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A Boy's Will(1913), North of Boston(1914), Mountain Interval(1916), New Hamphire(1923)
West-Running Brook(1928), A Further Range(1936), A Witness Tree(1942)
A Masque of Reason(1946), Steeple Bush(1947), A Masque of Mercy(1947)
5장에서는 프로스트 시 방법론에 대한 비평을 추가 분석.
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VI. EVALUATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Robert Frost's stature today as a major American poet is well established
and little challenged, but it is not in any sense a recent development. For
nearly forty years critics have asserted his significance and have valued him
highly for certain distinct and recognizable qualities. As is natural in
criticism, comparative judgments and prophecies of permanence have not been lacking;
their continuity, however, is impressive.
Frost's eminence was perceived as early as 1915, In that year William S,
Braithwaite hailed the poet as having placed himself "with almost a single
achievement in the very front rank of contemporary poets," 2 and Amy Lowell
acknowledged that his work was "undoubtedly more finished in its kind than the
work of any other living American poet." 3 Three years later William Lyon Phelps
declared that Frost's work possessed qualities which would give it permanence,4-
and in 1922 a Literary Digest poll of critics placed Frost in the foremost rank
of American poets.5 In 1923, Louise Nicholl asserted that she regarded Frost as
the "greatest, most truly major poet in the country," ° and two years later John
Freeman welcomed Frost as one of the few true poets of the age.7 The same year
Elizabeth S. Sergeant called him the "most authentic poet of his age." % Orton
Lowe remarked in 1928 that Frost was sure to be known to posterity as "one of the
major poets of America." 9 Two years after, Gorham Munson placed Frost in the
company of Robinson Jeffers, Hart Crane, and T, S, Eliot, whom he regarded as the
four greatest living American poets,10 Even the Marxian critic Granville Hicks
felt himself obliged in 1930 to point out that Frost had written as "fine poetry
as any living American and that the proportion of first-rate poetry to the whole
is greater than that in the work of any living contemporary," H And Isidor
Schneider agreed that the poetry was certain to enter into "classic American
literature," I 2 A more conservative critic, James Southall Wilson, was far more
enthusiastic in the same year. Regarding the publication of Collected Poems., he
declared that in his opinion "no richer volume of poetry has been produced in
America since Poe's volume of 1845." 13 Richard Church, the English critic,
echoed Wilson's enthusiasm: "Such a unique artistry, so gradual in growth, so
noble and generous in stature, cannot fail to grip the world by its roots and to
fasten itself by a myriad tendrils into immortality." 14 .In the same year, Raymond
Holden pointed out that Frost's simple lyrics ranked with the finest in the
English language and that he was in fact one of the "few really important figures
in American literature," 15 and Virginia Moore added that Frost was one of the
"outstanding American poets, past and present." 1° In spite of a number of
reservations, F. I, Carpenter acknowledged in 1932 that Frost's reputation as a
leader of contemporary poetry was secure.1'
One might conclude that the enthusiasm of these evaluations could be attributed
in part to general approval of the new poetry, but that simply was not
the case. Long after the period of highest interest in the new poetry had passed
and the period of political sensitivity had succeeded it, Frost's reputation continued
to grow. In 1936, for example, an astonishing variety of critics praised
Frost in the highest possible terms, E. M. Root was impressed by his "magnificent
growth," 18 and an anonymnous reviewer in the Catholic World declared that
4 Further Range added "another orbit to the stature of the most beloved of all
America's poets." 19 Louis Untermeyer asserted that Frost continued to "establish
himself as the most rewarding and likewise the most richly integrated poet
of his generation," adding that Frost had in fact no contemporary rival in
America and that only William Butler Yeats could "challenge his pre-eminence as
the most distinguished poet writing in English today." 20 William R°s e Benet
found him significant not only as a poet but as a human being. "Here," he wrote,
"is an American poet of whom we can rightly be proud as we are proud of Emerson,
and that to me is saying a great deal," 21 Even John Wheelwright, who felt that
something ought to be done about it, acknowledged that Frost was one of America's
leading poets,22 Pointing out in 1936 the fact that Frost, virtually alone among
contemporary poets, had managed to keep the allegiance of diverse schools of
criticism and the devotion of the public as well, Mark Van Doren remarked that
"if he is not all things to all men he is something to almost anybody—to posterity,
one supposes, as well as to us." 23 Similar judgments were voiced throughout
the remainder of the thirties. In 1937, Merrill Moore observed that Frost
remained secure in the position he had won as one of the American classic poets,
a position which "he seems likely to retain for all time." 24 And in 1939, Time
magazine called him "No. 1 of living U, S. poets." 25
Much the same kind of praise has been characteristic of the poet's third
phase; since 1942, the number of distinguished critics who have acknowledged
their admiration for Frost has continued to grow. In 1942, Lawrance Thompson
said that he believed Frost's poetry to be a permanent contribution to American
literature,26 and his point of view was identical with that of Wilbert Snow.27
George F, Whicher hailed him in 1945, the year of the poet's seventieth birthday,
as "one of the master-singers of our age," and he went on to declare his belief
that Frost's position of leadership among modern poets would be supported by the
decisions of posterity.28 Donald A, Stauffer pointed out in 1947 that Frost was
"one of the very small company of living poets whom it is an immediate pleasure
to read," an attribute deriving from complete mastery of "technique and thought,"
29 Sidney Cox asserted in 1948 that he regarded no writer of his time so well
worth reading.30 John Holmes and David Daiches both acknowledged Frost's eminence
in 1949, Holmes declaring that Frost was a major part of American literary
history and undoubtedly "more read, studied, and loved than any living poet," 31
and Daiches calling him America's great "poet-sage." 32 la the same year, Peter
Viereck capped the praise of the others by asserting that Frost was in fact one
of the world's greatest poets.33 A writer in Time a year later remarked that
Frost possessed "a native American voice unsurpassed by any American poet since
Walt Whitman," and added that "for all his scorn of technical talk" he was "as
artful a technician as U. S. poetry has known." 34 In 1950, James G. Southworth
declared that "we have only one poet who, I think, has great enough stature to
become a major figure: Mr. Frost," 35 Last year Mark Van Doren found Frost to
be more than New England, more than American—a poet "who can be understood anywhere
by readers versed in matters more ancient and universal than the customs of
one country, whatever that country is," 36
The critics I have mentioned above are in fact only a few of the many who
have acclaimed Frost as one of the most important poets of the twentieth century,
but their views are representative. Of course, as I have shown in the body of
this study, critics have not always been agreed as to just v/hat qualities endowed
Frost with this significance. At first he was viewed as a realistic poet whose
simple verses presented an interpretation of New England life which was in some
vague way more or less a counterpart to regional literature of all kinds currently
springing to life in other parts of the nation. He was regarded also as expressing
the continuity of the literary tradition of New England, as the recipient
and continuer of a great heritage. Throughout most of the first phase and
part of the second, many critics persisted in this point of view; indeed it is
still occasionally expressed, though he is more often now regarded as a traditionalist
than as a regional ist. Before the first phase came to an end, however
a number of critics had come to the conclusion that Frost's work was in fact no
simple regional art and they pointed to the qualities which they believed lent
universal significance to the poetry, his portrayal of the universal tragedies of
death and loneliness in a declining land, his sympathetic, gentle understanding
of human character, a sagacious wisdom of a man who knows life for v/hat it is,
whose common sense is the mind of all men, whose heart is the heart of all men.
During the second and third phases, these aspects of Frost's own character,
qualities so immediately apparent in his poetry, became increasingly important in
critical evaluations. Frost was respected not only as an artist of significance
but as a man, a modern poet-sage, a seer. With this development came a corresponding
critical absorption in the philosophy of the poet and an endeavor to
classify his outlook. Often as the result more of specious case-making than of
sound examination, critics found evidence of romanticism, humanism, detachment,
indifference, skepticism, pessimism, optimism, conservatism, agnosticism, Thomism,
idealism, dualism, and monism; yet none of these seemed accurate to apply to
his work as a whole. Consequently, it was about the question of philosophical
outlook that the greatest amount of critical disagreement has taken place, the
process greatly intensified by Frost's gradually strengthening inclination toward
poetic philosophy during the second and third phases. But Frost is not an artist
easily pigeonholed, and the classification of his final outlook, which seems to
me to be a curious assimilation of much that is classical and much that is Emersonian
with a considerable element of Yankee practicality and laconic reserve,
has not yet been handled systematically. Lawrance Thompson's Fire and Ice is, I
think, the best treatment now available, but it was written before the appearance
of the last three of Frost's books and is, therefore, somewhat limited.
As a poetic craftsman, on the other hand, Frost's claims to distinction have
been so clearly defined and unmistakable that they were perceived at the first
and have continued to interest critical attention consistently in the years since*
Frost's use of the recognized and more or less conventional "loose iambic" meter
at a time when experimentation in meter was the order of the day, his dependence
con the plainest and simplest diction when extravagant or encylopaedic variation
was popular, his aim to reproduce in his verse the cadences of speech and the
Bound of sense at a time when most poets avoided those qualities for fear of
sounding too much like prose—all distinguished him from most of his contemporaries
and enabled him to develop an absolutely unique poetic idiom. Though like
all great poetry Frost's possesses the quality of artlessness, it is in fact of
a technical accomplishment rarely seen in contemporary verse, as recently more
and more critics have come to realize. As is also true in the instance of
Frost's thought, the simplicity of the mold into which his verse is cast has
often misled readers into assuming that nothing lies beneath the surface, the result
being that the poet has been often somewhat underestimated. But the facts
of Frost's poetic methods, the complexity of his techniques within rather traditional
limitations, are now generally admitted, and the poet has gained in
prestige accordingly, at least among professional critics. Undoubtedly, the
casual reader continues to enjoy Frost for quite different reasons.
The phenomenon of Frost's continuous popularity with both professional and
non-professional audiences requires some explanation. The reputation of the poet
with the professional men of letters has been intimately associated with the
direction of his development and with the literary currents of the times. Frost
was first welcomed as one of the "new" poets, one of the rebels, in spite of his
obvious attachment for rhyme and metrical form; and rebel he was in the sense
that he had rejected the conventionalized forms and sentimentalized content of
magazine verse and had gone back to an older poetic tradition and convention for
his guidance. He was regarded at first as a regionalist, a realist, a poet of
locality, a New England counterpart of Edgar Lee Masters and Carl Sandburg but
without social satire or commentary. A few critics, participating in the revolt
against Puritanism, found evidence for their convictions in Frost's interpretation
of Nev/ England character in North of Boston. Still others suspected him of
romantic nostalgia and regarded him as unacceptable for that reason, A more
sizable group of critics, however, unswayed by these currents and dismayed by the
esoteric quality of much of the verse then.being written, extolled Frost's work
for its universality and depth, citing particularly the poignant tragedies and
bucolic comedies of North of Boston. Frost's third book, Mountain Interval, continued
the lines of development established in the first two books: the lyric and
the dramatic. The wave of disillusionment which affected so many writers after
the end of World War I did not engulf Frost, and his fourth book, Ngw, Hampshire,
was a more humorous book than any of his previous works; it awakened in many
critics a recognition that Frost was less sad than they had earlier believed. It
also served to introduce a new tone in Frost's poetry, the personal, informal,
conversational, half-critical. New Hampshire, though it belonged by virtue of its
subject matter and emphasis to the first phase, introduced a tendency which was
to increase throughout the second. Beginning with Frost's fifth book, Wes.t-
Running Brook, there was observed the poet's inclination toward consideration,
evaluation, and commentary, not on matters simply local in character, though they
are usually presented in terms of New England imagery, but of wider significance,
national or even universal in their concerning all mankind. During this period
of Frost's career, humanism was fighting its philosophical battle against both
romanticism and radicalism, and a number of critics found Frost's views strikingly
humanistic in character. In A Further Range, Frost's sixth book, the desire
to comment and evaluate and criticize took Frost into the realms of government
and religion; in A Witness Tree he explored the realms of material and social
values. The critics who during the first phase had found Frost's work of universal
significance for the most part hailed his widening horizons as logical growth^
The political element in literary criticism asserted itself during the tumultuous
thirties as Frost was denounced for his individualism, his conservatism, his
isolationism by the left wing critics, and applauded by the right wing for the
same qualities. The controversy over the relative merits of Frost's political,
economic, and philosophical outlook during the second phase anticipated the
struggle over his religious and philosophical views in the third. Steeple. Bush,
A Masque. o£ Reason, and A Masque of Mercy represented Frost's mature philosophy,
a gentle, middle-of-the-road skepticism tempered by faith both in man and in God.
Once more, Frost's position contrasted sharply with the despair and cynicism of
so much of the literature then current, and I believe the contrast worked to
Frost's advantage, as it had done before.
The causes, then, of the critical approval which Frost has been accorded are
rather clear and well defined. Less distinct, but equally discernible, are the
reasons for his popular success. Frost is certainly today the nearest thing
America has to an accredited poet laureate. Why has the American public with its
general indifference to poetry found Frost worthy of distinction? One of the
clearest answers to the question was offered by a Time reviewer in 1950, "Vermonters,"
he wrote, "find nothing outlandish or alarming about Robert Frost."
Neither do U, S, readers, to most of whom the word "poet" still carries a
faint suggestion of pale hands, purple passions and flowing ties. They understand
what he writes—or understand enough of it to like what they understand.
They find his dialogue poems as invigorating as a good argument, his lyrics as
engaging, sometimes as magical, as Mother Goose. In a literary age so preoccupied
with self-expression that it sometimes seems intent on making the reader feel
stupid, Robert Frost has won him by treating him as an equal.37
Other critics have employed much the same evidence in a less complimentary fashion,
yet the fact remains, and it is a signal point, that most readers can find
something to understand and enjoy in Frost, can share his poetic experience
without reserve. The same can be said of few of his contemporaries. But the
intensely American quality of Frost's verses, even in the later phases where the
influence of Latin literature and thought is revealed most clearly, is perhaps an
equally important factor. As a poet Frost gained his majority during his first
phase when practically all of his work was New England in tone, outlook, manner,
and image, and he must have seemed to the casual reader then, as v/ell as to many
a professional critic, another voice well worth listening to from the region of
Emerson, Lowell, Whittier, and Longfellow. Unquestionably at that time, in spite
of the eastern intellectual revolt against Puritanism and its cultural influence,
the greater part of America felt a deep attachment for New England as the seat of
American culture and the birthplace of our liberties. Indeed, if it is true that
the most stalwart of the Puritans migrated west, then we may assume that their
descendents must have felt an even closer bond to the home of their fathers.
Speaking to this vast American audience, Frost has probably awakened a nostalgia
for New England in the hearts of men who never saw the place. His closeness to
the soil, his knowledge of the elemental factors in human life, his acquaintance
with the ways of men who till the soil wherever they live, his manly voice gave
his poetry a strength and vigor and authenticity which marked him as no effete
bohemian, no rhapsodic poseur, but as a man, ordinary enough for any man to know,
original enough to command any man's attention and respect.
Doubtless a part of the popular response which greeted the publication of
Frost's first two books, and an even greater part of subsequent response, was
motivated by an involuntary (or perhaps in some cases voluntary) reaction against
the line of development pursued by the more influential poetic coteries. Probably
something of the same element favored the appearance of Masters, Sandburg,
Lindsay, and Robinson. Accustomed to the sentimental and conventionalized magazine
verse of the turn of the century, readers during the first twenty years of
the present century were treated to a variety of rebellious voices, some doomed
to almost immediate oblivion, some destined for immortality. It is not difficult
to imagine that the readers of the time must have found Frost's lucid lines a
welcome contrast to the extravagances of the Imagists and the later obscurities
of the Metaphysicals. With the reader to whom poetry is a pleasurable experience
if it is anything, certainly not a study, such a contrast has inevitably worked
in Frost's favor. Frost's nonconformity to poetic fashion has been from first to
last a hallmark. But to emphasize this factor without mention of more positive
virtues would be a mistake.
Between the end of the first World War and the beginning of the second,
Frost maintained a characteristic but distinctive outlook. In spite of the disillusionment
and reaction of the twenties, he took his stand on the conservative
right; the year before the depression West-Running Brook, presented an impressive
statement of his philosophical convictions, of the need for the acceptance of
life as hard, often tragic, and of knowledge as finite, but alBO of the more important
need for courage and affirmation of basic values in difficult times.
Again, during the tumultuous thirties, when many of our traditional beliefs were
undergoing re-examination and alteration, Frost once more took his stand—this
time for individualism and the abolishment of socialism—in short, for Emersonian
self-reliance, affirming an unchanging faith in the dignity of man. He was,
of course, immediately denounced by some for his supposed failure to comprehend
a changed world, for his unrealistic conservative views. But human experience
had not changed, nor had human character, and Frost knew it. The chances are
that a great many of Frost's readers also knew it, whether they were willing to
act upon the principles which he set forth or not. A Further Range, the book
presenting these views, reached over 66,000 readers as a result of Book-of-the-
Month Club adoption. Between A Further Range (1936) and the beginning of World
War II, American readers of poetry became acquainted with the spectacle of two
expatriated American poets turning away from the American tradition, one becoming
reactionary, authoritarian, and monarchistic, and the other, radical, doctrinaire,
and fascistic. At home Frost remained the same, older, perhaps more whimsical,
but still Robert Frost, still one of the few living nature poets. After the War,
Frost's philosophical affirmations continued during a time when what is knowable
to man had become so much overshadowed by what is unknowable. He did not have
much to say about war or about the other tumults of the time, but his courage and
confidence in the rightness of his convictions enabled him to offer at least a
few suggestions to mankind on how to discover a much-needed source of spiritual
strength.
It remains only to estimate the influence of Robert Frost on the literature
of his time. Wide though his acclaim has been, he has neither founded any school
of poetry nor attracted many disciples. In an age distinctive in its noisy aberrations
and divergencies and in its tendency to uproot tradition and humanistic
values without having any acceptable substitute, Frost has maintained his central
position and become in fact a distinguished guardian of a great tradition. Thus
it is often said that he is off the main line of the development of modern poetry.
Actually, the reverse may prove to be true ultimately. If younger poets have
turned away from Frost to other poets for guidance, the reason may be in part
that to practice the art of poetry as Frost has practiced it requires two more or
less traditional qualifications on the part of the poet: (l) a willingness to
v/ork within traditional metrical and stanzaic arrangements and to study the
language of men as a sufficient guide to poetic diction; and (2) a primary concern
for communication and clarity with the admission that poetry should be something
to people other than poets and critics. Few modern poets are willing to
accept as valid the limitations imposed by the first consideration and even fewer
are willing to accept the implications of the second. Supported by one wing of
modern criticism, many young poets find that art need not communicate to the common
man and that the artist has license to employ intentional ambiguity or private
symbolism if his purpose requires it, that in fact the greater art may be
attained thereby. The ancient demand that art must be meaningful, or the theory
of art for wisdom's sake, has been all but silenced by the critics who have had
the greatest influence on younger poets. Thus the latter find themselves able
safely to follow the poetic examples of Pound, Eliot, and Auden and retreat from
meaning into obscurity without fear of disapproval from anybody but the casual
reader of poetry, and his opinion is invalid. Yet such a doctrine inevitably
denies the poet both general appeal and the possibility of a large audience.
Though his sacrifice is voluntary, the public has expressed its willingness to
cooperate by staying away in multitudes.
But even worse in the eyes of these young poets, and in the eyes of much
modern criticism, is the literary sin of didacticism. Frost, they grudgingly
admit, has gotten away with it only because he is a kind of relic left over from
the nineteenth century when such things were in fashion. Nor are Frost's conservative
ideas more acceptable even when presented in his most implicative manner.
Though Eliot himself has recently turned to the church, his sometime antagonist,
as a source of spiritual strength, a situation which has considerably
altered his position and unsettled his followers, few have followed his lead in
that direction any more than they have followed Frost's Emersonianism, Eliot's
criticism, frequently at odds with his ov/n poetry, has had relatively less effect
on later poets than his poetic example. In the present conflict betv/een the art
for art's sake school of poetry and art for wisdom's sake school, Frost's own
concept of poetry as a clarification of life, beginning in delight and ending in
wisdom, places him with Emerson, and just now Emerson's theories are not in
fashion. Thus among the new critics, R. P. Warren accounts for Frost's popular
success in terms of nostalgia, Cleanth Brooks in terms of dilution, Yvor Winters
in terms of a dangerous philosophical confusion similar to that of the public in
general, and R. P. Blackmur in terms of an easygoing and slipshod craft. It is
the criticism of these men and their followers to whom the young poets today look
for guidance. The critics, on the other hand, who have been in large measure
responsible for Frost's literary reputation, the scholars, the professors of
literature, the professional reviewers,are looked upon as comparatively oldfashioned
and like Frost too traditionalist in sympathy. There is then small
wonder that Frost's poetry has had limited influence outside the group which includes
Robert Hillyer, Louis Untermeyer, and Carl Van Doren, all men close to
his own generation. It is, of course, still too early to be able to know which
of these two groups struggling for supremacy will eventually be victorious.
Much to be desired at this point is further scholarly and critical examination
of Robert Frost's work. Far too little has been done along this line of
investigation. Further study, for example, of the elements of Puritanism in
Frost's outlook and of Thoreau's influence on Frost would be profitable. Similarly,
detailed explication of specific poems would be valuable. Scholarly interest
in general has not yet been awakened to these needs, and critical evaluation of
Frost's work has more often than not been left to the reviewers and literary
historians chiefly preoccupied with broader tasks. Serious and penetrating examination
of Frost is difficult to find in any quantity. Undoubtedly, however,
the reputation which the poet has already attained and the wide recognition which
he enjoys today will in time demand careful re-examination of his contribution to
American literature.
The career of Robert Frost has followed the less-traveled path; of that there
can be no doubt. His significance cannot, therefore, be measured in terms of his
influence, but must be measured rather in terms of the qualities for which critics
have found him distinctive during the last forty years. These are the qualities
which are likely to give him permanence. The fact that no other modern poet has
achieved such professional acclaim and wide popularity does not, of course, insure
his immortality, nor do the countless honors which have been conferred upon
him. The greatness of his poetry—its striking and authentic realism, its
genuinely universal appeal, its ageless wisdom and sound philosophy, its technical
mastery—will prove durable, I believe, and it is on the basis of these attributes
that posterity will judge him. I do not believe that the critics of the
future will find him wanting. To posterity, as well as to us, Robert Frost
addressed his directive:
Here are your waters and your watering place.
Drink and be whole again beyond confusion,
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