,
By its tidal pull
Made all being full.
Kitty Hawk, O Kitty,
Here it was again
In the self same day,
I at odds with men
Came upon their pity,
Equally profound
For a son astray
And a daughter drowned.
Part Two
When the chance went by
For my Muse to fly
From this Runway Beach
As a figure of speech
In a flight of words,
Little I imagined
Men would treat this sky
Someday to a pageant
Like a thousand birds.
Neither you nor I
Ever thought to fly.
Oh, but fly we did,
Literally fly.
That’s because though mere
Lilliputians we’re
What Catullus called
Somewhat (aliquid).
Mind you, we are mind.
We are not the kind
To stay too confined.
After having crawled
Round the place on foot
And done yeoman share
Of just staying put,
We arose from there
And we scaled a plane
So the stilly air
Almost pulled our hair
Like a hurricane.
Then I saw it all.
Pulpiteers will censure
Our instinctive venture
Into what they call
The material
When we took that fall
From the apple tree.
But God’s own descent
Into flesh was meant
As a demonstration
That the supreme merit
Lay in risking spirit
In substantiation.
Westerners inherit
A design for living
Deeper into matter—
Not without due patter
Of a great misgiving.
All the science zest
To materialize
By on-penetration
Into earth and skies
(Don’t forget the latter
Is but further matter)
Has been West-Northwest.
If it was not wise,
Tell me why the East
Seemingly has ceased
From its long stagnation
In mere meditation.
What is all the fuss
To catch up with us?
Can it be to flatter
Us with emulation?
Spirit enters flesh
And for all it’s worth
Charges into earth
In birth after birth
Ever fresh and fresh.
We may take the view
That its derring-do
Thought of in the large
Was one mighty charge
On our human part
Of the soul’s ethereal
Into the material.
In a running start,
As it were from scratch,
On a certain slab
Of (we’ll say) basalt
In or near Moab
With intent to vault
In a vaulting match,
Never mind with whom
(No one, I presume,
But ourselves—mankind,
In a love and hate
Rivalry combined)—
’Twas a radio
Voice that said, “Get set
In the alphabet,
That is, A B C,
Which someday should be
Rhymed with 1 2 3
On a college gate.”
Then the radio
Region voice said, “Go,
Go you on to know
More than you can sing.
Have no hallowing fears
Anything’s forbidden
Just because it’s hidden.
Trespass and encroach
On successive spheres
Without self-reproach.”
Then for years and years
And for miles and miles
’Cross the Aegean Isles,
Athens, Rome, France, Britain,
Always West-Northwest,
As have I not written,
Till the so-long-kept
Purpose was expressed
In the leap we leapt.
And the radio
Cried, “The Leap—The Leap!”
It belonged to US,
Not our friends the Russ,
To have run the event
To its full extent
And have won the crown,
Or let’s say the cup,
On which with a date
Is the inscription, though,
“Nothing can go up
But it must come down.”
Earth is still our fate.
The uplifted sight
We enjoyed at night
When instead of sheep
We were counting stars,
Not to go to sleep,
But to stay awake
For good gracious’ sake,
Naming stars to boot
To avoid mistake,
Jupiter and Mars,
Just like Pullman cars,
’Twas no vain pursuit.
Some have preached and taught
All there was to thought
Was to master Nature
By some nomenclature.
But if not a law
’Twas an end foregone
Anything we saw
And thus fastened on
With an epithet,
We would see to yet—
We would want to touch,
Not to mention clutch.
Talk Aloft
Someone says the Lord
Says our reaching toward
Is its own reward.
One would like to know
Where God says it, though.
We don’t like that much.
Let’s see where we are.
What’s that sulphur blur
Off there in the fog?
Go consult the log.
It’s some kind of town,
But it’s not New York.
We’re not very far
Out from where we were.
It’s still Kitty Hawk.
We’d have got as far
Even at a walk.
Don’t you crash me down.
Though our kiting ships
Prove but flying chips
From the science shop
And when motors stop
They may have to drop
Short of anywhere,
Though our leap in air
Prove as vain a hop
As the hop from grass
Of a grasshopper,
Don’t discount our powers;
We have made a pass
At the infinite,
Made it, as it were,
Rationally ours,
To the most remote
Swirl of neon-lit
Particle afloat.
Ours was to reclaim
What had long been faced
As a fact of waste
And was waste in name.
That’s how we became,
Though an earth so small,
Justly known to fame
As the Capital
Of the universe.
We make no pretension
Of projecting ray
We can call our own
From this ball of stone,
None I don’t reject
As too new to mention.
All we do’s reflect
From our rocks, and yes,
From our brains no less.
And the better part
Is the ray we dart
From this head and heart,
The mens animi.
Till we came to be
There was not a trace
Of a thinking race
Anywhere in space.
We know of no world
Being whirled and whirled
Round and round the rink
Of a single sun
(So as not to sink),
Not a single one
That has thought to think.
The Holiness of Wholeness
Pilot, though at best your
Flight is but a gesture,
And your rise and swoop,
But a loop the loop,
Lands on someone hard
In his own backyard
From no higher heaven
Than a bolt of levin,
I don’t say retard.
Keep on elevating.
But while meditating
What we can’t or can
Let’s keep starring man
In the royal role.
It will not be his
Ever to create
One least germ or coal.
Those two things we can’t.
But the comfort is
In the covenant
We may get control,
If not of the whole,
Of at least some part
Where not too immense,
So by craft or art
We can give the part
Wholeness in a sense.
The becoming fear
That becomes us best
Is lest habit-ridden
In the kitchen midden
Of our dump of earning
And our dump of learning
We come nowhere near
Getting thought expressed.
The Mixture Mechanic
This wide flight we wave
At the stars or moon
Means that we approve
Of them on the move.
Ours is to behave
Like a kitchen spoon
Of a size Titanic
To keep all things stirred
In a blend mechanic,
Saying That’s the tune,
That’s the pretty kettle!
Matter mustn’t curd,
Separate and settle.
Action is the word.
Nature’s never quite
Sure she hasn’t erred
In her vague design
Till on some fine night
We two come in
Like a king and queen
And by right divine,
Waving scepter-baton,
Undertake to tell her
What in being stellar
She’s supposed to mean.
God of the machine,
Peregrine machine,
Some still think is Satan,
Unto you the thanks
For this token flight,
Thanks to you and thanks
To the brothers Wright,
Once considered cranks
Like Darius Green
In their hometown, Dayton.
----------
키티호크
1953년 헌팅턴 케언스 부부와 그곳에 다시 와서
(그들을 위해 3박자 구절들로 쓴 종달새)
1부
전조, 예감, 그리고 예고
키티호크, 오, 키티호크,
옛날에 노래가 있었으니,
모르긴 해도 위대하고
상징적인 소곡(小曲)이 되었으리라.
내가 60년 전 젊어서
처량한 신세가 되어
엘리자베스 시(市)를 지나
이곳에 왔을 때
불렀음직한 노래 말이다.
나는 그때. 분명,
운명과 불화하여,
땅에서 홀로
이리저리 방황하였으니,
너무 기운이 없어
내가 누구인지 또는
발걸음을 띄기 무섭게
바람에 쓰러진 곳이 어딘지도
신경을 쓸 수 없었으니―
내가 읽고 버렸던,
쓰지 말았어야 할
구겨진 편지 같았다.
오, 자랑은 아니지만,
내그스헤드 이래로
내 마음은 넓었다.
우쭐거리는 것은 아니지만,
강풍이 내게 한껏 채운
함성(喊聲)의 욕구로
나는 음울한 통곡에
단칼로 응수했다.
사랑이란 무엇인지
도대체 알 길이 없다.
시인들은 많이 안다.
내가 황도 12궁에
회신(回信)을 구하면
어김없이
백양궁과 금우궁,
쌍자궁과 게자리는
무정한 코러스로
회신 대신 조롱했다.
첫 비상(飛上)을
찬양하는 노래가
내 혀끝에 맴돌았으니
시간의 모래시계로 축적된
이들 시간의 사구(砂丘)에서
미지(未知)로의,
숭고(崇高)로의,
내 첫 비상이 있었을 터이고―
있었어야 했다는 것을―
이제는 알 수 있다.
나중에 우리가 만났을 때
나는 그 위인(偉人)에게
내가 어느 날 밤 이곳에 젊은
알라스토르로 왔었노라고 말했다.
내가 어떤 비상을 할 수 있는
상황이 조성되었던 때로서
그가 비행하기 훨씬 전이다.
그저 추측하기는 혹시 내가―
그를 이겼다면 어땠을까?
소위 신기원(新紀元)이란
무엇을 의미하는 것인가?
왜 최초인 것이
그렇게 매우,
매우 필요한가?
그가 최초가 아니었다는
거짓말은 어떠한가?
그가 웃어 넘겨서 기뻤다.
돈과 책략이
너무 오래 조성한
기막힌 거짓말이 떠돌다가
마침내 허버트 후버가
이 기념 타워를 세워서
잘못을 바로 잡았다.
모든 범죄 중 최악은
위대한 영웅으로부터
영광을 가로채는 것이니,
묘를 강탈하는 것보다
훨씬 더 저주받을 것이다.
그러나 그 애석한 이야기는
오랜만에 시정되었다.
내가 노래했더라면
활주로 명예의 권리를
내가 가졌을 것이라는
내 농담에 관해 말하면,
그건 그저 내 말일 뿐이다.
내가 말하고자 하는 것은
그저 내 주제(主題)가
어두운 해터러스나,
슬픈 로어노크의 꿈,
롤리 즉 망토의 롤리와,
어느 다른 어리석음이
헛되이 뿌린
서민의 씨앗을
애도하는 또 하나의
엘레지였으리라는 것이다.
흔히 그렇듯이,
너무 친해져서,
아마도 내가 노래했을
어느 우울한
신들의 황혼이
멈춰버렸다.
내가 친해진 사람들은
엘리자베스 시(市)의
모 위원회 위원들로,
한 사람도 빠짐없이
목이 긴 큰 병이나
(그것이 술병인지
물을 필요가 있을까?)
총을 걸머지고 있었다.
커리턱 지역의 오리
또는 어쩌면 백조를
사냥하러 온 것이었다.
서로가 아니라면
무엇이라도 잡을
행운이 없는 날이었다.
행운의 부재에도
그들은 마냥 쾌활하고,
또한 매우 공손했다.
그들은 그들의 술잔치에
어린 동생 같이
나를 끼워주었다―
정말 인자하게도
모두가 조심하여
어떤 일이 있어도
나의 청순(淸純)을
고이 지켜주려 했다.
그들은 다정했지만
감상적이기도 했다.
갑(甲)은 어머니를 위해 건배하고
을(乙)은 눈물을 흘렸다.
자신들이 무용지물인 것을
유흥으로 달랠 수밖에 없는
그들의 필요를 피해서
도망치려니 왠지 슬펐다.
예의상 힘들었지만
그날 밤 나는
대서양 전체가 두드리는
무한한 해변으로
슬그머니 빠져나왔다.
거기서 요번에는
심야 순찰근무 중인
외로운 해안 경비대원을 만났다.
어느 종파(宗派)처럼
그는 나의 영혼과
내가 다닌 곳을 캐물었다.
죄(罪)와 관련해서,
어떻게 난파범(難破犯)들이
바로 이 앞바다에서
테오도시아 버의 배를 난파시켰다고
나는 기억했는가?
그녀를 벌하기 위해서였지만,
그녀의 아버지를 더 벌한 것이니―
우리는 그 이유를 모른다.
아무런 고백이 없었다.
그녀가 착용했다는 물품들이
아직도 때때로
여기 키티호크에서
어떤 사람의 소유로 등장한다.
버가 그의 딸을 위해서
쏟은 특이한 헌신에 대해
우리는 전혀 믿을 수 없다.
그는 너무 헌신적이었다.
이런저런 이야기 속에
우리는 오래오래 걸었다,
한쪽은 대양(大洋),
다른 한쪽은
내적 소리의 바다.
“그리고 만월(滿月)이었다,”
어느 시인의 말이지만
내가 때맞춰 인용했다.
그리고 그 꽉 찬 달이
바로 머리 위에 있고,
작지만 강하고 둥그니,
조수의 인력(引力)으로
모든 존재를 꽉 채웠다.
키티호크, 오, 키티호크,
바로 여기서 다시
바로 만월(滿月)의 날에,
사람들과 불화한 나는
길 잃은 아들과
익사한 딸을 위한,
똑같이 깊은
그들의 동정과 조우(遭遇)했다.
2부
비유(比喩)로서의
이 해변 활주로에서
나의 뮤즈가 낱말들의
비상(飛上)으로 날을
기회가 사라졌을 때,
나는 언젠가 사람들이
이 하늘에서
천 마리 새 같은
에어쇼를 펼치리라
상상하지 못했다.
당신도 나도
비행(飛行)을 생각한 적이 없다.
하지만, 오, 우리는
정말로 비행(飛行)했다.
우리는 하찮은 릴리퓨션이되
카툴루스의 말대로
약간(aliquid)
그렇기 때문이었다.
정말이지, 우리는 정신이다.
우리는 두문불출하는
부류가 아니다.
우리는 그저 정착하여
잰걸음으로 그곳을
두루 돌아다니며
자작농의 몫을 마치고,
그곳에서 일어나서
비행기를 설계하였으니
고요한 대기가
허리케인처럼
우리의 머리칼을
잡아 뽑을 뻔 했다.
그때 난 모든 것을 알았다.
설교꾼들은 우리가
사과나무에서
타락을 취하고
소위 물질(物質)로의
우리의 본능적 모험을
비판할 것이다.
그러나 신이 육신으로
친히 하계(下界)하심은
정신의 모험적
실체화(實體化)가
최고의 가치임을
실증하려는 의도였다.
서양인(西洋人)들은 물질에
더 깊이 탐닉하는 삶의
설계를 물려받으니
큰 불안의 변말이
당연히 뒤따르지만
땅과 하늘을
(하늘도 단지 추가적
물질임을 잊지 마라)
계속 뚫고 들어감으로써
실체화(實體化)하려는
과학의 열정은 모두
서북서진(西北西進)이었다.
만약 이게 현명하지 않다면,
동양(東洋)이 오랫동안
한낱 명상에 빠졌다가
외견상 중단했는데
그 이유를 내게 말하라.
우리를 따라잡으려는
야단법석은 무엇인가?
경쟁으로 우리에게
아첨하려는 것인가?
정신이 육(肉)에 들어가
그 가치를 모두 걸고
땅으로 돌진(突進)하니
항상 새롭고 새로운
탄생에 탄생이 이어진다.
정신의 모험적 행동은
일반적으로 생각하면
우리 인간의 편에서
혼(魂)의 영성(靈性)이
물성(物性)으로
힘차게 돌진하는 것이라는
견해가 있을 수 있다.
모압이나 그 근처의
어느 장대높이뛰기 시합에서,
점프할 의도로
(뭐랄까) 현무암
석판에 서서
말하자면 출발선에서,
도움닫기를 할 때,
누구와 겨룰지는 걱정마라
(내 생각엔, 다름 아닌
우리자신들―인류이고,
사랑과 미움이
결합된 경쟁이다)―
“대학 문의
1 2 3과 훗날
압운할 것이니,
알파벳, 즉,
A B C 순으로 준비하라,”
이렇게 말한 것은
무선 음성이었다.
그러더니 지역의
무선 음성이 말했다, “가라,
가서 네가 다 찬양할 수
없을 정도로 많은 것을 알아라.
어떤 것이 금지된 이유만으로
그것이 신성불가침이라는
두려움을 절대 가지지 말라.
자책(自責)하지 말고
잇따른 분야(分野)에
침입하여 침식하라.”
그다음 수십 년 동안
에게 군도, 아테네, 로마,
프랑스, 영국 쪽으로,
수백 수천 마일을
앞에서 쓴 것처럼,
항상 서북서진(西北西進)하니,
매우 오래 간직된
목적이 우리가 도약한
도약으로 표현되었다.
그리고 무선(無線)은
외쳤다, “도약―도약!”
그 시합을 힘껏
완주하여 차지한
왕관이나
이를테면 컵은
우방 러시아가 아닌,
미국의 차지였지만,
그 컵에는 날짜와 함께
새겨진 글귀가 있으니,
“아무것도 내려오지 않고는
결코 오를 수 없다.”
땅은 여전히 우리의 운명이다.
우리가 양 떼 대신
별을 헤아리던 밤에
우리는 드높은
경치를 즐겼으니,
잠들기 위해서가 아니라,
신의 은총을 위해
깨어있으려는 것이었고,
별 헤아림에 실수가 없도록
풀먼 침대차처럼,
목성과 화성 등
별들에 이름까지 붙였으니,
헛되지 않은 추구였다.
명명법(命名法)에 의해
자연을 정복하는 것이
생각의 전부라고 설교하고
가르친 사람도 있다.
그러나 법칙은 아니지만
예정된 목적인 것은
우리가 보고
칭호(稱號)를 붙여서
계속 주시하는 것은 어느 것이나,
우리가 여전히 살필 것이며―
부여잡기는 말할 것도 없고,
어루만지고 싶을 것이다.
호언(豪言)
어떤 사람은 하느님이
우리가 손 뻗치는 것은
그 자체가 보상이라고
말씀하신다고 말한다.
하지만, 신이 어디서 그렇게
말씀하시는지 알고 싶을 것이다.
우리는 그게 별로 달갑지 않다.
우리가 있는 곳을 보자.
저쪽 안개 속에서
가물대는 저 유황은 무엇인가?
항정(航程)을 살펴보라.
그것은 어떤 도시다.
그러나 뉴욕은 아니다.
우리는 출발한 곳에서
별로 멀리 나오지 않았다.
그것은 아직 키티호크다.
우리는 걸었어도
그만큼은 왔을 것이다.
나를 좌초시키지 마라.
우리의 솔개 비행기들은
사이언스 샵이 개발한
나르는 칩(chips)들에 불과하고
모터가 멈추면
그것들도 아무 곳에나
떨어지고 말더라도,
우리의 공중(空中) 도약이
풀잎에서 깡충 뛰는
메뚜기 점프처럼
헛된 것으로 드러나도,
우리 능력을 무시하지 마라.
우리는 무한(無限)에
추파를 던졌고,
그것을, 말하자면, 합리적으로
우리 것으로 만들었으니,
공중에 떠도는
네온 빛 미립자의
가장 먼 와류(渦流)까지 이르렀다.
오랫동안 주지(周知)의 낭비로
너그럽게 봐주고
명목상 허비(虛費)인 것을
되찾는 것은 우리의 몫이었다.
우리는 그렇게 해서
비록 지구는 작지만
우주(宇宙)의
수도(首都)로서
당연한 명성을 얻었다.
이 석구(石球)에서
우리는 우리의 것이라
칭할 수 있는 광선을
쏘는 체 하지는 않는다.
나는 어떤 광선도 언급하기에
너무 새롭다고 거부하지 않는다.
우리가 쏘는 광선은
우리의 바위에서, 그래 맞아,
또한 우리의 두뇌에서
반사(反射)하는 것뿐이고,
이 머리와 가슴에서
우리가 쏘는 광선,
내 가슴의 생각이
대부분이다.
우리가 존재하기 까지
우주의 어디에도
생각하는 인종의
흔적은 없었다.
우리는 한 태양의
링크를 빙빙 돌며
(가라앉지 않도록)
회전에 회전하는
세계를 알지 못하며,
생각할 생각을 가진 세계를
단 하나도 알지 못한다.
거룩한 완성
비행사여, 당신의 비행이
기껏 몸짓뿐일지라도,
당신의 이륙과 강하가
공중제비에 불과하여,
번갯불 화살보다도
높지 않은 하늘에서
자기 뒷마당의 누군가의
머리에 경착륙하더라도,
나는 늦추라고 않는다.
이륙(離陸)을 계속하라.
우리가 할 수 있고 없고를
명상하는 동안에는
위풍당당한 역할에서
계속 활동할 스타에게 맡겨라.
그는 결단코 하찮은
세균이나 석탄 하나도
창조하지 못할 것이다.
우린 그런 두 가지도 창조할 수 없다.
그러나 위로(慰勞)는
전체는 아니라도
적어도 일부를 우리가
지배할 수 있다는
하느님의 계약에 있으니,
엄청난 부분은 아니지만,
우리는 기능이나 기술로
어떤 의미의 완성을
부분에 부여할 수 있다.
우리에게 가장 어울리는
합당한 두려움은
부엌의 쓰레기 더미 같이
우리가 부린 소득의 더미와
우리가 부린 학식의 더미에서
습관에 지배된 나머지
우리의 생각의 구현(具現)에
전혀 접근하지 못하는 것이다.
혼합의 기술
우리가 별이나 달을 향해
손을 흔드는 이 광범한 비행은
우리가 움직이는 천체들을
승인한다는 것을 의미한다.
우리는 타이타닉 사이즈의
부엌 주걱처럼
행동하여,
그게 바로 화음(和音)이고,
그게 바로 멋진 솥이다! 말하며,
혼합(混合)의 기술로
모든 것을 계속 휘저어야 한다.
물질이 엉겨서, 섞이지 않고
침전하면 안 된다.
행동이 말씀이다.
자연은 그녀의 막연한 설계에
오류(誤謬)가 없었다고
전혀 확신하지 못하지만
마침내 어느 맑은 밤
우리 둘이 왕과 왕비처럼
그리고 신성한 왕권에 의해,
홀(笏)을 흔들며,
비상(飛上)한 것은
자연이 별이 되면서
무엇을 의미하기로 되어있는지
그녀에게 전하고자 한다.
기계의 신이여,
이동하는 기계여,
어떤 이는 아직 당신을 사탄으로 여기지만,
이 상징적 비행에 대해
진정 당신께 감사드립니다.
당신께 감사드리고
라이트 형제에게 감사하기는,
이들은 다리우스 그린처럼,
그들의 고향, 데이턴에서
한때 괴짜들로 취급되었습니다.
-신재실 옮김-
단상(斷想): 베르그송(Bergson)은 “일반적으로, 생명의 진화에 있어서는, 인간사회 그리고 개개인의 운명의 진화에 있어서와 똑같이, 가장 위대한 성공은 가장 힘겨운 모험을 감수한 자들의 것이었다.”고 말한 바 있다. 프로스트 역시 모험적인 행동, 무엇보다도 충분한 증거 또는 경험이 수반되지 않은 불확실한 미래에 대한 믿음을 강조했다. 「키티 호크」에서 프로스트는 세계 최초의 비행사들인 라이트(Wright)형제의 영웅적 모험을 육신(肉身)의 인간으로 땅으로 내려오신 그리스도의 신비에 빗댈 정도로 높이 평가한다. 라이트 형제의 비행(flight)은 과학적 두뇌에 앞선 믿음과 모험의 기적이다.
“Flight"는 ”비행(飛行)“과 ”패주(敗走)“의 두 가지 뜻이 있다. 「키티 호크」는 패주와 비행의 두 가지 이야기를 중심으로 구성된다. 첫째 이야기는 1894년 프로스트 자신의 실연(失戀)으로부터의 패주와 실패이고, 두 번째 이야기는 1903년 라이트 형제의 모험적 비행과 성공이다. 시인의 실패와 과학자의 성공을 대조하면서, 프로스트는 시인과 과학자 모두에게 자연계에 의미를 부여하는 능력을 점지할 것을 ”기계의 신“에게 기원하는 것으로 시를 끝맺는다. 얼핏 프로스트가 마침내 과학과 물질의 승리를 선언하는 듯하다. 그러나 프로스트는 그의 시「우연한 목적」에서 이렇게 선언한다, “그러나 머리와 두뇌의 도움을 받아도/ 다행히 우리는 여전히 직관적이니,/ 직관은 저 위 빛으로 인도하는 최고의 안내자,/ 첫 눈에 반하는 열렬한 선호(選好)다.” 시인과 과학자 모두에게 요구되는 “자연계에 의미를 부여하는 능력”은 “머리”와 “두뇌”에 앞서서 “직관”과 “열렬한 선호”에서 오는 것이다. 창작과 발명은 결국 “저 위 빛”을 우러르는 정신의 육화(肉化)라는 공통점을 가진다.
라이트 형제는 프로스트에게 비행(飛行)의 의미를 가르쳐주었다. 그들의 비행기는 인간의 정신과 자유의지 즉 인간의 꿈과 이상을 물질의 형상으로 구현하는 능력의 빼어난 메타포이다. 인간의 상상력은 항상 물질의 저항에 부딪히지만, 과학적인 것이건 시적인 것이건, 인간의 창조적 활동에는 신의 의도와 인간의 신적 능력이 작동한다. 인간의 정신은 항상 “무한(無限)에 추파를 던졌고” 그것을 향해서 오롯이 전진한다. 라이트 형제의 성공적 비행은 “정신의 모험적/ 실체화(實體化)”를 실증한 영웅적 행위였던 것이다.
「키티 호크」의 1부는 프로스트가 1894년 11월 노스캐롤라이나 북서쪽의 디스멀 스웜프(Dismal Swamp)에 당도했을 때의 비참한 심경을 스케치한다. 엘리너(Elinor)가 그의 구애에 냉담한 반응을 보이자 낙심한 나머지 자살을 결심하고 이곳에 온 것이었다. 말하자면, 시인을 꿈꾸는 20세 청년의 사랑의 패주(flight)였다. 위험이 도사리고 있는 늪지를 걷다보면, 독사, 보브캣, 또는 곰의 습격을 받아 불귀의 객이 될 것이었다. 놀랍게도 그는 아무런 상해를 입지 않았을 뿐만 아니라 오리 사냥꾼 일행에 의해 구출되어 환대를 받았으며, 결국 그들과 함께 아우터 뱅크스(Outer Banks)의 낵스 헤드(Nags' Head)와 키티 호크(Kitty Hawk)까지 여행한 뒤 귀가하였다. 약 9년 뒤인 1903년 12월 17일, 라이트 형제는 다름 아닌 키티 호크의 사구(砂丘)에서 세계 최초의 동력 비행(flight)에 성공했다. 1953년 여름 79세의 프로스트는 세계적 시인으로 키티 호크를 다시 방문했다.
프로스트는 50년 전의 자신을 이렇게 회상한다, “내가 누구인지 또는/ 발걸음을 띄기 무섭게/ 바람에 쓰러진 곳이 어딘지도/ 신경을 쓸 수 없었으니―/ 내가 읽고 버렸던,/ 쓰지 말았어야 할/ 구겨진 편지 같았다.” 불운의 시인 알라스토르처럼, 가혹한 운명 앞에서 속절없이 채이고 구겨지는 편지 같았다. 자신의 불행을 시적 비전으로 승화했더라면, 불멸의 사랑의 엘레지를 남겼을지 모르지만, 그의 시적 호소에 하늘도 응답하지 않았다. “백양궁과 금우궁,/ 쌍자궁과 게자리는/ 무정한 코러스로/ 응답 대신 조롱했다.” 그가 쓰고자 했던 시는 그의 “혀끝에 맴돌았을” 뿐 “어두운 해터러스나,/ 슬픈 로어노크의 꿈”이 되고 말았다.
이제 그는 “시간의 모래시계로 축적된/ 이들 시간의 사구(砂丘)에서/ 미지(未知)로의,/ 숭고(崇高)로의,/ 내 첫 비상이 되었을 것이고―”라고 회고하면서 숭고함에서 라이트 형제의 비행(flight)과 겨뤘을지도 모르는 그의 시적 비상(flight)의 실패를 아쉬워한다. 그러나 그는 그의 실패의 원인에 대해 솔직하다. 그는 그것이 외적 요인 때문이 아니라 “알라스토르”의 슬픔과 좌절, “망토의 롤리”의 헛된 꿈이나 “어느 다른 어리석음”과 같은 그의 내적 결함 때문이라고 고백한다. 오리 사냥꾼들의 친절과 사랑이 그를 살렸지만, 그는 자학적이고 감상적인 그들의 인생관에 비판적이다. “자신들이 무용지물인 것을/ 유흥으로 달랠 수밖에 없는/ 그들의 필요를 피해서,” 그들의 술잔치에서 슬그머니 도망친 이유였다. 그들은 순박하고 동정적이지만, 의식적인 정신활동을 통하여 물질에 형(型)과 의미를 부여함으로써 활성화하는 것이 삶의 본질이라는 것을 깨닫지 못한 부류로 보였던 것이다.
사냥꾼 일행에서 빠져나온 그는 야간 순찰 중인 수난(水難)구조대원을 만났다. 구조대원은 미국 제3대 부통령을 역임한(1801-05) 아론 버(Aaron Burr)의 딸 테오도시아(Theodosia)가 1812년 12월 범선(帆船)을 타고 뉴욕으로 아버지를 만나러 가다가 이곳 근해에서 배와 함께 불과 29세의 나이에 의문의 실종을 함으로서 아버지, 남편, 그리고 주변 사람들의 애간장을 태운 슬픈 이야기를 들려주었다. 그녀는 “익사한 딸”로서 뭇사람의 동정을 받지 않았는가? 그렇다면 당시의 프로스트는 어떠했는가? “사람들과 불화한 나는/ 길 잃은 아들과/ 익사한 딸을 위한,/ 똑같이 깊은/ 그들의 동정”을 받고 있지 않는가? 얼마나 무책임한 사랑의 패주(敗走)였던가? 그들은 “한쪽은 대양(大洋),/ 다른 한쪽은/ 내적 소리의 바다“를 끼고 이런저런 이야기를 나누며 오래오래 걸었다. 마침내 바다의 소리와 시인 프로스트의 내면의 소리가 교통(交通)하기 시작했다. 프로스트는 “젊은 알라스토르”로 이곳에 왔고, 사랑을 주제로 불멸의 시를 쓰고 싶었지만 실패했다. 그러나 그는 고통과 고립을 통해 더 유익한 상상력을 회복했다. 순간 그의 입에서는 “그리고 만월(滿月)이었다.”란 시구가 절절로 흘러나왔다.
비록 그가 읊은 시구(詩句)는 빌려온 것이지만, 그의 제2의 인생이 출발하는 순간이었다. 이후의 프로스트의 “함성”은 “음울한 통곡”을 잠재웠다, “오, 자랑은 아니지만,/ 내그스헤드 이래로/ 내 마음은 넓었고,/ 우쭐거리려는 건 아니지만,/ 강풍이 내게 한껏 채운/ 함성(喊聲)의 욕구로/ 음울한 통곡에/ 단칼로 응수했다.” 그의 자살 충동은 사물(事物)과의 시적 대화와 상상력의 비상(飛翔)으로 누그러졌다. 50년 후, 미국의 국민시인으로 키티 호크를 다시 찾은 프로스트는 그의 뮤즈(Muse)가 라이트 형제의 “기계의 신”과 똑같이 정신의 육화와 비상(flight)으로 인도하는 구원의 신(神)이라는 것을 실증했다.
「키티 호크」의 2부에서 프로스트는 베르그송의 『창조적 진화』의 주제를 라이트 형제의 창조적 비행에 적용하여, 그것을 “정신의 모험적/ 실체화(實體化)”의 전형으로 평가한다. 그 “공중(空中) 도약”이 “풀잎에서 깡충 뛰는/ 메뚜기 점프처럼/ 헛된 것으로 드러나도,” 그 몸짓 자체가 의미 있는 정신의 육화(肉化)이다. 인간은 “결단코 하찮은/ 세균이나 석탄 하나도/ 창조하지 못할 것”이지만, “전체는 아니라도/ 적어도 일부를 우리가/ 지배할 수 있고,/ … / 기능이나 기술로/ 어떤 의미의 완성을/ 부분에 부여할 수 있다”는 것을 드러낸다. 그러나 “부분”의 창조적 “완성”은 우선 정신(精神) 즉 프로스트가 말하는 “내 가슴의 생각(mens animi)"의 탁월성에 달려있으니, 인간의 모든 창조적 전진을 선도하고 촉진하는 것은 바로 인간의 정신이기 때문이다. “정신이 육(肉)에 들어가/ 그 가치를 모두 걸고/ 땅으로 돌진(突進)하니/ 항상 새롭고 새로운/ 탄생에 탄생이 이어진다./ 정신의 모험적 행동은/ 일반적으로 생각하면/ 우리 인간의 편에서/ 혼(魂)의 영성(靈性)이/ 물성(物性)으로/ 힘차게 돌진하는 것이라는/ 견해가 있을 수 있다.”
베르그송은 다윈의 진화론을 수용함과 동시에 창조의 원천으로 생명력(élan vital)의 개념을 도입하여, 진화는 단순히 물질적 메커니즘(mechanism)의 결과가 아니고, 목적성을 가진 생명력의 선택과 모험의 결과라고 주장함으로써 물질에 대한 정신의 우위성을 강조하였다. 이 시에서 제시된 프로스트의 비전은 베르그송의 생명력의 개념과 놀라울 만큼 일치한다. 생명력이 물질에 진입하여 물질을 활성화하면, 신기하게도 새로운 형상들이 “탄생에 탄생”을 거듭한다. 인간의 과학기술 역량은 지구의 섬멸을 위협할 정도로 엄청나게 발전했다. 그러나 프로스트는 인간은 신성(神性)을 물려받았기 때문에 어떠한 위협에서도 살아남을 능력과 지혜가 있다고 믿는다. 그러기에 프로스트는 우리는 "무한"을 향한 비행을 멈추지 말아야 하며, 실패를 무릅쓰고 이륙(離陸)을 계속해야 한다고 역설한다. "비행사여, 당신의 비행이/ 기껏 몸짓뿐일지라도,/ 당신의 이륙과 강하가/ 공중제비에 불과하여,/ 번갯불 화살보다도/ 높지 않은 하늘에서/ 자기 뒷마당의 누군가의/ 머리에 경착륙하더라도,/ 나는 늦추라고 않는다./ 이륙(離陸)을 계속하라.” 종교적인 사람들은 라이트 형제의 비행을 아담과 이브가 에덴에서 저지른 원죄와 유사한 행위라고 비판할 것이지만, 프로스트는 두 행위 모두 미지의 세계에 도전하는 창조적 행위, “소위 물질(物質)로의/ 우리의 본능적 모험”이며. 시인의 창작 또한 이와 유사한 비상(flight)으로 본다.
프로스트는 인간 정신의 비상과 육화의 개념을 야곱(Jacob)의 꿈과 사다리 이야기를 에둘러 인유(引喩)함으로써 종교적 차원으로 확장한다. 성경에서 야곱은 브엘세바(Beersheba)를 떠나 모압(Moab)을 거쳐 사해(Dead Sea) 근처의 하란(Haran)으로 향한다. 도중에 날이 저물어 돌베개를 베고 잠이 들었는데, 꿈속에서 땅에서 하늘까지 닿은 사다리가 보이고, 하느님이 그의 땅과 백성을 축복하는 소리가 들렸다. 잠에서 깨어난 야곱은 베고 잔 돌을 세워 하나님의 집으로 삼았다(『창세기』28: 10-22). 프로스트의 “현무암 석판”은 야곱의 돌기둥이고, “무선 음성”은 꿈의 야곱을 축복하는 하느님의 목소리에 틀림없다. 프로스트에게 라이트 형제의 비행은 하늘과 땅을 잇는 꿈의 사다리이다. “땅은 여전히 우리의 운명이다”라고 말하여 자칫 빠지기 쉬운 인간의 오만을 경계하면서도, 프로스트는 여전히 “우리가 보고/ 칭호를 붙인 것”으로 만족하지 않고, 그것을 “여전히 살필 것이며―/ 부여잡기는 말할 것도 없고,/ 어루만질” 것을 강조한다. 성취가 최고의 미덕이라는 것이다.
라이트 형제의 비행은 키티호크의 상공을 벗어나지 못했다. “우리가 손 뻗치는 것은/ 그 자체가 보상”이라는 견해도 있지만, 프로스트는 열망이 아니라 성취가 최고의 덕목이라고 단언한다. 자동차, 비행기 같은 신기한 수단이 없다면, 우리는 “우리가 있는 곳”을 벗어날 수 없을 것이다. 우리는 지구는 물론 더욱 낯설고 광대한 우주 공간으로의 위대한 비행에 계속 도전해야 한다. 실패에 실패를 거듭하고, 낭비에 낭비를 거듭하더라도, 계속 “무한(無限)”에 추파를 던져야 한다. 인간은 우주 유일의 생각하는 존재이다. 그러기에 “비록 지구는 작지만/ 우주(宇宙)의/ 수도(首都)로서/ 당연한 명성을 얻었다.” 인간은 “빛”을 “반사하는” 존재에 불과하지만, 우리의 “머리와 가슴에서” 쏘는 광선 즉 “내 가슴의 생각”은 지구뿐만 아니라 우주를 밝힐 등불이 될 것이다. 이것이 인간을 창조하신 하느님의 목적이고 설계이기 때문이다.
베르그송은 “생명체에 관한 한 성공이란, 가장 다양한 환경에서, 가장 다양한 장애를 뚫고, 발달하여 가장 넓은 땅을 뒤덮을 수 있는 재능으로 이해되어야 한다,”고 전제하고, “지구 전체를 자기 영역으로 차지하는 종(種)은 진정으로 지배적인, 따라서 우수한 종이다. 인간이 바로 그런 종이다”고 하였다. 프로스트는 신을 “신(God)”으로 직접 호칭하는 경우도 있고, 때로는 “빛(light),” “음성(voice)." 또는 “무엇(something)”으로 표현하기도 한다. 프로스트의 신은 정통적인 기독교에서 신봉하고 있는 신과는 상당한 차이가 있다. 신에 의한 인간의 창조를 인정하면서도, 베르그송의 창조적 진화론을 수용하여, 신의 창조는 단 한번으로 끝난 것이 아니고 영원히 계속되고 있다는 열린 우주관을 전개한다. 인간은 신의 창조 활동의 절정이고, 인간을 지상의 모든 것을 통치하는 지배자로 삼으신 신의 목적에 따라 인간은 신을 대행하여 우주를 통괄한다. 인간은 미생물 하나도 창조할 수 없지만, 신이 물려주신 부분적 미완(未完)의 “거룩한 완성”을 수행할 수 있고, 수행할 의무가 있다. 따라서 우리에게 “합당한 두려움”은 “습관에 지배된 나머지/ 우리의 생각의 구현(具現)에/ 전혀 접근하지 못하는 것이다.”
인간은 지구에 머물러서는 안 된다. 우리는 “움직이는 천체들”을 승인하고, 우리의 정신과 성취를 그들의 에너지와 의미에 맞춰서 진화해야 한다. 그런 의미에서 라이트 형제의 첫 동력 비행은 우주의 한계에 도전하는 소인(小人)의 상징적 비상이었다. 우주의 끝까지 가려면 한시도 쉬지 않고 “물질”을 활성화하는 “기술”을 개발해야 한다. 인간의 창조력은 “혼합 기술”뿐이다. 인간은 “혼합(混合) 기술로/ 모든 것을 계속 휘저어야 한다./ 물질은 엉겨서, 섞이지 않고/ 침전하면 안 된다./ 행동이 말씀이다.” 신은 말씀으로 창조하고 인간은 행동으로 진화한다. 자연의 설계는 막연하여, 자연 자신도 오류가 없다고 확신하지 못한다. 별들의 존재 의미는 무엇인가? “마침내 어느 맑은 밤” 인간이 비행하여 그들을 향해 손을 흔들 때, 그들은 비로소 자신들의 존재 의미를 깨닫는다. 인간은 그들에게서 의미를 얻고 그들에게 의미를 부여한다. 자연의 설계에는 오류가 없다.
인간은 어디까지 진화할 것인가? 인간의 정신은 우주의 어디까지 진입할 것인가? 그것은 “기계의 신”에게 달려 있다. “기계의 신이여,/ … / 이 상징적 비행에 대해/ 진정 당신께 감사드립니다./ 당신께 감사드리고/ 라이트 형제에게 감사하기는,/ 이들은 다리우스 그린처럼,/ 그들의 고향, 데이턴에서/ 한때 괴짜들로 취급되었습니다.“ 어떤 종교인들은 ”기계의 신‘을 여전히 사탄으로 여기지만, 만물을 창조하시는 신임에 틀림없다. 만물은 정신과 물질을 모두 포함하기 때문이다. 과학과 기술의 발견과 발명은 물론 예술과 시의 창작 또한 정신의 육화임에 틀림없으니, “기계의 신”의 도움 없이는 진화하지 못할 것이다. 또한 인류의 개척자들은 흔히 “사탄”이나 “괴짜” 취급을 받기도 하지만, 인류는 그들에게 감사해야 할 것이니, 그들 없이는 인류의 진화 또한 없을 것이기 때문이다.
-신재실 씀-
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“Kitty Hawk” (1962)
The poem is subtitled “Back there in 1953 with the
Huntington Cairnses (A Skylark for Them in Three-
Beat Phrases).” Frost began the poem in the summer
of 1953 after visiting Cairns, a lawyer and author,
and his wife, Florence, in Kitty Hawk in 1953. While
there he had the opportunity to stand where Orville
and Wilbur Wright made their first successful flight
at Kill Devil Hills near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina,
in 1903. While Frost regarded the poem as “the most
important poem that he wrote in his last decade”
and as one that had “immense personal meaning,”
the poem is not at all among his best (Parini, 388).
Written late in his career, the poem places much
emphasis on allusions and shows a seeming desire on
Frost’s part to write an epic poem.
Frost called it “a longish poem in two parts.” He
described the first part as being personal and a
description of an “adventure” from his boyhood.
Here he refers to the real journey that the youthful
Frost took in November 1894 when he set off in a
bleak mood, stimulated by his fear of losing his
then girlfriend Elinor, for the Dismal Swamp, which
runs along the Virginia and North Carolina border.
His “symbolic journey” through this “frightening
place, full of bogs and quicksand” came to an end
“rather flatly” when, exhausted, he hitched a ride
out of the bog with duck hunters (Parini, 49–50).
He drew on this experience in a number of ways as
a poet; “Reluctance” provides another example.
Having returned to the same area 60 years later to
visit the Cairnses, Frost must have imagined his life
coming full circle in some way. He once explained
that he used his own story of the place to “take off
into the story of the airplane” and noted how he
might have used his early experience to write an
“immortal poem but how, instead, the Wright
brothers took off from there to commit an immor
tality.” The second part of the poem he described
as the “philosophical part” (Parini, 388).
The poem is riddled with allusions, among them:
“Alastor, or the Spring of Solitude,” written in 1816
by Percy Bysshe Shelley; the “tower shaft” that Her
bert Hoover “[r]aised . . . / To Undo the wrong,” a
60-foot granite shaft with a beacon that was erected
during President Hoover’s administration in 1932 at
Kill Devil Hills; Cape Hatteras, off the North Caro
lina coast, a dangerous navigational point in the
Atlantic and the site of a 193-foot lighthouse that
had to be abandoned in 1936 when the ocean came
too close; Theodosia Burr Alston (1783–1813), the
only child of Aaron Burr who attended her father’s
trial for treason in 1807 and whose charm was said
to have helped sway the court; “And the moon was
full,” a line from Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s “The
Passing of Arthur”; the Moabite stone, discovered
in 1868 at Dhiban, a ruined city of Palestine, a
block of black basalt with a 34-line inscription in
the Moabite alphabet dating from the ninth century
B.C. that is the oldest extant Semitic inscription and
an account of the wars of Mesha, king of Moab,
including those against kings of Israel; “Darius
Green and His Flying-Machine,” by John Townsend
Trowbridge (1827–1916); and so on.
The poem’s simple rhyme moves from the indi
vidual to humanity and expresses a reaching for
ward. The poem establishes, with the plane as its
metaphor, that humanity has not gotten far off
earth, that we could have gotten just as far walk
ing. It references the beginning, with Adam’s nam
ing of things, the apple, knowledge, and Satan.
The poem concludes that while we do not have
the sun’s rays, we have our own rays of reflec
tion—our minds. The poem is celebratory and
powerful in its message, and Frost ends by thank
ing “you,” perhaps the reader, for “this token
flight,” his life’s experience, as he moves from him
self to the universe in 60 years. As Mark Richard
son explains; “Here, Frost is addressing not only
the ‘pilots’ of that first feeble aircraft at Kitty
Hawk, whose efforts he takes as the type of man’s
effort to slip the bonds of Earth. He is also address
ing ‘pilots’ more generally, a category that extends
to include such pioneers and farmers as ‘The Birth
place’ concerns, and also . . . the figure of the poet
himself ” (229).
Robert Faggen notes that “its emphasis on the
spirit’s descent in the material world echoes a chord
struck in ‘The Trial by Existence’ from [Frost’s]
first book A Boy’s Will” (255). He describes the
poem as “clarify[ing] the continuity between Chris
tianity and modern science and technology,” and
finds that “The Fall for Frost is a story of freedom
and departure that represents the first act of sci
ence, the pursuit of knowledge, which in its attempt
to ascend only leads deeper into matter. All human
history is a recapitulation of the myth” (253).
The poem began as “The Wrights’ Biplane” in A
Further Range. A later version was Frost’s 1956
Christmas poem, and yet a later version was pub
lished in the November 1957 issue of the Atlantic
Monthly. A version was also published in W. S.
Braithwaite and Margaret Carpenter’s Anthology of
Magazine Verse for 1958 and the Saturday Review.
The final version was collected in In the Clearing.
The contents of the book were preceded by an
excerpt from “Kitty Hawk” titled “But God’s Own
Descent,” which begins with that title line and ends
with the line “Into the material.” The excerpt can
be read as a kind of self-proclamation of the poet’s
life’s achievement of “risking spirit in substantia
tion” and of “charg[ing] into earth / In birth after
birth” in his poems.
See FUGITIVE and TECHNOLOGY.
FURTHER READING
Abshear-Seale, Lisa. “What Catallus Means by Mens
Animi: Robert Frost’s ‘Kitty Hawk,’ ” Robert Frost
Review (Fall 1993): 37–46.
Bagby, George F. Frost and the Book of Nature. Knox
ville: University of Tennessee Press, 1993, 98–102.
Crane, Joan. “Robert Frost’s ‘Kitty Hawk,’ ” Studies in
Bibliography: Papers of the Bibliographical Society of
the University of Virginia 30 (1977): 241–249.
Faggen, Robert. Robert Frost and the Challenge of Dar
win. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
1997, 253–255.
Hass, Robert. Going by Contraries: Robert Frost’s Con
flict with Science. Charlottesville: University Press
of Virginia, 2002, 175–180.
Kau, Joseph. “ ‘Trust . . . to go by Contraries’: Incarna
tion and the Paradox of Belief.” In Frost: Centennial
Essays II, edited by Jac Tharpe, 99–111. Jackson:
University Press of Mississippi, 1976.
Meyers, Jeffrey. Robert Frost: A Biography. New York:
Houghton Mifflin, 1996.
Parini, Jay. Robert Frost: A Life. New York: Holt, 1999.
Perrine, Laurence. “Robert Frost and the Idea of
Immortality.” In Frost: Centennial Essays II, edited
by Jac Tharpe, 87–89. Jackson: University Press of
Mississippi, 1976.
Richardson, Mark. The Ordeal of Robert Frost: The
Poet and His Poetics. Chicago, Ill.: University of Illi
nois Press, 1997.
Stott, William. “ ‘Living Deeper into Matter’: Robert
Frost’s ‘Kitty Hawk’ and the Creation of Nature,”
North Carolina Literary Review 12 (2003): 46–56.
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1Then Isaac called Jacob and blessed him, and charged him, and said to him: “You shall not take a wife from the daughters of Canaan. 2Arise, go to Padan Aram, to the house of Bethuel your mother’s father; and take yourself a wife from there of the daughters of Laban your mother’s brother.
3“May God Almighty bless you,
And make you fruitful and multiply you,
That you may be an assembly of peoples;
4And give you the blessing of Abraham,
To you and your descendants with you,
That you may inherit the land
In which you are a stranger,
Which God gave to Abraham.”
5So Isaac sent Jacob away, and he went to Padan Aram, to Laban the son of Bethuel the Syrian, the brother of Rebekah, the mother of Jacob and Esau.
Esau Marries Mahalath
6Esau saw that Isaac had blessed Jacob and sent him away to Padan Aram to take himself a wife from there, and that as he blessed him he gave him a charge, saying, “You shall not take a wife from the daughters of Canaan,” 7and that Jacob had obeyed his father and his mother and had gone to Padan Aram. 8Also Esau saw that the daughters of Canaan did not please his father Isaac. 9So Esau went to Ishmael and took Mahalath the daughter of Ishmael, Abraham’s son, the sister of Nebajoth, to be his wife in addition to the wives he had.
Jacob’s Vow at Bethel
10Now Jacob went out from Beersheba and went toward Haran. 11So he came to a certain place and stayed there all night, because the sun had set. And he took one of the stones of that place and put it at his head, and he lay down in that place to sleep. 12Then he dreamed, and behold, a ladderwas set up on the earth, and its top reached to heaven; and there the angels of God were ascending and descending on it.
13And behold, the LORD stood above it and said: “I am the LORD God of Abraham your father and the God of Isaac; the land on which you lie I will give to you and your descendants. 14Also your descendants shall be as the dust of the earth; you shall spread abroad to the west and the east, to the north and the south; and in you and in your seed all the families of the earth shall be blessed.15Behold, I am with you and will keep you wherever you go, and will bring you back to this land; for I will not leave you until I have done what I have spoken to you.”
16Then Jacob awoke from his sleep and said, “Surely the LORD is in this place, and I did not knowit.” 17And he was afraid and said, “How awesome is this place! This is none other than the house of God, and this is the gate of heaven!”
18Then Jacob rose early in the morning, and took the stone that he had put at his head, set it up as a pillar, and poured oil on top of it. 19And he called the name of that place Bethel;a but the name of that city had been Luz previously. 20Then Jacob made a vow, saying, “If God will be with me, and keep me in this way that I am going, and give me bread to eat and clothing to put on, 21so that I come back to my father’s house in peace, then the LORD shall be my God. 22And this stone which I have set as a pillar shall be God’s house, and of all that You give me I will surely give a tenth to You.”
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WILLIAM JAMES, HENRI BERGSON, AND THE POETICS OF ROBERT FROST - JOHN F. SEARS
The New England Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 3 (Sep., 1975)
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Creative Evolution - Henri Bergson
An Introduction to Metaphysics - Henri Bergson
The basic principles that Bergson articulates, especially his way of thinking about reality as a dynamic process and his view of human beings as creative and evolving, should be helpful to anyone who seeks to go beyond simply dealing with the practical demands of daily life and consider the nature of things. Of special importance is Bergson’s claim that it is both possible and necessary to know from the inside rather than confining our attention to external perspectives and points of view. Intuition is able to get beyond what is relative and place us inside reality. This essay is, as the title says, an introduction. But if we think there is more to a human being - and even to nature itself - than material structures alone, perhaps the time has come to take a fresh look at Bergson’s essay.
In "An Introduction to Metaphysics," Bergson traces the demise of metaphysics to the failure of both scientific materialism and dogmatism and to the immense success of a kind of pragmatism that promised liberation from the fruitless battles among various schools of philosophy. He also rejects relativism and criticizes the vacuum that is created when philosophers refuse to inquire about the nature of reality. To avoid metaphysics easily leads to a worldview shaped by unexamined ideas and hidden presuppositions.
Henri Bergson was born in the year that Darwin published the Origin of the Species. He could not have imagined the philosophical impact of evolutionary theory, which is now so great that Bergson’s philosophy, which emphasizes "creative evolution," is experiencing a significant revival. The basic principles that Bergson articulates, especially his way of thinking about reality as a dynamic process and his view of human beings as creative and evolving, should be helpful to anyone who seeks to go beyond simply dealing with the practical demands of daily life and consider the nature of things.
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28 BERGSON
Henri Bergson was the leading French philosopher of the present century. He influenced William James and Whitehead, and had a considerable effect upon French thought. Sorel, who was a vehement advocate of syndicalism and the author of a book called Reflections on Violence, used Bergsonian irrationalism to justify a revolutionary labour movement having no definite goal. In the end, however, Sorel abandoned syndicalism and became a royalist. The main effect of Bergson's philosophy was conservative, and it harmonized easily with the movement which culminated in Vichy. But Bergson's irrationalism made a wide appeal quite unconnected with politics, for instance to Bernard Shaw, whose Back to Methuselah is pure Bergsonism. Forgetting politics, it is in its purely philosophical aspect that we must consider it. I have dealt with it somewhat fully as it exemplifies admirably the revolt against reason which, beginning with Rousseau, has gradually dominated larger and larger areas in the life and thought of the world.
The classification of philosophies is effected, as a rule, either by their methods or by their results: 'empirical' and 'a priori' is a classification by methods, 'realist' and 'idealist' is a classification by results. An attempt to classify Bergson's philosophy in either of these ways is hardly likely to be successful, since it cuts across all the recognized divisions.
But there is another way of classifying philosophies, less precise, but perhaps more helpful to the non-philosophical; in this way, the principle of division is according to the predominant desire which has led the philosopher to philosophize. Thus we shall have philosophies of feeling, inspired by the love of happiness; theoretical philosophies, inspired by the love of knowledge; and practical philosophies, inspired by the love of action.
Among philosophies of feeling we shall place all those which are primarily optimistic or pessimistic, all those that offer schemes of salvation or try to prove that salvation is impossible; to this class belong most religious philosophies. Among theoretical philosophies we shall place most of the great systems; for though the desire for knowledge is rare, it has been the source of most of what is best in philosophy. Practical philosophies, on the other hand, will be those which regard action as the supreme good, considering happiness an effect and knowledge a mere instrument of successful activity. Philosophies of this type would have been common among Western Europeans if philosophers had been average men; as it is, they have been rare until recent times; in fact their chief representatives are the pragmatists and Bergson. In the rise of this type of philosophy we may see, as Bergson himself does, the revolt of the modern man of action against the authority of Greece, and more particularly of Plato; or we may connect it, as Dr Schiller apparently would, with imperialism and the motor-car. The modern world calls for such a philosophy, and the success which it has achieved is therefore not surprising.
Bergson's philosophy, unlike most of the systems of the past, is dualistic: the world, for him, is divided into two disparate portions, on the one hand life, on the other matter, or rather that inert something which the intellect views as matter. The whole universe is the clash and conflict of two opposite motions: life, which climbs upward, and matter, which falls downward. Life is one great force, one vast vital impulse, given once for all from the beginning of the world, meeting the resistance of matter, struggling to break a way through matter, learning gradually to use matter by means of organization; divided by the obstacles it encounters into diverging currents, like the wind at a street-corner; partly subdued by matter through the very adaptations which matter forces upon it; yet retaining always its capacity for free activity, struggling always to find new outlets, seeking always for greater liberty of movement amid the opposing walls of matter.
Evolution is not primarily explicable by adaptation to environment; adaptation explains only the turns and twists of evolution, like the windings of a road approaching a town through hilly country. But this simile is not quite adequate; there is no town, no definite goal, at the end of the road along which evolution travels. Mechanism and teleology suffer from the same defect: both suppose that there is no essential novelty in the world. Mechanism regards the future as implicit in the past, and teleology, since it believes that the end to be achieved can be known in advance, denies that any essential novelty is contained in the result.
As against both these views, though with more sympathy for teleology than for mechanism, Bergson maintains that evolution is truly creative, like the work of an artist. An impulse to action, an undefined want, exists beforehand, but until the want is satisfied it is impossible to know the nature of what will satisfy it. For example, we may suppose some vague desire in sightless animals to be able to be aware of objects before they were in contact with them. This led to efforts which finally resulted in the creation of eyes. Sight satisfied the desire, but could not have been imagined beforehand. For this reason, evolution is unpredictable, and determinism cannot refute the advocates of free will.
This broad outline is filled in by an account of the actual development of life on the earth. The first division of the current was into plants and animals; plants aimed at storing up energy in a reservoir, animals aimed at using energy for sudden and rapid movements. But among animals, at a later stage, a new bifurcation appeared: instinct and intellect became more or less separated. They are never wholly without each other, but in the main intellect is the misfortune of man, while instinct is seen at its best in ants, bees, and Bergson. The division between intellect and instinct is fundamental in his philosophy, much of which is a kind of Sandford and Merton, with instinct as the good boy and intellect as the bad boy.
Instinct at its best is called intuition. 'By intuition,' he says, 'I mean instinct that has become disinterested, self-conscious, capable of reflecting upon its object and of enlarging it indefinitely.' The account of the doings of intellect is not always easy to follow, but if we are to understand Bergson we must do our best.
Intelligence or intellect, 'as it leaves the hands of nature, has for its chief object the inorganic solid'; it can only form a clear idea of the discontinuous and immobile; its concepts are outside each other like objects in space, and have the same stability. The intellect separates in space and fixes in time; it is not made to think evolution, but to represent becoming as a series of states. 'The intellect is characterized by a natural inability to understand life'; geometry and logic, which are its typical products, are strictly applicable to solid bodies, but elsewhere reasoning must be checked by common sense, which, as Bergson truly says, is a very different thing. Solid bodies, it would seem, are something which mind has created on purpose to apply intellect to them, much as it has created chess-boards in order to play chess on them. The genesis of intellect and the genesis of material bodies, we are told, are correlative; both have been developed by reciprocal adaptation. 'An identical process must have cut out matter and the intellect, at the same time, from a stuff that contained both.'
This conception of the simultaneous growth of matter and intellect is ingenious, and deserves to be understood. Broadly, I think, what is meant is this: Intellect is the power of seeing things as separate one from another, and matter is that which is separated into distinct things. In reality there are no separate solid things, only an endless stream of becoming, in which nothing becomes and there is nothing that this nothing becomes. But becoming may be a movement up or a movement down: when it is a movement up it is called life, when it is a movement down it is what, as misapprehended by the intellect, is called matter. I suppose the universe is shaped like a cone, with the Absolute at the vertex, for the movement up brings things together, while the movement down separates them, or at least seems to do so. In order that the upward motion of mind may be able to thread its way through the downward motion of the falling bodies which hail upon it, it must be able to cut out paths between them; thus as intelligence was formed, outlines and paths appeared, and the primitive flux was cut up into separate bodies. The intellect may be compared to a carver, but it has the peculiarity of imagining that the chicken always was the separate pieces into which the carving-knife divides it.
As intellect is connected with space, so instinct or intuition is connected with time. It is one of the noteworthy features of Bergson's philosophy that, unlike most writers, he regards time and space as profoundly dissimilar. Space, the characteristic of matter, arises from a dissection of the flux which is really illusory, useful, up to a certain point, in practice, but utterly misleading in theory. Time, on the contrary, is the essential characteristic of life or mind. 'Wherever anything lives,' he says, 'there is, open somewhere, a register in which time is being inscribed.' But the time here spoken of is not mathematical time, the homogeneous assemblage of mutually external instants. Mathematical time, according to Bergson, is really a form of space; the time which is of the essence of life is what he calls duration. This conception of duration is fundamental in his philosophy; it appears already in his earliest book Time and Free Will, and it is necessary to understand it if we are to have any comprehension of his system. It is, however, a very difficult conception. I do not fully understand it myself, and therefore I cannot hope to explain it with all the lucidity which it doubtless deserves.
'Pure duration,' we are told, 'is the form which our conscious states assume when our ego lets itself live, when it refrains from separating its present state from its former states'. It forms the past and the present into one organic whole, where there is mutual penetration, succession without distinction. 'Within our ego, there is succession without mutual externality; outside the ego, in pure space, there is mutual externality without succession.'
'Questions relating to subject and object, to their distinction and their union, should be put in terms of time rather than of space.' In the duration in which we see ourselves acting, there are dissociated elements; but in the duration in which we act, our states melt into each other. Pure duration is what is most removed from externality and least penetrated with externality, a duration in which the past is big with a present absolutely new. But then our will is strained to the utmost; we have to gather up the past which is slipping away, and thrust it whole and undivided into the present. At such moments we truly possess ourselves, but such moments are rare. Duration is the very stuff of reality, which is perpetual becoming, never something made.
It is above all in memory that duration exhibits itself, for in memory the past survives in the present. Thus the theory of memory becomes of great importance in Bergson's philosophy. Matter and Memory is concerned to show the relation of mind and matter, of which both are affirmed to be real, by an analysis of memory, which is 'just the intersection of mind and matter'.
There are, he says, two radically different things, both of which are commonly called memory; the distinction between these two is much emphasized by Bergson. 'The past survives,' he says, 'under two distinct forms: first, in motor mechanisms; secondly, in independent recollections.' For example, a man is said to remember a poem if he can repeat it by heart, that is to say, if he has acquired a certain habit or mechanism enabling him to repeat a former action. But he might, at least theoretically, be able to repeat the poem without any recollection of the previous occasions on which he has read it; thus there is no consciousness of past events involved in this sort of memory. The second sort, which alone really deserves to be called memory, is exhibited in recollections of separate occasions when he has read the poem, each unique and with a date. Here, he thinks, there can be no question of habit, since each event only occurred once, and had to make its impression immediately. It is suggested that in some way everything that has happened to us is remembered, but as a rule only what is useful comes into consciousness. Apparent failures of memory, it is argued, are not really failures of the mental part of memory, but of the motor mechanism for bringing memory into action. This view is supported by a discussion of brain physiology and the facts of amnesia, from which it is held to result that true memory is not a function of the brain. The past must be acted by matter, imagined by mind. Memory is not an emanation of matter; indeed the contrary would be nearer the truth if we mean matter as grasped in concrete perception, which always occupies a certain duration.
'Memory must be, in principle, a power absolutely independent of matter. If, then, spirit is a reality, it is here, in the phenomena of memory, that we may come into touch with it experimentally.'
At the opposite end from pure memory Bergson places pure perception, in regard to which he adopts an ultra-realist position. 'In pure perception,' he says, 'we are actually placed outside ourselves, we touch the reality of the object in an immediate intuition.' So completely does he identify perception with its object that he almost refuses to call it mental at all. 'Pure perception,' he says, 'which is the lowest degree of mind—mind without memory—is really part of matter, as we understand matter.' Pure perception is constituted by dawning action, its actuality lies in its activity. It is in this way that the brain becomes relevant to perception, for the brain is not an instrument of action. The function of the brain is to limit our mental life to what is practically useful. But for the brain, one gathers, everything would be perceived, but in fact we only perceive what interests us. 'The body, always turned towards action, has for its essential function to limit, with a view to action, the life of the spirit.' It is, in fact, an instrument of choice.
In the above outline, I have in the main endeavoured merely to state Bergson's views, without giving the reasons adduced by him in favour of their truth. This is easier than it would be with most philosophers, since as a rule he does not give reasons for his opinions, but relies on their inherent attractiveness, and on the charm of an excellent style. Like advertisers, he relies upon picturesque and varied statement, and on apparent explanation of many obscure facts. Analogies and similes, especially, form a very large part of the whole process by which he recommends his views to the reader. The number of similes for life to be found in his works exceeds the number in any poet known to me. Life, he says, is like a shell bursting into fragments which are again shells. It is like a sheaf. Initially, it was 'a tendency to accumulate in a reservoir, as do especially the green parts of vegetables'. But the reservoir is to be filled with boiling water from which steam is issuing; 'jets must be gushing out unceasingly, of which each, falling back, is a world'. Again 'life appears in its entirety as an immense wave which, starting from a centre, spreads outwards, and which on almost the whole of its circumference is stopped and converted into oscillation: at one single point the obstacle has been forced, the impulsion has passed freely'. Then there is the great climax in which life is compared to a cavalry charge. 'All organized beings, from the humblest to the highest, from the first origins of life to the time in which we are, and in all places as in all times, do but evidence a single impulsion, the inverse of the movement of matter, and in itself indivisible. All the living hold together, and all yield to the same tremendous push. The animal takes its stand on the plant, man bestrides animality, and the whole of humanity, in space and in time, is one immense army galloping beside and before and behind each of us in an overwhelming charge able to beat down every resistance and to clear many obstacles, perhaps even death.'
But a cool critic, who feels himself a mere spectator, perhaps an unsympathetic spectator, of the charge in which man is mounted upon animality, may be inclined to think that calm and careful thought is hardly compatible with this form of exercise. When he is told that thought is a mere means of action, the mere impulse to avoid obstacles in the field, he may feel that such a view is becoming in a cavalry officer, but not in a philosopher, whose business, after all, is with thought: he may feel that in the passion and noise of violent motion there is no room for the fainter music of reason, no leisure for the disinterested contemplation in which greatness is sought, not by turbulence, but by the greatness of the universe which is mirrored. In that case, he may be tempted to ask whether there are any reasons for accepting such a restless view of the world. And if he asks this question, he will find, if I am not mistaken, that there is no reason whatever for accepting this view, either in the universe or in the writings of M. Bergson.
One of the bad effects of an anti-intellectual philosophy, such as that of Bergson, is that it thrives upon the errors and confusions of the intellect. Hence it is led to prefer bad thinking to good, to declare every momentary difficulty insoluble, and to regard every foolish mistake as revealing the bankruptcy of intellect and the triumph of intuition. There are in Bergson's works many allusions to mathematics and science, and to a careless reader these allusions may seem to strengthen his philosophy greatly. As regards science, especially biology and physiology, I am not competent to criticize his interpretations. But as regards mathematics, he has deliberately preferred traditional errors in interpretation to the more modern views which have prevailed among mathematicians for the last eighty years. In this matter, he has followed the example of most philosophers. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the infinitesimal calculus, though well developed as a method, was supported, as regards its foundations, by many fallacies and much confused thinking. Hegel and his followers seized upon these fallacies and confusions, to support them in their attempt to prove all mathematics self-contradictory. Thence the Hegelian account of these matters passed into the current thought of philosophers, where it has remained long after the mathematicians have removed all the difficulties upon which the philosophers rely. And so long as the main object of philosophers is to show that nothing can be learned by patience and detailed thinking, but that we ought rather to worship the prejudices of the ignorant under the title of 'reason' if we are Hegelians, or of 'intuition' if we are Bergsonians, so long philosophers will take care to remain ignorant of what mathematicians have done to remove the errors by which Hegel profited.
Apart from the question of number, which we have already considered, the chief point at which Bergson touches mathematics is his rejection of what he calls the 'cinematographic' representation of the world. Mathematics conceives change, even continuous change, as constituted by a series of states; Bergson, on the contrary, contends that no series of states can represent what is continuous, and that in change a thing is never in any state at all. The view that change is constituted by a series of changing states he calls cinematographic; this view, he says, is natural to the intellect, but is radically vicious. True change can only be explained by true duration; it involves an interpenetration of past and present, not a mathematical succession of static states. This is what is called a 'dynamic' instead of a 'static' view of the world. The question is important, and in spite of its difficulty we cannot pass it by.
Bergson's theory of duration is bound up with his theory of memory. According to this theory, things remembered survive in memory, and thus interpenetrate present things: past and present are not mutually external, but are mingled in the unity of consciousness. Action, he says, is what constitutes being; but mathematical time is a mere passive receptacle, which does nothing and therefore is nothing. The past, he says, is that which acts no longer, and the present is that which is acting. But in this statement, as indeed throughout his account of duration, Bergson is unconsciously assuming the ordinary mathematical time; without this, his statements are unmeaning. What is meant by saying 'the past is essentially that which acts no longer' (his italics), except that the past is that of which the action is past? the words 'no longer' are words expressive of the past; to a person who did not have the ordinary notion of the past as something outside the present, these words would have no meaning. Thus his definition is circular. What he says is, in effect, 'the past is that of which the action is in the past'. As a definition, this cannot be regarded as a happy effort. And the same applies to the present. The present, we are told, is 'that which is acting' (his italics). But the word 'is' introduces just that idea of the present which was to be defined. The present is that which is acting as opposed to that which was acting or will be acting. That is to say, the present is that whose action is in the present, not in the past or in the future. Again the definition is circular. An earlier passage on the same page will illustrate the fallacy further. 'That which constitutes our pure perception,' he says, 'is our dawning action…. The actuality of our perception thus lies in its activity, in the movements which prolong it, and not in its greater intensity: the past is only idea, the present is ideo-motor.' This passage makes it quite clear that, when Bergson speaks of the past, he does not mean the past, but our present memory of the past. The past when it existed was just as active as the present is now; if Bergson's account were correct, the present moment ought to be the only one in the whole history of the world containing any activity. In earlier times there were other perceptions, just as active, just as actual in their day, as our present perceptions; the past, in its day, was by no means only idea, but was in its intrinsic character just what the present is now. This real past, however, Bergson simply forgets; what he speaks of is the present idea of the past. The real past does not mingle with the present, since it is not part of it; but that is a very different thing.
The whole of Bergson's theory of duration and time rests throughout on the elementary confusion between the present occurrence of a recollection and the past occurrence which is recollected. But for the fact that time is so familiar to us, the vicious circle involved in his attempt to deduce the past as what is no longer active would be obvious at once. As it is, what Bergson gives is an account of the difference between perception and recollection—both present facts—and what he believes himself to have given is an account of the difference between the present and the past. As soon as this confusion is realized, his theory of time is seen to be simply a theory which omits time altogether.
Of course a large part of Bergson's philosophy, probably the part to which most of its popularity is due, does not depend upon argument, and cannot be upset by argument. His imaginative picture of the world, regarded as a poetic effort, is in the main not capable of either proof or disproof. Shakespeare says life's but a walking shadow, Shelley says it is like a dome of many-coloured glass, Bergson says it is a shell which bursts into parts that are again shells. If you like Bergson's image better, it is just as legitimate.
The good which Bergson hopes to see realized in the world is action for the sake of action. All pure contemplation he calls 'dreaming', and condemns by a whole series of uncomplimentary epithets: static, Platonic, mathematical, logical, intellectual. Those who desire some prevision of the end which action is to achieve are told that an end foreseen would be nothing new, because desire, like memory, is identified with its object. Thus we are condemned, in action, to be the blind slaves of instinct: the life-force pushes us on from behind, restlessly and unceasingly. There is no room in this philosophy for the moment of contemplative insight when, rising above the animal life, we become conscious of the greater ends that redeem man from the life of the brutes. Those to whom activity without purpose seems a sufficient good will find in Bergson's books a pleasing picture of the universe. But those to whom action, if it is to be of any value, must be inspired by some vision, by some imaginative foreshadowing of a world less painful, less unjust, less full of strife than the world of our everyday life, those, in a word, whose action is built on contemplation, will find in this philosophy nothing of what they seek, and will not regret that there is no reason to think it true.
29 WILLIAM JAMES
William James (1842–1910) was primarily a psychologist, but was important in philosophy on two accounts: he invented the doctrine which he called 'radical empiricism', and he was one of the three protagonists of the theory called 'pragmatism' or 'instrumentalism'. In later life he was, as he deserved to be, the recognized leader of American philosophy. He was led by the study of medicine to the consideration of psychology; his great book on the subject, published in 1890, had the highest possible excellence. I shall not, however, deal with it, since it was a contribution to science rather than to philosophy.
There were two sides to William James's philosophical interests, one scientific, the other religious. On the scientific side, the study of medicine had given his thoughts a tendency towards materialism, which, however, was held in check by his religious emotions. His religious feelings were very Protestant, very democratic, and very full of the warmth of human kindness. He refused altogether to follow his brother Henry into fastidious snobbishness. 'The prince of darkness,' he said, 'may be a gentleman, as we are told he is, but whatever the God on earth and heaven is, he can surely be no gentleman.' This is a very characteristic pronouncement.
His warm-eartedness and his delightful humour caused him to be almost universally beloved. The only man I know of who did not feel any affection for him was Santayana, whose doctor's thesis William James had described as 'the perfection of rottenness'. There was between these two men a temperamental opposition which nothing could have overcome. Santayana also liked religion, but in a very different way. He liked it aesthetically and historically, not as a help towards a moral life; as was natural, he greatly preferred Catholicism to Protestantism. He did not intellectually accept any of the Christian dogmas, but he was content that others should believe them, and himself appreciated what he regarded as the Christian myth. To James, such an attitude could not but appear immoral. He retained from his Puritan ancestry a deep-seated belief that what is of most importance is good conduct, and his democratic feeling made him unable to acquiesce in the notion of one truth for philosophers and another for the vulgar. The temperamental opposition between Protestant and Catholic persists among the unorthodox; Santayana was a Catholic free thinker, William James a Protestant, however heretical.
James's doctrine of radical empiricism was first published in 1904, in an essay called 'Does "Consciousness" Exist?' The main purpose of this essay was to deny that the subject-object relation is fundamental. It had, until then, been taken for granted by philosophers that there is a kind of occurrence called 'knowing', in which one entity, the knower or subject, is aware of another, the thing known, or the object. The knower was regarded as a mind or soul; the object known might be a material object, an eternal essence, another mind, or, in self-consciousness, identical with the knower. Almost everything in accepted philosophy was bound up with the dualism of subject and object. The distinction of mind and matter, the contemplative ideal, and the traditional notion of 'truth', all need to be radically reconsidered if the distinction of subject and object is not accepted as fundamental.
For my part, I am convinced that James was partly right on this matter, and would, on this ground alone, deserve a high place among philosophers. I had thought otherwise until he, and those who agreed with him, persuaded me of the truth of his doctrine. But let us proceed to his arguments.
Consciousness, he says, 'is the name of a nonentity, and has no right to a place among first principles. Those who still cling to it are clinging to a mere echo, the faint rumour left behind by the disappearing "soul" upon the air of philosophy'. There is, he continues, 'no aboriginal stuff or quality of being, contrasted with that of which material objects are made, out of which our thoughts of them are made'. He explains that he is not denying that our thoughts perform a function which is that of knowing, and that this function may be called 'being conscious'. What he is denying might be put crudely as the view that consciousness is a 'thing'. He holds that there is 'only one primal stuff or material', out of which everything in the world is composed. This stuff he calls 'pure experience'. Knowing, he says, is a particular sort of relation between two portions of pure experience. The subject-object relation is derivative: 'experience, I believe, has no such inner duplicity'. A given undivided portion of experience can be in one context a knower, and in another something known.
He defines 'pure experience' as 'the immediate flux of life which furnishes the material to our later reflection'.
It will be seen that this doctrine abolishes the distinction between mind and matter, if regarded as a distinction between two different kinds of what James calls 'stuff'. Accordingly those who agree with James in this matter advocate what they call 'neutral monism', according to which the material of which the world is constructed is neither mind nor matter, but something anterior to both. James himself did not develop this implication of his theory; on the contrary, his use of the phrase 'pure experience' points to a perhaps unconscious Berkeleian idealism. The word 'experience' is one often used by philosophers, but seldom defined. Let us consider for a moment what it can mean.
Common sense holds that many things which occur are not 'experienced', for instance, events on the invisible side of the moon. Berkeley and Hegel, for different reasons, both denied this, and maintained that what is not experienced is nothing. Their arguments are now held by most philosophers to be invalid—rightly, in my opinion. If we are to adhere to the view that the 'stuff' of the world is 'experience', we shall find it necessary to invent elaborate and unplausible explanations of what we mean by such things as the invisible side of the moon. And unless we are able to infer things not experienced from things experienced, we shall have difficulty in finding grounds for belief in the existence of anything except ourselves. James, it is true, denies this, but his reasons are not very convincing.
What do we mean by 'experience'? The best way to find an answer is to ask: What is the difference between an event which is not experienced and one which is? Rain seen or felt to be falling is experienced, but rain falling in the desert where there is no living thing is not experienced. Thus we arrive at our first point: there is no experience except where there is life. But experience is not coextensive with life. Many things happen to me which I do not notice; these I can hardly be said to experience. Clearly I experience whatever I remember, but some things which I do not explicitly remember may have set up habits which still persist. The burnt child fears the fire, even if he has no recollection of the occasion on which he was burnt. I think we may say that an event is 'experienced' when it sets up a habit. (Memory is one kind of habit.) Broadly speaking, habits are only set up in living organisms. A burnt poker does not fear the fire, however often it is made red-hot. On commonsense grounds, therefore, we shall say that 'experience' is not coextensive with the 'stuff' of the world. I do not myself see any valid reason for departing from common sense on this point.
Except in this matter of 'experience', I find myself in agreement with James's radical empiricism.
It is otherwise with his pragmatism and 'will to believe'. The latter, especially, seems to me to be designed to afford a specious but sophistical defence of certain religious dogmas—a defence, moreover, which no whole-hearted believer could accept.
The Will to Believe was published in 1896; Pragmatism, a New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking was published in 1907. The doctrine of the latter is an amplification of that of the former.
The Will to Believe argues that we are often compelled, in practice, to take decisions where no adequate theoretical grounds for a decision exist, for even to do nothing is still a decision. Religious matters, James says, come under this head; we have, he maintains, a right to adopt a believing attitude although 'our merely logical intellect may not have been coerced'. This is essentially the attitude of Rousseau's Savoyard vicar, but James's development is novel.
The moral duty of veracity, we are told, consists of two coequal precepts: 'believe truth', and 'shun error'. The sceptic wrongly attends only to the second, and thus fails to believe various truths which a less cautious man will believe. If believing truth and avoiding error are of equal importance, I may do well, when presented with an alternative, to believe one of the possibilities at will, for then I have an even chance of believing truth, whereas I have none if I suspend judgment.
The ethic that would result if this doctrine were taken seriously is a very odd one. Suppose I meet a stranger in the train, and I ask myself: 'Is his name Ebenezer Wilkes Smith?' If I admit that I do not know, I am certainly not believing truly about his name: whereas, if I decide to believe that that is his name, there is a chance that I may be believing truly. The sceptic, says James, is afraid of being duped, and through his fear may lose important truth; 'what proof is there', he adds, 'that dupery through hope is so much worse than dupery through fear?' It would seem to follow that, if I have been hoping for years to meet a man called Ebenezer Wilkes Smith, positive as opposed to negative veracity should prompt me to believe that this is the name of every stranger I meet, until I acquire conclusive evidence to the contrary.
'But,' you will say, 'the instance is absurd, for, though you do not know the stranger's name, you do know that a very small percentage of mankind are called Ebenezer Wilkes Smith. You are therefore not in that state of complete ignorance that is presupposed in your freedom of choice.' Now strange to say, James throughout his essay, never mentions probability, and yet there is almost always some discoverable consideration of probability in regard to any question. Let it be conceded (though no orthodox believer would concede it) that there is no evidence either for or against any of the religions of the world. Suppose you are a Chinese, brought into contact with Confucianism, Buddhism, and Christianity. You are precluded by the laws of logic from supposing that each of the three is true. Let us suppose that Buddhism and Christianity each has an even chance, then, given that both cannot be true, one of them must be, and therefore Confucianism must be false. If all three are to have equal chances, each must be more likely to be false than true. In this sort of way James's principle collapses as soon as we are allowed to bring in considerations of probability.
It is curious that, in spite of being an eminent psychologist, James allowed himself at this point a singular crudity. He spoke as if the only alternatives were complete belief or complete disbelief, ignoring all shades of doubt. Suppose, for instance, I am looking for a book in my shelves. I think, 'It may be in this shelf,' and I proceed to look; but I do not think, 'It is in this shelf' until I see it. We habitually act upon hypotheses, but not precisely as we act upon what we consider certainties; for when we act upon an hypothesis we keep our eyes open for fresh evidence.
The precept of veracity, it seems to me, is not such as James thinks. It is, I should say: 'Give to any hypothesis which is worth your while to consider just that degree of credence which the evidence warrants.' And if the hypothesis is sufficiently important there is the additional duty of seeking further evidence. This is plain common sense, and in harmony with the procedure in the law courts, but it is quite different from the procedure recommended by James.
It would be unfair to James to consider his will to believe in isolation; it was a transitional doctrine, leading by a natural development to pragmatism. Pragmatism, as it appears in James, is primarily a new definition of 'truth'. There were two other protagonists of pragmatism, F. C. S. Schiller and Dr John Dewey. I shall consider Dr Dewey in the next chapter; Schiller was of less importance than the other two. Between James and Dr Dewey there is a difference of emphasis. Dr Dewey's outlook is scientific, and his arguments are largely derived from an examination of scientific method, but James is concerned primarily with religion and morals. Roughly speaking, he is prepared to advocate any doctrine which tends to make people virtuous and happy; if it does so, it is 'true' in the sense in which he uses that word.
The principle of pragmatism, according to James, was first enunciated by C. S. Peirce, who maintained that, in order to attain clearness in our thoughts of an object, we need only consider what conceivable effects of a practical kind the object may involve. James, in elucidation, says that the function of philosophy is to find out what difference it makes to you or me if this or that world-formula is true. In this way theories become instruments, not answers to enigmas.
Ideas, we are told by James, become true in so far as they help us to get into satisfactory relations with other parts of our experience: 'An idea is "true" so long as to believe it is profitable to our lives.' Truth is one species of good, not a separate category. Truth happens to an idea; it is made true by events. It is correct to say, with the intellectualists, that a true idea must agree with reality, but 'agreeing' does not mean 'copying'. 'To "agree" in the widest sense with a reality can only mean to be guided either straight up to it or into its surroundings, or to be put into such working touch with it as to handle either it or something connected with it better than if we disagreed.' He adds that 'the true is only the expedient in the way of our thinking … in the long run and on the whole of course'. In other words, 'our obligation to seek truth is part of our general obligation to do what pays'.
In a chapter on pragmatism and religion he reaps the harvest. 'We cannot reject any hypothesis if consequences useful to life flow from it.' 'If the hypothesis of God works satisfactorily in the widest sense of the word, it is true.' 'We may well believe, on the proofs that religious experience affords, that higher powers exist and are at work to save the world on ideal lines similar to our own.'
I find great intellectual difficulties in this doctrine. It assumes that a belief is 'true' when its effects are good. If this definition is to be useful—and if not it is condemned by the pragmatist's test—we must know (a) what is good. (b) what are the effects of this or that belief, and we must know these things before we can know that anything is 'true', since it is only after we have decided that the effects of a belief are good that we have a right to call it 'true'. The result is an incredible complication. Suppose you want to know whether Columbus crossed the Atlantic in 1492. You must not, as other people do, look it up in a book. You must first inquire what are the effects of this belief, and how they differ from the effects of believing that he sailed in 1491 or 1493. This is difficult enough, but it is still more difficult to weigh the effects from an ethical point of view. You may say that obviously 1492 has the best effects, since it gives you higher marks in examinations. But your competitors, who would surpass you if you said 1491 or 1493, may consider your success instead of theirs ethically regrettable. Apart from examinations, I cannot think of any practical effects of the belief except in the case of a historian.
But this is not the end of the trouble. You must hold that your estimate of the consequences of a belief, both ethical and factual, is true, for if it is false your argument for the truth of your belief is mistaken. But to say that your belief as to consequences is true is, according to James, to say that it has good consequences, and this in turn is only true if it has good consequences, and so on ad infinitum. Obviously this won't do.
There is another difficulty. Suppose I say there was such a person as Columbus, everyone will agree that what I say is true. But why is it true? Because of a certain man of flesh and blood who lived 450 years ago—in short, because of the causes of my belief, not because of its effects. With James's definition, it might happen that 'A exists' is true although in fact A does not exist. I have always found that the hypothesis of Santa Claus 'works satisfactorily in the widest sense of the word'; therefore 'Santa Claus exists' is true, although Santa Claus does not exist. James says (I repeat): 'If the hypothesis of God works satisfactorily in the widest sense of the word, it is true.' This simply omits as unimportant the question whether God really is in His heaven; if He is a useful hypothesis, that is enough. God the Architect of the Cosmos is forgotten; all that is remembered is belief in God, and its effects upon the creatures inhabiting our petty planet. No wonder the Pope condemned the pragmatic defence of religion.
We come here to a fundamental difference between James's religious outlook and that of religious people in the past. James is interested in religion as a human phenomenon, but shows little interest in the objects which religion contemplates. He wants people to be happy, and if belief in God makes them happy let them believe in Him. This, so far, is only benevolence, not philosophy; it becomes philosophy when it is said that if the belief makes them happy it is 'true'. To the man who desires an object of worship this is unsatisfactory. He is not concerned to say, 'If I believed in God I should be happy'; he is concerned to say, 'I believe in God and therefore I am happy.' And when he believes in God, he believes in Him as he believes in the existence of Roosevelt or Churchill or Hitler; God, for him, is an actual Being, not merely a human idea which has good effects. It is this genuine belief that has the good effects, not James's emasculate substitute. It is obvious that if I say 'Hitler exists' I do not mean 'the effects of believing that Hitler exists are good'. And to the genuine believer the same is true of God.
James's doctrine is an attempt to build a superstructure of belief upon a foundation of scepticism, and like all such attempts it is dependent on fallacies. In his case the fallacies spring from an attempt to ignore all extra-human facts. Berkeleian idealism combined with scepticism causes him to substitute belief in God for God, and to pretend that this will do just as well. But this is only a form of the subjectivistic madness which is characteristic of most modern philosophy.
from "History of Western Philosophy - Bertrand Russell"
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