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A bacterial platform for fermentative production of plant alkaloids
Nature Communications volume 2, Article number: 326 (2011) Cite this article
An Erratum to this article was published on 22 May 2012
This article has been updated
Abstract
The secondary metabolites of higher plants include diverse chemicals, such as alkaloids, isoprenoids and phenolic compounds (phenylpropanoids and flavonoids). Although these compounds are widely used in human health and nutrition, at present they are mainly obtained by extraction from plants and extraction yields are low because most of these metabolites accumulate at low levels in plant cells. Recent advances in synthetic biology and metabolic engineering have enabled tailored production of plant secondary metabolites in microorganisms, but these methods often require the addition of expensive substrates. Here we develop an Escherichia coli fermentation system that yields plant alkaloids from simple carbon sources, using selected enzymes to construct a tailor-made biosynthetic pathway. In this system, engineered cells cultured in growth medium without additional substrates produce the plant benzylisoquinoline alkaloid, (S)-reticuline (yield, 46.0 mg l−1 culture medium). The fermentation platform described here offers opportunities for low-cost production of many diverse alkaloids.
초록
고등식물의 2차 대사산물에는
알칼로이드, 이소프렌류, 페놀성 화합물(페닐프로파노이드 및 플라보노이드) 등
다양한 화학물질이 포함됩니다.
alkaloids, isoprenoids and phenolic compounds (phenylpropanoids and flavonoids
알칼로이드 : 질소 함유 화합물 --> 몰핀, 코카인, 카페인, 니코틴.. 커피콩, 카카오 콩, 차나무, 양귀비
이소프렌 : 테르페노이드의 기본구조, 탄화수소 화합물(매탄, 에탄, 프로판), 지용성 비타민, 카로티노이드, 알파피넨(소나무 숲)
페놀성 화합물 : 벤젠고리 화합물, 탄닌, 플라보노이드...
황함유 화합물 : 마늘, 양파는 알리신
이러한 화합물은 인간의 건강과 영양에 널리 사용되지만,
현재는 주로 식물에서 추출하여 얻으며,
대부분의 대사산물이 식물 세포 내에 낮은 농도로 축적되기 때문에 추출 수율이 낮습니다.
합성 생물학과 대사 공학의 최근 발전으로 미생물에서
식물 2차 대사 산물을 맞춤형으로 생산할 수 있게 되었으나,
이러한 방법들은 종종 고가의 기질 첨가를 필요로 한다.
본 연구에서는
선택된 효소를 활용해 맞춤형 생합성 경로를 구축함으로써
단순한 탄소원으로부터 식물 알칼로이드를 생산하는
대장균 발효 시스템을 개발하였다.
이 시스템에서,
추가 기질 없이 배지에서 배양된 공학적으로 개량된 세포는
식물성 벤질이소퀴놀린 알칼로이드인 (S)-레티쿨린(수율, 배지 1L당 46.0mg)을 생산한다.
본 연구에서 제시된 발효 플랫폼은
다양한 알칼로이드의 저비용 생산 가능성을 제공한다.
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Introduction
The secondary metabolites of higher plants include diverse chemicals, such as alkaloids, isoprenoids and phenolic compounds (phenylpropanoids and flavonoids), which are produced from primary metabolites such as amino acids or acetyl-CoA (Supplementary Fig. S1). Although these compounds are widely used in human health and nutrition, at present they are mainly obtained by extraction from plants. However, extraction yields are low because most of these metabolites accumulate at low levels in plant cells. There have been many attempts to use plant metabolic engineering to increase the amounts of secondary metabolites. However, it is very difficult to obtain the desired products because of the complex and strict regulation of their biosynthesis. Chemical synthesis has also been used to produce plant secondary metabolites; however, the complexity and chirality of these compounds have hampered the development of cost-effective methods.
Recently, there has been increasing interest in microbial production of plant secondary metabolites by reconstructing their biosynthetic pathways in microorganisms1,2,3,4,5. Among these metabolites, isoprenoids are produced from acetyl-CoA in the mevalonate pathway or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and pyruvic acid in the 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate pathway (Supplementary Fig. S1). The biosynthesis of isoprenoids is well characterized, and they have been produced by microbes in a simple growth medium6. The other major groups of secondary metabolites, that is, alkaloids and phenolic compounds, are derived from aromatic amino acids (Supplementary Fig. S1). These compounds can be produced via microbial fermentation, but such systems require the addition of expensive precursor chemicals7,8,9, which makes these methods commercially unfeasible. Production of alkaloids and phenolic compounds from an inexpensive and readily available material has been one of the most important challenges for metabolic engineering of secondary metabolites10,11.
Alkaloids are low-molecular-weight, nitrogen-containing compounds that are found in ~20% of plant species. They are very important in medicine because of their high biological activities. Most alkaloids are derived from amines produced by the decarboxylation of amino acids, such as histidine, lysine, ornithine, tryptophan and tyrosine. One of the largest and most diverse groups of pharmaceutically important alkaloids is the benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs). BIAs, which include the analgesic compounds morphine and codeine and the antibacterial agents berberine and palmatine, are produced through (S)-reticuline from L-tyrosine. Thus, (S)-reticuline is a main branch-point intermediate in the biosynthesis of many types of BIAs, and also acts as a non-narcotic building block that is useful in the development of novel antimalarial and anticancer drugs. In this study, we focused on the fermentative production of (S)-reticuline in Escherichia coli grown in a simple medium without additional substrates.
Here we constructed a bacterial platform for plant alkaloid production from simple carbon sources. In this platform, a tailor-made alkaloid biosynthetic pathway from L-tyrosine was constructed in L-tyrosine over-producing E. coli cells. The recombinant strain could produce 46.0 mg l−1 of (S)-reticuline from glycerol, suggesting that the fermentation platform would enable low-cost production of many diverse alkaloids.
서론
고등식물의 2차 대사산물에는
알칼로이드, 이소프렌류, 페놀성 화합물(페닐프로파노이드 및 플라보노이드) 등
다양한 화학물질이 포함되며,
이들은 아미노산이나 아세틸-CoA와 같은 1차 대사산물로부터 생성됩니다(보충 그림 S1).
이러한 화합물은
인간 건강과 영양에 널리 사용되지만,
현재는 주로 식물에서 추출하여 얻습니다.
그러나 대부분의 이 대사산물은
식물 세포 내에서 낮은 수준으로 축적되기 때문에 추출 수율이 낮다.
식물 대사 공학을 활용하여
2차 대사산물의 양을 늘리려는 많은 시도가 있었다.
그러나
생합성의 복잡하고 엄격한 조절로 인해 원하는 제품을 얻는 것은 매우 어렵다.
화학 합성도 식물 2차 대사산물을 생산하는 데 사용되어 왔으나,
이 화합물들의 복잡성과 키랄성(chiral)으로 인해
비용 효율적인 방법의 개발이 지연되어 왔다.
키랄성 : 거울상 이성질체
최근 미생물 내에서 생합성 경로를 재구성하여
식물 2차 대사산물을 생산하는 미생물 공정에 대한 관심이 증가하고 있다1,2,3,4,5.
이러한 대사산물 중 이소프렌류는
메발론산 경로의 아세틸-CoA 또는
1-데옥시-D-자일룰로스-5-인산 경로의 글리세랄데히드-3-인산과 피루브산으로부터 생성됩니다(보충 그림 S1).
이소프렌류의 생합성은 잘 규명되어 있으며,
단순한 배지에서 미생물에 의해 생산된 바 있다6.
다른 주요 2차 대사산물군인
알칼로이드와 페놀성 화합물은 방향족 아미노산에서 유래한다(보충 그림 S1).
이러한 화합물은 미생물 발효를 통해 생산될 수 있으나,
이러한 시스템은 고가의 전구체 화학물질 첨가를 필요로 하여7,8,9
상업적으로 실현 불가능하다.
저렴하고 쉽게 구할 수 있는 재료로부터 알칼로이드와 페놀 화합물을 생산하는 것은
2차 대사 산물의 대사 공학에서 가장 중요한 과제 중 하나였습니다10,11.
알칼로이드는
저분자량 질소 함유 화합물로,
약 20%의 식물 종에서 발견됩니다.
높은 생물학적 활성으로 인해
의학적으로 매우 중요합니다.
| 대부분의 알칼로이드는 히스티딘, 라이신, 오르니틴, 트립토판, 티로신과 같은 아미노산의 탈카르복실화를 통해 생성된 아민에서 유래한다. 히스티딘 아미노산은 탈카르복실화를 통해 히스타민으로 전환되며, 라이신은 탈카르복실화를 통해 카다베린으로 전환, 오르니틴은 푸트레신으로 변환. 트립토판은 트립타민으로, 티로신은 티라민으로 탈카르복실화되죠. 이 과정은 아미노산의 카르복실기가 제거되어 아민이 생성되는 반응이며, 생체 내에서 다양한 생리활성 물질을 만드는 데 중요 |
약리학적으로 중요한 알칼로이드 중 가장 크고 다양한 그룹 중 하나는
벤질이소퀴놀린 알칼로이드(BIAs)이다. (BIAs)이다.
진통제인 모르핀과 코데인, 항균제인 베르베린과 팔마틴을 포함하는 BIAs는
L-티로신을 원료로 (S)-레티쿨린을 거쳐 생성된다.
따라서 (S)-레티쿨린은
다양한 유형의 BIA 생합성에서 주요 분기점 중간체이며,
새로운 항말라리아 및 항암제 개발에 유용한 비마약성 빌딩 블록으로도 작용한다.
본 연구에서는
추가 기질 없이 단순 배지에서 배양된 대장균(Escherichia coli)을
이용한 (S)-레티쿨린 발효 생산에 초점을 맞췄다.
여기서 우리는 단순한 탄소원으로부터
식물 알칼로이드 생산을 위한 박테리아 플랫폼을 구축했습니다.
이 플랫폼에서는 L-티로신 과잉 생산 대장균 세포에서 L-티로신을 출발점으로 하는 맞춤형 알칼로이드 생합성 경로를 구축하였다.
재조합 균주는
글리세롤로부터 (S)-레티쿨린을 46.0 mg l−1 생산할 수 있었으며,
이는 발효 플랫폼이 다양한 알칼로이드의 저비용 생산을 가능케 할 것임을 시사한다.
Results
Design of an artificial BIA biosynthetic pathway
We have already succeeded in synthesizing reticuline from dopamine7. Thus, to obtain BIAs from a simple medium without the addition of dopamine, there are two additional steps that must be introduced: fermentative production of L-tyrosine and conversion of L-tyrosine to dopamine. We first generated an E. coli strain that over-produces L-tyrosine by amino-acid fermentation. This was accomplished by three steps of genetic engineering. An E. coli strain has disrupted the tyrR gene, the product of which represses the expression of genes involved in aromatic amino-acid biosynthesis12. In addition, the feedback-inhibition-resistant (fbr) 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate (DAHP) synthase (fbr-DAHPS: aroGfbr) and fbr-chorismate mutase/prephenate dehydrogenase (fbr-CM/PDH: tyrAfbr) are overexpressed in the shikimic acid pathway13. To increase metabolic flow into the shikimic acid pathway, phosphoenolpyruvate synthetase (PEPS: ppsA) and transketolase (TKT: tktA)14 are exogenously introduced (Fig. 1). Thus, the L-tyrosine over-producing E. coli strain contains a knockout mutation in tyrR and a plasmid expressing the aroGfbr, tyrAfbr, ppsA and tktA genes (Supplementary Fig. S2). The engineered E. coli cells produced L-tyrosine in the medium at a yield of ~4.37±0.17 g l−1 (24.0±0.94 mM; average yield±standard deviation from three independent experiments), when glycerol was used as the carbon source. The overall yield of L-tyrosine, when glycerol was used as a carbon source, was 29.5% (molar ratio). By contrast, the wild-type E. coli cells produced low quantities of L-tyrosine in culture.
인공 BIA 생합성 경로 설계
우리는 이미 도파민으로부터
레티쿨린 합성에 성공한 바 있다7.
따라서
도파민을 추가하지 않은 단순 배지에서
BIA를 얻기 위해서는 두 가지 추가 단계가 도입되어야 한다:
L-티로신의 발효 생산과 L-티로신의 도파민 전환이다.
우리는 먼저 아미노산 발효를 통해
L-티로신을 과잉 생산하는
E. coli 균주를 생성하였다.
이는 세 단계의 유전자 공학을 통해 달성되었다.
E. coli 균주는 tyrR 유전자가 결손되어 있으며, 이 유전자의 산물은 방향족 아미노산 생합성에 관여하는 유전자 발현을 억제한다12. 또한, 피드백 억제 저항성(fbr) 3-데옥시-D-아라비노-헵툴로네이트-7-포스페이트(DAHP) 합성효소(fbr-DAHPS: aroGfbr) 및 fbr-코리스메이트 뮤타제/프레페네이트 탈수소효소(fbr-CM/PDH: tyrAfbr)가 시키믹산 경로에서 과발현된다13. 시키믹산 경로로의 대사 흐름을 증가시키기 위해, 포스포에놀피루브산 합성효소(PEPS: ppsA) 및 트랜스케톨라제(TKT: tktA)14가 외인적으로 도입되었다(그림 1). 따라서 L-티로신을 과다 생산하는 E. coli 균주는 tyrR 유전자에 녹아웃 돌연변이를 포함하며, aroGfbr, tyrAfbr, ppsA 및 tktA 유전자를 발현하는 플라스미드를 보유한다 (보충 그림 S2). 이 공학적으로 개량된 E. coli 세포는 배지에서 L-티로신을 약 4.37±0.17 g l−1 (24.0±0.94 mM; 3회 독립 실험의 평균 수율±표준 편차). 글리세롤을 탄소원으로 사용할 때 L-티로신의 전체 수율은 29.5%(몰비)였다. 반면 야생형 E. coli 세포는 배지에서 소량의 L-티로신만을 생산했다.
Figure 1: Bacterial BIA biosynthetic pathway constructed in Escherichia coli cells.
For L-tyrosine over-production, four enzymes (TKT, PEPS, fbr-DAHPS and fbr-CM/PDH) are overexpressed. Black box indicates the common aromatic pathway. The tailor-made biosynthetic pathway (blue) consisted of TYR, DODC and MAO. The plant biosynthetic pathway (red) was modified to circumvent the CYP80B reaction. CNMT, coclaurine-N-methyltransferase of Coptis japonica (GenBank accession number AB061863); DAHPS, 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate synthase (aroGfbr, GenBank accession number J01591); DODC, DOPA decarboxylase of Pseudomonas putida (GenBank accession number AE015451); E4P, erythrose-4-phosphate; fbr, feedback-inhibition-resistant; fbr-CM/PDH, fbr-chorismate mutase/prephenate dehydrogenase (tyrAfbr, GenBank accession number M10431); HPP, 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate; MAO, monoamine oxidase of Micrococcus luteus (GenBank accession number AB010716); NCS, norcoclaurine synthetase of C. japonica (GenBank accession number AB267399); PEPS, phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) synthetase (ppsA, GenBank accession number X59381); TKT, transketolase (tktA, GenBank accession number X68025); TYR, tyrosinase of Streptomyces castaneoglobisporus (ScTYR containing tyrosinase and its adaptor protein, ORF378, GenBank accession numbers AY254101 and AY254102) or tyrosinase of Ralstonia solanacearum (RsTYR, Rcs0337, GenBank accession number AL646052); 3,4-DHPAA, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde; 6OMT, norcoclaurine 6-O-methyltransferase of C. japonica (GenBank accession number D29811); 4′OMT, 3′-hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine 4′-O-methyltransferase of C. japonica (GenBank accession number D29812).
L-티로신 과잉 생산을 위해 네 가지 효소(TKT, PEPS, fbr-DAHPS 및 fbr-CM/PDH)가 과발현된다. 검은색 상자는 공통 방향족 경로를 나타낸다. 맞춤형 생합성 경로(파란색)는 TYR, DODC 및 MAO로 구성되었다. 식물 생합성 경로(빨간색)는 CYP80B 반응을 우회하도록 수정되었다. CNMT, Coptis japonica의 코클라린-N-메틸트랜스퍼라제(GenBank 등록 번호 AB061863); DAHPS, 3-데옥시-D-아라비노-헵투로노산-7-인산 합성효소(aroGfbr, GenBank 등록 번호 J01591); DODC, Pseudomonas putida의 DOPA 탈카복실화효소 (GenBank 등록 번호 AE015451); E4P, 에리스로즈-4-인산; fbr, 피드백 억제 저항성; fbr-CM/PDH, fbr-코리시메이트 뮤타제/프레페네이트 탈수소효소 (tyrAfbr, GenBank 등록 번호 M10431); HPP, 4-하이드록시페닐피루베이트; MAO, Micrococcus luteus의 모노아민 산화효소 (GenBank 등록 번호 AB010716); NCS, C. japonica의 노르코클라린 합성효소 (GenBank 등록 번호 AB267399); PEPS, 포스포에놀피루베이트(PEP) 합성효소 (ppsA, GenBank 등록 번호 X59381); TKT, 트랜스케톨라제 (tktA, GenBank 등록 번호 X68025); TYR, Streptomyces castaneoglobisporus의 티로시나제 (ScTYR, 티로시나제 및 그 어댑터 단백질 ORF378 포함, GenBank 등록 번호 AY254101 및 AY254102) 또는 Ralstonia solanacearum의 티로시나제 (RsTYR, Rcs0337, GenBank 등록 번호 AL646052); 3,4-DHPAA, 3,4-디하이드록시페닐아세탈데히드; 6OMT, C. japonica의 노르코클라린 6-O-메틸트랜스퍼라제 (GenBank 등록 번호 D29811); 4′OMT, C. japonica의 3′-하이드록시-N-메틸코클라린 4′-O-메틸트랜스퍼라제 (GenBank 등록 번호 D29812).
The BIA synthetic pathway of plants has not been completely elucidated. The pathway to dopamine or 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde (4-HPAA) from L-tyrosine is proposed in Figure 2, but not all of the enzymes have been identified as yet. We originally designed an artificial pathway of reticuline synthesis using microbial enzymes. In plants and animals, L-DOPA is mainly synthesized from L-tyrosine by tyrosine hydroxylase (EC 1.14.16.2); however, tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) is required as a cofactor for this reaction. E. coli cannot synthesize BH4; therefore, to convert L-tyrosine to L-DOPA, we chose tyrosinase (TYR; EC 1.14.18.1), which is unrelated to BIA biosynthesis. The TYRs from humans, Pholiota nameko and Streptomyces castaneoglobisporus were expressed in E. coli cells, and we examined their ability to convert L-tyrosine into L-DOPA. Only the TYR from S. castaneoglobisporus (ScTYR) successfully converted L-tyrosine into L-DOPA, and did not require unique cofactors other than copper and an adaptor protein (ORF378)15,16. When the selected TYR was expressed in the L-tyrosine over-producing E. coli strain, L-DOPA was produced in the medium at a yield of 293±5.9 mg l−1. The conversion efficiency from L-tyrosine to L-DOPA was 6.19±0.13%.
식물의 BIA 합성 경로는 완전히 규명되지 않았다. L-티로신에서 도파민 또는 4-하이드록시페닐아세탈데히드(4-HPAA)로의 경로는 그림 2에 제시되었으나, 아직 모든 효소가 확인되지는 않았다. 우리는 미생물 효소를 이용한 레티쿨린 합성 인공 경로를 처음 설계하였다. 식물과 동물에서 L-DOPA는 주로 티로신 하이드록실라제(EC 1.14.16.2)에 의해 L-티로신으로부터 합성되지만, 그러나 이 반응에는 테트라하이드로바이오프테린(BH4)이 보조인자로 필요합니다. E. coli는 BH4를 합성할 수 없으므로, L-티로신을 L-DOPA로 전환하기 위해 BIA 생합성과 무관한 티로시나제(TYR; EC 1.14.18.1)를 선택했습니다. 인간, Pholiota nameko 및 Streptomyces castaneoglobisporus의 티로시나아제(TYR)를 E. coli 세포에서 발현시키고, L-티로신을 L-DOPA로 전환하는 능력을 조사하였다. S. castaneoglobisporus의 TYR(ScTYR)만이 L-티로신을 L-DOPA로 성공적으로 전환하였으며, 구리와 어댑터 단백질 (ORF378)15,16. 선별된 TYR을 L-티로신 과생산 대장균 균주에서 발현했을 때, 배지에서 L-DOPA가 293±5.9 mg l−1의 수율로 생산되었다. L-티로신에서 L-DOPA로의 전환 효율은 6.19±0.13%였다.
Figure 2: Proposed plant biosynthetic pathway and genes involved in the biosynthesis of BIAs from L-tyrosine to (S)-reticuline.
CYP80B, N-methylcoclaurine 3′-hydroxylase; NCS, norcoclaurine synthase; TH, tyrosine hydroxylase; TYDC, tyrosine/dopa decarboxylase; 4-HPAA, 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde; 6OMT, norcoclaurine 6-O-methyltransferase; 4′OMT, 3′-hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine 4′-O-methyltransferase.
In our synthetic pathway, dopamine was synthesized from L-DOPA by the decarboxylation reaction (Fig. 1). It is important that only L-DOPA undergoes decarboxylation. If other aromatic amines were produced by decarboxylation, monoamine oxidase (MAO; EC 1.4.3.4) would act on these amines to produce their corresponding aldehydes, which could then be accepted in the coupling reaction catalysed by norcoclaurine synthase (NCS; EC 4.2.1.78). Because MAO shows greater activity towards tyramine than dopamine, it was important to select an enzyme that specifically decarboxylates L-DOPA, not L-tyrosine; otherwise, MAO would act on tyramine produced by the decarboxylation of L-tyrosine, and the resulting 4-HPAA could then be accepted in the coupling reaction with dopamine catalysed by NCS. The coupling product, (S)-norcoclaurine, is converted to (S)-N-methylcoclaurine by norcoclaurine 6-O-methyltransferase (6OMT) and coclaurine-N-methyltransferase (CNMT). Because 3′-hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine-4′-O-methyltransferase (4′OMT) has no ability to catalyse (S)-N-methylcoclaurine17, the synthetic flow constructed in the cells terminated at (S)-N-methylcoclaurine because of the lack of cytochrome P450 hydroxylase (CYP80B) in our system (Figs 1 and 2). In the plant BIA biosynthetic pathway, tyrosine/DOPA decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.25) catalyses the decarboxylation of L-tyrosine and L-DOPA to tyramine and dopamine, respectively18 (Fig. 2). For this reason, we selected the L-DOPA-specific decarboxylase (DODC; EC 4.1.1.28) from Pseudomonas putida strain KT2440, which exhibited a more than 103-fold preference for L-DOPA than for other aromatic amino acids (Koyanagi T. et al., in preparation). When the selected TYR and DODC were expressed in the L-tyrosine over-producing E. coli strain, dopamine was produced in the medium at a yield of ~260±22.7 mg l−1. The conversion efficiency from L-tyrosine to dopamine was 7.08±0.62%, which was slightly improved compared with that from L-tyrosine to L-DOPA. The amount of melanin-like pigment in the culture medium of a dopamine-producing strain was lower than that in a L-DOPA-producing strain (Supplementary Fig. S3). It was suggested that L-DOPA was converted into dopamine by DODC before the reaction of L-DOPA into dopaquinone. The Km value for L-DOPA of ScTYR was 8.1 mM (ref. 15). By contrast, the Km value for L-DOPA of P. putida DODC was 0.092 mM (Koyanagi T. et al., in preparation). It was indicated that P. putida DODC dominates ScTYR in the reaction of L-DOPA, and the combination of TYR and DODC enables the conversion of L-tyrosine to dopamine with reducing dopaquinone formation.
본 합성 경로에서 도파민은 L-DOPA의 탈카복실화 반응을 통해 합성되었습니다(그림 1). L-DOPA만이 탈카복실화 반응을 거친다는 점이 중요합니다. 탈카복실화로 다른 방향족 아민이 생성될 경우, 모노아민 산화효소(MAO; EC 1.4.3.4)가 이들 아민에 작용하여 대응하는 알데하이드를 생성하게 되며, 이는 노르코클라린 합성효소(NCS; EC 4.2.1.78)가 촉매하는 결합 반응에 수용될 수 있다. MAO는 도파민보다 티라민에 대해 더 높은 활성을 보이기 때문에, L-티로신이 아닌 L-DOPA만을 특이적으로 탈카르복실화하는 효소를 선택하는 것이 중요했습니다. 그렇지 않으면 MAO가 L-티로신의 탈카르복실화로 생성된 티라민에 작용하여, 그 결과 생성된 4-HPAA가 NCS에 의해 촉매되는 도파민과의 결합 반응에 수용될 수 있기 때문입니다. 결합 생성물인 (S)-노르코클라린은 노르코클라린 6-O-메틸트랜스퍼라제(6OMT)와 코클라린-N-메틸트랜스퍼라제(CNMT)에 의해 (S)-N-메틸코클라린으로 전환됩니다. 3′-하이드록시-N-메틸코클라린-4′-O-메틸트랜스퍼라제(4′OMT)는 (S)-N-메틸코클라린17을 촉매할 능력이 없기 때문에, 우리 시스템에서 시토크롬 P450 하이드록실라제(CYP80B)가 결핍되어 세포 내에서 구축된 합성 흐름은 (S)-N-메틸코클라린에서 종료되었다(그림 1 및 2). 식물 BIA 생합성 경로에서 티로신/DOPA 탈카복실화효소(EC 4.1.1.25)는 L-티로신과 L-DOPA의 탈카복실화를 각각 티라민과 도파민으로 촉매한다18 (그림 2). 이러한 이유로, 우리는 다른 방향족 아미노산에 비해 L-DOPA에 대해 103배 이상의 선택성을 보인 Pseudomonas putida 균주 KT2440의 L-DOPA 특이적 탈카르복실화효소(DODC; EC 4.1.1.28)를 선택하였다(Koyanagi T. et al., 준비 중). 선별된 TYR 및 DODC를 L-티로신 과발현 대장균(E. coli) 균주에서 발현시켰을 때, 배지 내 도파민 수율은 ~260±22.7 mg l−1로 생산되었다. L-티로신에서 도파민으로의 전환 효율은 7.08±0.62%로, L-티로신에서 L-DOPA로의 전환 효율에 비해 약간 개선되었다. 도파민 생산 균주의 배지 내 멜라닌 유사 색소 양은 L-DOPA 생산 균주보다 낮았다(보충 그림 S3). 이는 L-DOPA가 도파퀴논으로 전환되기 전에 DODC에 의해 도파민으로 전환되었음을 시사한다. ScTYR의 L-DOPA에 대한 Km 값은 8.1 mM였다(참조 15). 반면, P. putida DODC의 L-DOPA에 대한 Km 값은 0.092 mM였다(Koyanagi T. et al., 준비 중). 이는 L-DOPA 반응에서 P. putida DODC가 ScTYR보다 우세하며, TYR과 DODC의 조합이 도파퀸론 형성을 줄이면서 L-티로신을 도파민으로 전환할 수 있게 함을 시사한다.
In the final step of the fermentative production of (S)-reticuline, we combined the dopamine-producing pathway described above with the synthetic pathway from dopamine to (S)-reticuline7. The genes encoding NCS and MAO were inserted into the pET-21d vector together with the genes for TYR and DODC. The genes for 6OMT, 4′OMT and CNMT were inserted into the pACYC184 vector (Supplementary Fig. S2). The natural biosynthetic pathway in plants is not necessarily suitable for a microbial production system; therefore, our designed synthetic pathway differs from the original biosynthetic pathway. We carefully designed and optimized an artificial BIA pathway consisting of genes that were unrelated to the natural biosynthetic pathway (Fig. 1). The newly designed pathway comprises one E. coli gene knockout, four overexpressed genes and eight exogenous genes. Our system uses selected enzymes to construct a single pathway from L-tyrosine to (S)-norlaudanosoline. This system circumvents the complicated branched pathway and a potentially problematic CYP reaction in bacteria (Figs 1 and 2).
(S)-레티쿨린 발효 생산의 최종 단계에서는, 앞서 설명한 도파민 생성 경로와 도파민에서 (S)-레티쿨린으로의 합성 경로를 결합하였다7. NCS 및 MAO를 암호화하는 유전자를 TYR 및 DODC 유전자와 함께 pET-21d 벡터에 삽입하였다. 6OMT, 4′OMT 및 CNMT 유전자는 pACYC184 벡터에 삽입되었습니다(보충 그림 S2). 식물 내 자연 생합성 경로는 반드시 미생물 생산 시스템에 적합하지 않으므로, 우리가 설계한 합성 경로는 원본 생합성 경로와 다릅니다. 우리는 자연 생합성 경로와 무관한 유전자들로 구성된 인공 BIA 경로를 신중하게 설계하고 최적화하였습니다 (그림 1). 새로 설계된 경로는 E. coli 유전자 하나를 제거하고, 네 개의 유전자를 과발현하며, 여덟 개의 외래 유전자를 포함한다. 본 시스템은 선별된 효소들을 활용하여 L-티로신에서 (S)-노르라우다노솔린까지의 단일 경로를 구축한다. 이 시스템은 복잡한 분기 경로와 세균에서 잠재적 문제가 될 수 있는 CYP 반응을 우회한다 (그림 1 및 2).
(S)-Reticuline production from a simple carbon source
Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) analysis showed that engineered E. coli cells produced up to 2.26 mg l−1 (average of 2.00±0.28 mg l−1 from three independent experiments) (S)-reticuline from glucose in the culture medium (Fig. 3a,b). Without glucose, the yield of (S)-reticuline was low (80 μg l−1), indicating that (S)-reticuline was derived from a simple carbon source, glucose. The amount of (S)-reticuline production was reduced to one-quarter in the wild-type E. coli cells with the synthetic pathway from L-tyrosine to (S)-reticuline. This result confirmed that metabolic engineering of the aromatic amino-acid pathway effectively produced secondary metabolites from a simple carbon source. The growth rate of recombinant E. coli cells indicated that the intermediates in the reticuline biosynthetic pathway or (S)-reticuline did not inhibit the growth of E. coli cells. In this system, (S)-reticuline was produced by leaky expression of biosynthetic genes without induction by isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG; Fig. 3c), which substantially reduces production costs. When glycerol was used as the carbon source, (S)-reticuline production increased up to 6.24 mg l−1 (average of 5.92±0.36 mg l−1 from three independent experiments) within 80 h (Fig. 3d), which was three times higher than the amount produced in the glucose-based medium. It was reported that glycerol is a more suitable carbon source than glucose for the production of shikimic acid and L-phenylalanine19,20. Therefore, it is likely that glycerol is also a more suitable carbon source for BIA production, as is the case for other products related to the shikimic acid pathway. The conversion efficiency from L-tyrosine to (S)-reticuline was 0.150±0.01%, which is much lower than that for dopamine. To investigate the low conversion efficiency of (S)-reticuline production, the amount of intermediate compounds, the expression levels of the biosynthetic genes (TYR, ORF378, DODC, MAO, NCS, 6OMT, CNMT and 4′OMT), and the degradation of dopamine, norlaudanosoline and (S)-reticuline in culture were examined. L-Tyrosine was not increased during growth, and other intermediate compounds (L-DOPA, dopamine and intermediated BIAs) were not observed in the culture medium (Supplementary Fig. S4), indicating that metabolic flow to reticuline was not interrupted. Reverse transcription PCR (RT–PCR) results indicated that all biosynthetic genes were expressed (Fig. 4). The expression levels of plant genes (NCS, 6OMT, CNMT and 4′OMT) were low compared with microbial genes. The expression level of DODC was higher than that of TYR, which enables the conversion of L-DOPA to dopamine. The degradation analysis was carried out by adding substrates at a concentration close to that of the production yield to the culture medium. As a result, dopamine and norlaudanosoline were much more unstable than reticuline (Supplementary Fig. S5). These observations, together with the fact that intermediated compounds were not accumulated (Supplementary Fig. S4), indicated that the low yield of (S)-reticuline from dopamine was attributed to the instability of dopamine and norlaudanosoline, and to a lesser extent, the inefficient conversion of L-tyrosine to L-DOPA. The increase in expression levels of plant genes could improve the usage efficiency of dopamine and norlaudanosoline. Although TYR catalyses the oxidation of L-tyrosine to L-DOPA, TYR also has the ability to convert L-DOPA or dopamine to its quinone derivative (o-diphenolase), which is easily oxidized and polymerizes to form a melanin pigment. In our system, a melanin-like pigment was produced in the culture medium (Supplementary Fig. S3). Therefore, we speculated that the instability of intermediate compounds might be attributed to o-diphenolase activity via TYR reactions. It has been reported that TYR from Ralstonia solanacearum (RsTYR) possesses low o-diphenolase activity21. This report prompted us to integrate RsTYR into our platform instead of ScTYR. As expected, the platform containing RsTYR produced up to 46 mg l−1 (average of 40.5±4.8 mg l−1 from three independent experiments) of reticuline, a yield approximately seven times higher than the platform using ScTYR (Fig. 3d). Because the dopamine-producing strain using RsTYR produced 1.05±0.05 g l−1 (6.85±0.30 mM) of dopamine, a yield almost four times higher than the dopamine-producing strain using ScTYR, the increased production ability of dopamine might contribute to increased reticuline production.
단순 탄소원을 이용한 (S)-레티쿨린 생산
액체 크로마토그래피-질량 분석법(LC–MS) 분석 결과, 공학적으로 개량된 E. coli 세포는 배지 내 포도당으로부터 최대 2.26 mg l−1 (3회 독립 실험 평균 2.00±0.28 mg l−1)의 (S)-레티쿨린을 생산했습니다 (그림 3a,b). 포도당이 없는 조건에서는 (S)-레티쿨린 수율이 낮았으며(80 μg l−1), 이는 (S)-레티쿨린이 단순 탄소원인 포도당으로부터 유래되었음을 시사한다. 야생형 대장균 세포에서 L-티로신부터 (S)-레티쿨린까지의 합성 경로를 보유한 경우, (S)-레티쿨린 생산량은 1/4로 감소하였다. 이 결과는 방향족 아미노산 경로의 대사 공학이 단순 탄소원으로부터 2차 대사산물을 효과적으로 생산함을 확인시켜 주었다. 재조합 대장균 세포의 성장 속도는 레티쿨린 생합성 경로의 중간체나 (S)-레티쿨린이 대장균 세포의 성장을 억제하지 않음을 나타냈다. 이 시스템에서 (S)-레티쿨린은 이소프로필-β-D-티오갈락토사이드(IPTG; 그림 3c)에 의한 유도 없이 생합성 유전자의 누출 발현을 통해 생산되었으며, 이는 생산 비용을 크게 절감한다. 글리세롤을 탄소원으로 사용할 경우, (S)-레티쿨린 생산량은 80시간 이내에 6.24 mg l−1 (3회 독립 실험 평균 5.92±0.36 mg l−1)까지 증가하였으며, 이는 포도당 기반 배지에서 생산된 양보다 3배 높은 수치였습니다. 글리세롤이 시키믹산 및 L-페닐알라닌 생산에 포도당보다 더 적합한 탄소원이라는 보고가 있습니다19,20. 따라서 시키믹산 경로 관련 다른 제품들과 마찬가지로 글리세롤이 BIA 생산에도 더 적합한 탄원소일 가능성이 높다. L-티로신에서 (S)-레티쿨린으로의 전환 효율은 0.150±0.01%로 도파민 대비 현저히 낮았다. (S)-레티큘린 생산의 낮은 전환 효율을 조사하기 위해 중간체 양, 생합성 유전자(TYR, ORF378, DODC, MAO, NCS, 6OMT, CNMT 및 4′OMT)의 발현 수준, 그리고 배양액 내 도파민, 노르라우다노솔린 및 (S)-레티큘린의 분해를 조사하였다. L-티로신은 성장 과정에서 증가하지 않았으며, 다른 중간체 화합물(L-DOPA, 도파민 및 중간 BIAs)은 배지에서 관찰되지 않았다(보충 그림 S4). 이는 레티쿨린으로의 대사 흐름이 차단되지 않았음을 시사한다. 역전사 중합효소 연쇄반응(RT-PCR) 결과 모든 생합성 유전자가 발현되고 있음을 확인했다(그림 4). 식물 유전자(NCS, 6OMT, CNMT 및 4′OMT)의 발현 수준은 미생물 유전자에 비해 낮았다. DODC의 발현 수준은 TYR보다 높아 L-DOPA를 도파민으로 전환할 수 있었다. 분해 분석은 배지에 생산 수율에 가까운 농도의 기질을 첨가하여 수행했다. 그 결과, 도파민과 노르라우다노솔린은 레티쿨린보다 훨씬 불안정했다(보충 그림 S5). 이러한 관찰 결과와 중간체 화합물이 축적되지 않았다는 사실(보충 그림 S4)을 종합하면, 도파민으로부터 (S)-레티쿨린의 낮은 수율은 도파민과 노르라우다노솔린의 불안정성, 그리고 상대적으로 낮은 수준이지만 L-티로신의 L-DOPA로의 비효율적 전환에 기인한 것으로 나타났습니다. 식물 유전자 발현 수준을 증가시키면 도파민과 노르라우다노솔린의 이용 효율을 개선할 수 있을 것입니다. TYR는 L-티로신의 L-DOPA 산화를 촉매하지만, L-DOPA 또는 도파민을 쉽게 산화되어 멜라닌 색소를 형성하는 중합을 일으키는 퀴논 유도체(o-디페놀라제)로 전환하는 능력도 가지고 있다. 본 시스템에서는 배지에서 멜라닌 유사 색소가 생성되었다(보충 그림 S3). 따라서 중간체 화합물의 불안정성은 TYR 반응을 통한 o-디페놀라아제 활성 때문일 수 있다고 추측하였다. Ralstonia solanacearum 유래 TYR(RsTYR)은 낮은 o-디페놀라아제 활성을 보인다는 보고가 있다21. 이 보고서를 계기로 우리는 ScTYR 대신 RsTYR을 플랫폼에 통합하기로 결정했습니다. 예상대로 RsTYR을 포함한 플랫폼은 최대 46 mg l−1(3회 독립 실험 평균 40.5±4.8 mg l−1)의 레티쿨린을 생산했으며, 이는 ScTYR을 사용한 플랫폼 대비 약 7배 높은 수율입니다(그림 3d)RsTYR을 사용한 도파민 생산 균주는 1.05±0.05 g l−1 (6.85±0.30 mM)의 도파민을 생산하여 ScTYR을 사용한 균주보다 약 4배 높은 수율을 보였으며, 도파민 생산 능력의 증가는 레티쿨린 생산 증가에 기여했을 수 있습니다.
Figure 3: Fermentative production of (S)-reticuline.
(a) Time course of (S)-reticuline production in Escherichia coli cultures. L-Tyrosine over-producing E. coli (red circles) or wild-type strains (blue squares) harbouring NCS-ScTYR-DODC-optMAO/pET-21d and 6OMT-4′OMT-CNMT/pACYC184 were grown in a jar fermenter. In the case of an L-tyrosine over-producing strain, the culture was carried out in medium with (red circles) or without glucose (green triangles). Cell growth (broken lines with the same symbols as those for (S)-reticuline production) is represented as the optical density at 600 nm. The arrow indicates addition of IPTG (50 μM) at the indicated time. Data are representative of three independent experiments. (b) LC–MS/MS analysis of the reaction product from our system. Selected-ion monitoring (SIM) parameter: m/z=330 (reticuline). (c) Effect of IPTG concentration on fermentative production of (S)-reticuline in glucose-based medium. The E. coli strain over-producing L-tyrosine and expressing reticuline biosynthetic genes was grown until the OD600 was 10 before the addition of IPTG (arrow). No IPTG induction (blue squares), 50 μM (red circles), 150 μM (green triangles) or 500 μM IPTG (purple crosses). Data are representative of three independent experiments. (d) Fermentative production of (S)-reticuline in glycerol-based medium. A reticuline-producing strain using ScTYR (blue squares) or RsTYR (red circles) was cultured. The arrow indicates addition of IPTG (50 μM) at the indicated time. Cell growth (broken lines with the same symbols as those used for (S)-reticuline production) is represented as the optical density at 600 nm. The error bar indicates the standard deviation of three independent experiments. (e, f) Analysis of stereoselectivity of the reaction product towards (R,S)-reticuline. Authentic (R,S)-reticuline (e) and the reaction product in cultures of E. coli cells expressing biosynthetic genes (f) were analysed by LC–MS. SIM parameter: m/z=330 (reticuline).
(a) Escherichia coli 배양액에서의 (S)-레티쿨린 생산 시간 경과. L-티로신 과생산 E. coli (빨간 원) 또는 NCS-ScTYR-DODC-optMAO/pET-21d 및 6OMT-4′OMT-CNMT/pACYC184를 보유한 야생형 균주(파란 사각형)를 항아리 발효기에서 배양하였다. L-티로신 과발현 균주의 경우, 배지는 포도당 포함(빨간 원) 또는 미포함(초록색 삼각형) 조건에서 배양되었다. 세포 증식(S)-레티쿨린 생산과 동일한 기호로 표시된 점선)은 600 nm에서의 광학 밀도로 나타냈다. 화살표는 표시된 시간에 IPTG(50 μM)를 첨가했음을 나타낸다. 데이터는 세 번의 독립적인 실험을 대표한다. (b) 본 시스템의 반응 생성물에 대한 LC–MS/MS 분석. 선택 이온 모니터링(SIM) 매개변수: m/z=330 (레티쿨린). (c) 포도당 기반 배지에서 (S)-레티쿨린 발효 생산에 대한 IPTG 농도의 영향. L-티로신을 과발현하고 레티쿨린 생합성 유전자를 발현하는 E. coli 균주는 OD600이 10이 될 때까지 배양한 후 IPTG (화살표). IPTG 유도 없음(파란색 사각형), 50 μM(빨간색 원), 150 μM(초록색 삼각형) 또는 500 μM IPTG(보라색 십자) 처리. 데이터는 세 번의 독립적인 실험을 대표함. (d) 글리세롤 기반 배지에서 (S)-레티쿨린의 발효 생산. ScTYR(파란색 사각형) 또는 RsTYR (빨간색 원)을 이용한 레티쿨린 생산 균주를 배양하였다. 화살표는 표시된 시간에 IPTG(50 μM)를 첨가한 시점을 나타낸다. 세포 성장(S)-레티쿨린 생산 시 사용된 것과 동일한 기호가 있는 점선)은 600 nm에서의 광학 밀도로 표시된다. 오차 막대는 세 번의 독립적인 실험의 표준 편차를 나타낸다. (e, f) (R,S)-레티쿨린에 대한 반응 생성물의 입체선택성 분석. 진품 (R,S)-레티쿨린(e)과 생합성 유전자를 발현하는 E. coli 세포 배양에서의 반응 생성물(f)을 LC–MS로 분석하였다. SIM 매개변수: m/z=330 (레티쿨린).
Figure 4: Relative transcription level of the genes related to the reticuline production pathway.
Total RNA was collected from a jar fermenter culture in glycerol-based Turbo Broth at 40 h post-inoculation. Transcription levels were determined by quantitative real-time PCR. The values represent the number of times the genes are expressed compared with expression of the TYR gene (set at 1.00). Results are presented as the average of six repetitions (triplicate reverse transcription reactions from two independent total RNA samples).
Although NCS is an (S)-form specific enzyme, reticuline was produced as a racemate in our previous system7 because of a spontaneous condensation reaction involving dopamine and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde to form (R,S)-norlaudanosoline. The newly constructed system produced the (S)-form exclusively (Fig. 3e,f). Furthermore, even when NCS was absent from our platform, which produced (R,S)-norlaudanosoline by a spontaneous condensation reaction, (R)-reticuline could not be detected (Fig. 5a,b). According to analysis of the reticuline production system from norlaudanosoline, (R)-reticuline was detected only when a small amount of norlaudanosoline was added to the culture (Fig. 5c–f). These results led us to speculate that (S)-reticuline accumulates because methyltransferases (6OMT, CNMT and 4′OMT) react to the (S)-form in a superior manner to the (R)-form, or that the (R)-form ceases to be modified or degraded in E. coli cells. A larger amount of norlaudanosoline was available for reticuline production in our new platform compared with the dopamine-adding system7; therefore, production of (R)-reticuline was not observed in the newly constructed platform. The fermentative system developed in this study can produce optically active (S)-reticuline rapidly (that is, in a few days) compared with fermentation systems using cultured plant cells or transgenic plants (months to years).
NCS는 (S)-형 특이적 효소임에도 불구하고, 이전 시스템에서는 도파민과 3,4-디하이드록시페닐아세탈데히드가 자발적 축합 반응을 일으켜 (R,S)-노르라우다노솔린을 형성함으로써 레티쿨린이 라세미체 형태로 생성되었습니다7. 새로 구축된 시스템은 (S)-형만을 선택적으로 생성했습니다(그림 3e,f). 또한, 자발적 축합 반응을 통해 (R,S)-노르라우다노솔린을 생성하는 당사의 플랫폼에서 NCS가 결여된 경우에도 (R)-레티큘린은 검출되지 않았습니다(그림 5a, b). 노르라우다노솔린으로부터의 레티쿨린 생성 시스템 분석에 따르면, 배양액에 소량의 노르라우다노솔린을 첨가했을 때만 (R)-레티쿨린이 검출되었다(그림 5c–f). 이러한 결과는 메틸전달효소(6OMT, CNMT 및 4′OMT)가 (R)-형태보다 (S)-형태에 대해 우월하게 반응하거나, (R)-형태가 E. coli 세포 내에서 변형되거나 분해되지 않기 때문일 수 있다고 추측하게 되었다. 우리의 새로운 플랫폼에서는 도파민 첨가 시스템7에 비해 레티쿨린 생산을 위해 더 많은 양의 노르라우다노솔린이 이용 가능했기 때문에, 새로 구축된 플랫폼에서는 (R)-레티쿨린의 생산이 관찰되지 않았다. 따라서 본 연구에서 개발된 발효 시스템은 광학적으로 활성인 (S)-레티쿨린을 신속하게(즉, 며칠 내) 생산할 수 있다. 따라서 새로 구축된 플랫폼에서는 (R)-레티쿨린 생산이 관찰되지 않았다. 본 연구에서 개발된 발효 시스템은 배양된 식물 세포나 형질전환 식물을 이용한 발효 시스템(수개월에서 수년)에 비해 광학활성 (S)-레티쿨린을 신속하게(즉, 며칠 내) 생산할 수 있다.
Figure 5: Analysis of stereoselectivity of the reaction product towards (R,S)-reticuline.
Authentic (R,S)-reticuline (a), the reaction product in the culture of the reticuline-producing strain without NCS (b), the reaction product in the culture of BL21DE3 cells harbouring 6OMT-4′OMT-CNMT/pACYC184 (a plasmid for producing reticuline from norlaudanosoline) (c–f), were analysed by LC–MS. Selected-ion monitoring (SIM) parameter: m/z=330 (reticuline). BL21DE3 cells harbouring 6OMT-4′OMT-CNMT/pACYC184 were grown in LB medium at 25 °C until the OD600 reached 0.5. Then, 1 mM of IPTG and the indicated concentration, 10 μM (c), 30 μM (d), 100 μM (e) and 300 μM (f) of norlaudanosoline were added. Samples were collected at 12 h after induction.
The fermentation strategy for secondary metabolites described here requires cultivation of engineered cells in simple growth medium without additional substrates. Therefore, this system will drastically reduce the costs of producing scarce secondary metabolites. The glucose or glycerol used in this system is inexpensive and readily available, compared with the additional substrates that were required in previous microbial systems, such as dopamine or norlaudanosoline7,8. Although the overall yield of (S)-reticuline in this system was low, we estimate that the production cost of (S)-reticuline using this method would be much lower than that of previous microbial systems in terms of substrate costs. In addition to reduced production costs, another advantage of this system is the simple and effective purification procedure, which results in (S)-reticuline with little contamination by other undesired BIAs. (S)-Reticuline was purified from the culture medium using solid-phase extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC; Supplementary Fig. S6). This procedure recovered more than 90% of purified (S)-reticuline in two steps. A simple purification procedure resulting in high yields makes this production system economically viable.
본 연구에서 제시된 2차 대사산물 발효 전략은
추가 기질 없이 단순 배지에서 공학적으로 개량된 세포를 배양하는 것을 요구한다.
따라서 이 시스템은
희귀 2차 대사산물 생산 비용을 획기적으로 절감할 것이다.
본 시스템에서 사용되는 포도당 또는 글리세롤은
도파민이나 노르라우다노솔린과 같은 기존 미생물 시스템에서 요구되던
이 시스템에서 (S)-레티쿨린의 전체 수율은 낮았으나,
기질 비용 측면에서 본 방법을 이용한 (S)-레티쿨린 생산 비용은
기존 미생물 시스템보다 훨씬 낮을 것으로 추정됩니다.
생산 비용 절감 외에도, 본 시스템의 또 다른 장점은
간단하고 효과적인 정제 절차로,
다른 원치 않는 BIA(생물학적 지표 물질)에 의한 오염이 거의 없는 (S)-레티쿨린을 얻을 수 있다는 점입니다.
(S)-레티쿨린은
고체상 추출 및 고성능 액체 크로마토그래피(HPLC; 보충 그림 S6)를 통해 배양액에서 정제되었습니다.
이 절차는
두 단계로 정제된 (S)-레티쿨린의 90% 이상을 회수했습니다.
높은 수율을 제공하는 간단한 정제 절차는
이 생산 시스템을 경제적으로 실현 가능하게 합니다.
Discussion
In plants, the secondary metabolite biosynthetic pathway is branched, complicated and difficult to reconstruct in a microbial production system. In this study, we first demonstrated the feasibility of fermentative production of a plant alkaloid from a simple carbon source, using selected enzymes to construct a tailor-made biosynthetic pathway in an L-tyrosine over-producing E. coli strain. We succeeded in (S)-reticuline production by converting L-tyrosine to dopamine with a combination of selected TYR and DODC, and constructing a synthetic pathway from dopamine to a BIA skeleton using microbial MAO. (S)-Reticuline is contained at low amount in natural plant, because it is an intermediated compound in BIA biosynthetic pathway. It was reported that (S)-reticuline accumulated at high level in latex of transgenic opium poppy, which has antisense berberine bridge enzyme gene22. The amount of (S)-reticuline accumulation was estimated ~320 mg per 1 l of latex over 60 days22,23. In the case of our platform, (S)-reticuline accumulated about 40 mg per 1 l of culture medium within 3 days. In general, extraction of chemical compounds from plant sources has some problems, such as time cost, troublesome for collecting, difficult scale-up procedure. It was suggested that our bacterial platform would be more suitable for reticuline production than extraction procedure from plant sources.
In our system, we produced (S)-reticuline, which is a branch-point intermediate in the biosynthesis of many types of BIAs. Therefore, our bacterial platform can be used to produce (S)-reticuline derivatives by chemosynthesis from (S)-reticuline or by transforming the engineered strain with biosynthetic genes required for the target compound. Recently, two key enzymes in the morphine biosynthetic pathway, thebaine 6-O-demethylase and codeine O-demethylase, have been identified24. Therefore, the biosynthetic genes in the morphine biosynthetic pathway from (R)-reticuline to morphine have been isolated and characterized completely. Morphine alkaloids are synthesized from (S)-reticuline via (R)-reticuline, which is a two-step isomerization reaction catalysed by 1,2-dehydroreticuline synthase and 1,2-dehydroreticulinium reductase25,26. Although the biosynthetic genes responsible for converting (S)-reticuline to (R)-reticuline have not been identified, our dopamine-adding system is able to produce reticuline as a racemate by using E. coli cells expressing reticuline biosynthetic genes without NCS7. In plant secondary metabolism, CYPs are one of the most important groups of biosynthetic enzymes. The expression and function of plant CYPs is potentially problematic in a microbial production system. However, the successful expression of plant CYPs in a microbial host such as E. coli, with modification of the amino-terminal region, has recently been reported27. Including these biosynthetic genes containing CYPs in our microbial fermentation system may achieve production of morphine alkaloids from simple carbon sources by (R,S)-reticuline.
Furthermore, because bacterial fermentation systems have advanced metabolic engineering for the production of amino acids, our platform could be further developed to produce other secondary metabolites. As an example, L-phenylalanine and L-tryptophan were easily over-produced in our system by overexpression of the branched pathway genes (trp operon or pheA) from chorismate to L-phenylalanine or L-tryptophan, respectively28. Indole alkaloids, which are the most structurally diverse alkaloids along with BIAs, are synthesized from L-tryptophan and secologanin, with several biosynthetic genes isolated and characterized5. The isolation of genes early in the pathway to secologanin enables our system to be expanded with respect to applications for metabolic engineering of many indole alkaloids (Supplementary Fig. S1). Various phenolic compounds have been successfully produced from L-phenylalanine and L-tyrosine in microbial systems9. The fermentation system described here is easily applicable for metabolic engineering of phenolic compounds (Supplementary Fig. S1). Many diverse secondary metabolites are derived from aromatic amino acids or acetyl-CoA; therefore, the fermentation platform described here illustrates a general strategy of metabolic engineering for the production of secondary metabolites, especially aromatic amino-acid derivatives. Combined with the fermentation platform for the production of isoprenoids6, our platform represents a significant advance in the metabolic engineering of secondary metabolites.
토론
식물에서 2차 대사산물 생합성 경로는
분지되고 복잡하여 미생물 생산 시스템에서 재구축하기 어렵다.
본 연구에서는 선별된 효소를 활용해
L-티로신 과생산 대장균 균주에 맞춤형 생합성 경로를 구축함으로써,
단순한 탄소원으로부터 식물 알칼로이드의 발효 생산 가능성을 최초로 입증하였다.
선별된 TYR 및 DODC를 조합하여
L-티로신을 도파민으로 전환하고,
미생물 MAO를 이용해 도파민에서 BIA 골격으로의 합성 경로를 구축함으로써
(S)-레티쿨린 생산에 성공하였다.
(S)-레티쿨린은
BIA 생합성 경로의 중간 화합물이기 때문에 천연 식물에는 소량으로 함유되어 있습니다.
안티센스 베르베린 브릿지 효소 유전자22를 가진 형질전환 양귀비의 유액에서
(S)-레티쿨린이 높은 수준으로 축적된다는 보고가 있습니다.
(S)-레티쿨린 축적량은 60일 동안 유액 1리터당 약 320mg으로 추정되었다22,23. 본 플랫폼의 경우, (S)-레티쿨린이 배지 1리터당 약 40mg이 3일 이내에 축적되었습니다. 일반적으로 식물 원료로부터 화합물을 추출하는 과정은 시간 소모, 채집의 번거로움, 공정 확대의 어려움 등의 문제가 있습니다. 식물 원료 추출 공정보다 본 박테리아 플랫폼이 레티쿨린 생산에 더 적합할 것으로 제안되었습니다.
본 시스템에서는 다양한 유형의 BIAs 생합성 경로의 분기점 중간체인 (S)-레티쿨린을 생산하였다. 따라서 본 박테리아 플랫폼은 (S)-레티쿨린을 원료로 한 화학합성 또는 표적 화합물 생합성에 필요한 유전자를 도입한 변형 균주를 통해 (S)-레티쿨린 유도체를 생산하는 데 활용될 수 있다. 최근 모르핀 생합성 경로의 두 가지 핵심 효소인 테바인 6-O-탈메틸화효소와 코데인 O-탈메틸화효소가 확인되었습니다24. 따라서 (R)-레티쿨린에서 모르핀에 이르는 모르핀 생합성 경로의 생합성 유전자들이 완전히 분리 및 특성화되었습니다. 모르핀 알칼로이드는 (S)-레티쿨린에서 (R)-레티쿨린을 거쳐 합성되며, 이는 1,2-디하이드로레티쿨린 합성효소와 1,2-디하이드로레티쿨리늄 환원효소에 의해 촉매되는 2단계 이성질화 반응이다25,26. (S)-레티쿨린을 (R)-레티쿨린으로 전환시키는 생합성 유전자는 아직 확인되지 않았으나, 우리의 도파민 첨가 시스템은 NCS7 없이 레티쿨린 생합성 유전자를 발현하는 E. coli 세포를 사용하여 레티쿨린을 라세미체 형태로 생산할 수 있다. 식물 2차 대사에서 CYP는 가장 중요한 생합성 효소군 중 하나이다. 식물 CYP의 발현과 기능은 미생물 생산 시스템에서 잠재적으로 문제가 될 수 있다. 그러나 아미노말단 영역을 변형하여 E. coli와 같은 미생물 숙주에서 식물 CYP의 성공적인 발현이 최근 보고되었다27. 이러한 CYP를 포함하는 생합성 유전자를 우리의 미생물 발효 시스템에 포함시키면 (R,S)-레티쿨린을 통해 단순한 탄소 원료로부터 모르핀 알칼로이드 생산을 달성할 수 있을 것이다.
또한, 박테리아 발효 시스템은 아미노산 생산을 위한 대사 공학이 발전되어 있어, 본 플랫폼을 다른 2차 대사산물 생산으로 확장할 수 있다. 예를 들어, 코리시메이트에서 L-페닐알라닌 또는 L-트립토판으로 이어지는 분기 경로 유전자(trp 오페론 또는 pheA)의 과발현을 통해 본 시스템에서 L-페닐알라닌과 L-트립토판을 쉽게 과생산할 수 있었다28. 인돌 알칼로이드는 BIAs와 함께 구조적으로 가장 다양한 알칼로이드로, L-트립토판과 세콜로가닌으로부터 합성되며, 여러 생합성 유전자가 분리 및 특성화되었다5. 세콜로가닌 경로의 초기 단계 유전자 분리는 본 시스템을 다양한 인돌 알칼로이드의 대사공학적 응용으로 확장할 수 있게 한다(보충 그림 S1). 다양한 페놀성 화합물은 미생물 시스템에서 L-페닐알라닌과 L-티로신을 원료로 성공적으로 생산된 바 있다9. 본 연구에서 기술한 발효 시스템은 페놀성 화합물의 대사공학에 쉽게 적용 가능하다(보충 그림 S1). 다양한 2차 대사산물은 방향족 아미노산 또는 아세틸-CoA에서 유래하므로, 본 발효 플랫폼은 특히 방향족 아미노산 유도체를 생산하기 위한 대사공학의 일반적 전략을 제시한다. 이소프렌오이드 생산 발효 플랫폼6과 결합된 본 플랫폼은 2차 대사 산물의 대사 공학 분야에서 상당한 진전을 보여줍니다.
Methods
Materials
All synthetic genes were obtained from GenScript. (R,S)-Norlaudanosoline was purchased from Acros Organics. L-Tyrosine, L-DOPA and dopamine were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. (R,S)-Reticuline was a gift from Mitsui Chemicals.
Construction of expression vectors
Construction of an E. coli strain over-producing L-tyrosine was achieved by the following steps: disruption of the tyrR gene12; overexpression of fbr-DAHPS (aroGfbr) and fbr-CM/PDH (tyrAfbr) in the shikimic acid pathway13; and increasing the metabolic flows into the shikimic acid pathway by overexpressing PEPS (ppsA) and TKT (tktA)14 (Fig. 1). We constructed an expression vector containing tyrAfbr, aroGfbr, tktA and ppsA. The genes tyrAfbr and aroGfbr cloned into pUC57 were purchased from GenScript and tyrAfbr was flanked by NcoI and EcoRI restriction enzyme recognition sites, and aroGfbr was fused to the T7 promoter. An EcoRI site was located upstream of the T7 promoter, and a SacI site was located downstream of aroGfbr. The tktA and ppsA genes were amplified from genomic DNA of E. coli K-12 MG1655 using the primer sets NdeI-tktA-F and tktA-XhoI-R, and NdeI-ppsA-F and ppsA-XhoI-R, respectively (Supplementary Table S1). After digestion with NdeI and XhoI, tktA and ppsA were individually cloned into pET-41a (Novagen) and pCOLADuet-1 (Merck), respectively. A DNA fragment containing the tyrAfbr gene was excised from tyrAfbr/pUC57 using NcoI and EcoRI, and then cloned into pCOLADuet-1. The EcoRI-SacI fragment of aroGfbr/pUC57 was cloned into tyrAfbr/pCOLADuet-1, yielding the tyrAfbr-aroGfbr expression vector. We amplified tktA under the control of the T7 promoter from tktA/pET-41a using the primers 5Sac-T7 and 3NottktA (Supplementary Table S1). These were then cloned into tyrAfbr-aroGfbr/pCOLADuet-1, generating tyrAfbr-aroGfbr-tktA/pCOLADuet-1. Finally, we digested ppsA/pCOLADuet-1 with NotI and XhoI to obtain a fragment containing the ppsA gene and the T7 promoter. This fragment was then cloned into tyrAfbr-aroGfbr-tktA/pCOLADuet-1, yielding tyrAfbr-aroGfbr-tktA-ppsA/pCOLADuet-1 (Supplementary Fig. S2), and its sequence was confirmed.
The norlaudanosoline synthetic pathway consists of four enzymes; TYR of S. castaneoglobisporus (ScTYR containing TYR and its adaptor protein, ORF378) or RsTYR (Rcs0337), DODC of P. putida, MAO of Micrococcus luteus and NCS of Coptis japonica. In this study, we used a codon-optimized MAO (optMAO) and cloned it into a pGS-21a plasmid from GenScript. The MAO gene used previously (NCS-MAO/pKK223-3)7 was replaced by optMAO driven by the T7 promoter. This was achieved by integrating the BamHI-HindIII fragment of optMAO and the T7 promoter generated by PCR using the primers 5Bam-T7 and 3oMAO (Supplementary Table S1) into NCS-MAO/pKK223-3, generating NCS-optMAO/pKK223-3. The PCR product for DODC (NdeI-BamHI fragment, obtained using the primers 5NdeDODC and 3BamDODC (Supplementary Table S1)) was ligated into the cognate site of pET-3a (Novagen). The DODC gene with the T7 promoter was amplified from DODC/pET-3a with the primers 5BamSacRVT7 and 3BamDODC (Supplementary Table S1), and cloned into NCS-optMAO/pKK223-3. We purchased ScTYR or RsTYR cloned into pGS-21a from GenScript. The PCR product for ScTYR or RsTYR (SacI-EcoRV fragment, amplified using primers 5SacI-T7 and 3pGSEcoRV (Supplementary Table S1)) was ligated into the cognate site of NCS-DODC-optMAO/pKK223-3 yielding NCS-TYR-DODC-optMAO/pKK223-3. To compare production among lines harbouring different plasmid backbones, we generated a pET-21d (Novagen) plasmid-based vector. We amplified the fragment containing the T7 promoter fused to NCS from NCS-MAO/pKK223-3 (ref. 7) using the primers 5BglII-T7 and 3NCSBamSacRV (Supplementary Table S1). The fragment was ligated into the BglII-BamHI site of pET-21d. The SacI-HindIII fragment for NCS-DODC-optMAO/pKK223-3, containing DODC-optMAO genes was ligated into NCS/pET-21d, generating NCS-DODC-optMAO/pET-21d. Finally, the PCR product for TYR was ligated into the SacI-EcoRV site of NCS-DODC-optMAO/pET-21d, yielding NCS-TYR-DODC-optMAO/pET-21d (Supplementary Fig. S2). The line harbouring the pET-21d-based plasmid produced slightly higher levels of reticuline (0.14 versus 0.11 mg l−1 in the small-scale culture); therefore, we selected NCS-TYR-DODC-optMAO/pET-21d as the expression plasmid for norlaudanosoline pathway enzymes.
To construct the L-DOPA-producing strain, the NdeI-XhoI fragment of TYR/pGS-21a was cloned into the cognate site of pET-23a, yielding TYR/pET-23a. TYR and DODC (BamHI fragment of NCS-TYR-DODC-optMAO/pET-21d) were cloned into pET-23a, yielding TYR-DODC/pET-23a.
Construction of aromatic compound-producing strains
The genetic design of the L-tyrosine over-producing strain is described by Lütke-Eversloh and Stephanopoulos14. The markerless deletion of tyrR, tyrR∷null strain, was constructed by PCR-based method29. BL21 (DE3) tyrR∷null was transformed with tyrAfbr-aroGfbr-tktA-ppsA/pCOLADuet-1, yielding the L-tyrosine over-producing strain. To construct the L-DOPA- and dopamine-producing strains, the L-tyrosine over-producing strain was transformed with TYR/pET-23a and TYR-DODC/pET-23a, respectively. To construct the reticuline-producing strain, the L-tyrosine over-producing strain was transformed with NCS-TYR-DODC-optMAO/pET-21d and 6OMT-4′OMT-CNMT/pACYC184 (ref. 7; Supplementary Fig. S2).
Fermentation conditions
Cells were cultured overnight in liquid LB medium at 37 °C, then 10 ml of the cell culture was inoculated into 1 l of modified conventional medium (per litre: 47.6 g Turbo Broth (Athena Enzyme System), 1.6 g NH4Cl, 2.49 mg CuSO4·5H2O, 3 g glucose or 5 g glycerol, and appropriate antibiotics (50 mg ampicillin, 25 mg kanamycin and 50 mg chloramphenicol). Cultures were grown at 25 °C in a 3-l jar fermenter (BMS-03PI, ABLE). The pH was maintained at 7.1 by automatic addition of 28% NH4OH and 1 M HCl. The agitation speed was 100 r.p.m. at the time of inoculation, and dissolved oxygen levels were allowed to fall to 10% of O2 saturation with continuous air supply of 1 volume per volume per minute. The glucose concentration was maintained between 0.1 and 7 g l−1 by addition of 0.5 g ml−1 glucose solution. The glycerol concentration was maintained between 0.1 and 6 g l−1 by addition of 1 g ml−1 glycerol solution. If needed, an indicating concentration of IPTG was added to the culture when OD600 reached 10 (glucose-based medium) or 15 (glycerol-based medium).
Detection and quantification of chemical compounds
Glucose in the culture medium was analysed by the mutarotase-glucose method using a Glucose CII Test Wako (Wako). Glycerol in the culture medium was analysed using a Glycerol Assay Kit (Cayman Chemical). To analyse aromatic compounds in the culture medium, except for reticuline and norlaudanosoline, cultures were collected and treated with 1 N HCl for solving crystallized tyrosine. After centrifugation, samples were analysed by HPLC equipped with a Discovery HS F5 column (Supelco). Compounds were separated on the column by increasing the concentration of acetonitrile from 3 to 20% in 10 mM ammonium formate (pH 3.0) at a flow rate of 0.5 ml min−1. Elution of compounds was monitored by measuring absorbance at 280 nm.
To measure reticuline and norlaudanosoline production, the culture medium was collected at various times, and proteins were precipitated with 2% trichloroacetate. The supernatant was analysed by LC–MS (3200 Q TRAP, Applied Biosystems Japan) after separation on an Agilent HPLC system (Agilent). The HPLC conditions were as follows: column, TSKgel ODS-80Ts (4.6×250 mm; Tosoh); solvent system, A: 0.1% acetic acid in water, B: 0.1% acetic acid in acetonitrile; gradient modes: 90% A (0–5 min), 90–60% A (5–20 min) and 10% A (20–30 min); flow rate, 0.5 ml min−1 at 40 °C. Reticuline was identified by comparison with authentic reticuline with regard to the fragmentation spectrum in LC–MS/MS. The amounts of reticuline and norlaudanosoline were estimated from standard curves using Analyst 1.4.1 software. Experiments were repeated three times.
The stereoselectivity of reticuline was analysed by LC–MS after separation on an Agilent HPLC system. HPLC conditions were as follows: column, CHIRALCEL OD-H (4.6×250 mm, Daicel Chemical Industries); solvent system, hexane:2-propanol:diethylamine (72:28:0.1); flow rate, 0.55 ml min−1 at 40 °C.
Quantitative RT–PCR analysis of synthetic pathway genes
The reticuline-producing strain was grown on glycerol-based medium in a jar fermenter. IPTG (50 μM) was added to the culture when OD600 reached 15. For total RNA extraction, cells were collected at 40 h post-inoculation. Total RNA was extracted using an RNeasy Mini kit (Qiagen). To eliminate contaminated DNA, we used DNaseI treatment system included in RNAqueous-4PCR Kit (Ambion). A total of 1.5 μg total RNA was used in reverse transcription reactions using a High Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit (Applied Biosystems).
Relative RNA concentrations were determined by quantitative RT–PCR using a 7300 Real-time PCR system with TaqMan Gene Expression Assay (Applied Biosystems). Primers and probes were designed using Primer Express 1.5 software (Perkin-Elmer; Supplementary Table 1). The amount of mRNA was quantified against a standard curve using the Ct value.
Observation of aromatic compound degradation in culture
The reticuline-producing strain was grown at 25 °C in Turbo Broth containing 10 μM of CuSO4 and appropriate antibiotics without sugar. IPTG (50 μM) was added when OD600 reached 10. At 12 h after IPTG induction, each substrate (final concentration: 0.5, 2 and 8 mM dopamine, 7.5, 30 and 120 μM norlaudanosoline or 7.5, 30 and 120 μM reticuline) was added to the culture. The additive reticuline was enzymatically synthesized from 0.45 mM of norlaudanosoline using a crude extract of BL21 (DE3) harbouring 6OMT-4′OMT-CNMT/pACYC184 (ref. 7). In all experiments, new synthesis of norlaudanosoline, mono- and di-methylated norlaudanosoline and reticuline were not observed.
Purification of (S)-reticuline
(S)-Reticuline was purified from culture medium with an Oasis HLB solid-phase extraction cartridge (Waters) and by HPLC. The cartridge was pre-equilibrated with water before loading the culture medium, washed with 5% methanol, and then (S)-reticuline eluted with 100% methanol. The eluent was subjected to HPLC equipped with a TSKgel ODS-80Ts column. Peak fractions corresponding to (S)-reticuline were collected, and the degree of refining confirmed by MS analysis.
Additional information
How to cite this article: Nakagawa, A. et al. A bacterial platform for fermentative production of plant alkaloids. Nat. Commun. 2:326 doi: 10.1038/ncomms1327 (2011).
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References
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