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미토콘드리아 신생합성(biogenesis)은
주로 content 증가와 밀접하게 연관되며,
PGC-1α 등 전사 조절인자가 핵심 역할을 합니다.
어떤 운동이 미토콘드리아 신생합성/함량 증가에 효과적인가?
1. 심폐/지구력 운동 (Cardiorespiratory / Endurance Training) – 가장 강력한 자극
강도 관련:
2. 고강도 인터벌 트레이닝 (HIIT / SIT)
3. 저항 운동 (Resistance Training)
4. 볼륨 vs 강도 요약
결론 및 실용적 시사점
이 논문은
운동을 단순 “좋은 것”이 아니라
도메인별로 정밀하게 처방해야 하는 미토콘드리아 치료제로 보는 관점을 제시한
중요한 리뷰입니다.
1. 해당과정 (Glycolysis)과 피루베이트 대사
2. TCA 회로 (Citric Acid Cycle / Krebs Cycle)
3. 전자전달계 (Electron Transport Chain, ETC)와 산화적 인산화
내막에 있는 복합체들이 전자를 전달하면서 양성자(H⁺)를 막간 공간으로 펌프합니다.
4. 활성산소종 (ROS) 생성
5. 지방산 산화 (β-oxidation)와 카르니틴 셔틀
6. 미토콘드리아 투과성 전이공 (mPTP)
전체 요약 흐름
이 그림은 미토콘드리아가 에너지를 생산하는 핵심 경로와, 그 과정에서 발생하는 산화 스트레스 및 품질 관리 관련 구조를 한눈에 보여줍니다.
1. 미토콘드리아 역학 (Dynamics)
건강한 미토콘드리아끼리 융합하여 기능 보완과 내용물 혼합이 일어납니다.
2. 미토콘드리아 수송과 도킹
3. 미토파지 (Mitophagy) – 손상된 미토콘드리아 제거
크게 Ub-dependent와 Ub-independent 경로로 나뉩니다.
Ubiquitin-dependent 경로
Ubiquitin-independent 경로
4. 미토콘드리아 생합성 (Biogenesis)
손상이나 에너지 수요 증가 시 새 미토콘드리아를 만듭니다.
5. 손상된 미토콘드리아의 다른 제거/배출 경로
그림 하단에 여러 exocytosis(세포외 배출) 경로가 나와 있습니다.
6. 세포 간 미토콘드리아 전달 (Intercellular mitochondria transfer)
그림 맨 아래에 표시된 부분으로, 한 세포에서 배출된 미토콘드리아(또는 소포)가 다른 세포로 전달되어 기능을 보완하거나 생합성에 기여할 수 있습니다.
전체 흐름 요약
이 그림은 미토콘드리아가 단순히 “에너지 공장”이 아니라, 매우 정교한 품질 관리와 소통 시스템을 가지고 있음을 잘 보여줍니다.
이 그림은
미토콘드리아 손상이
어떻게 선천면역 활성화, 염증, 세포사멸(Apoptosis)로 이어지는지를 보여주는 핵심 경로 도식입니다.
주로
mtDNA 유출이
중심 역할을 합니다.
1. 미토콘드리아 손상과 mtDNA 방출
2. cGAS–STING 경로 (Type I Interferon & 염증성 사이토카인 유도)
가장 중요한 선천면역 감지 경로입니다.
결과적으로
항바이러스성 인터페론과 염증성 사이토카인이 동시에 유도됩니다.
3. NLRP3 Inflammasome 경로 (강력한 염증 유도)
4. 내인성 세포사멸 경로 (Intrinsic Apoptosis)
미토콘드리아에서 나온 Cytochrome c가 핵심입니다.
조절 인자:
미토콘드리아는
거의 모든 세포에 존재하기 때문에,
기능 장애 시 신경학적(Neurological) 증상과
비신경학적(Non-neurological) 증상이 동시에 또는 단독으로 나타날 수 있습니다.
1. 신경학적 증상 (Neurological)
중추신경계 (Central nervous system)
눈 (Eye)
귀 (Ear)
말초신경계 (Peripheral nerve system)
골격근 (Skeleton muscle)
2. 비신경학적 증상 (Non-neurological)
시상하부 및 뇌하수체 (Hypothalamus and pituitary gland)
부갑상선 (Parathyroid)
갑상선 (Thyroid)
폐 (Lung)
심장 (Heart)
간 (Liver)
부신 (Adrenal)
신장 (Renal)
췌장 (Pancreas)
위장관 (Gastrointestinal tract)
골수 (Bone marrow)
생식계 (Reproductive system)
핵심 포인트
미토콘드리아 질환은
고에너지 요구 장기(뇌, 근육, 심장, 망막, 신장 등)를 우선적으로 침범하는 경향이 있습니다.
같은 유전자 변이를 가진 환자라도
heteroplasmy(이질성) 비율과 조직별 분포에 따라 증상이 매우 다양하게 나타납니다.
이 그림은
미토콘드리아 질환을 진단할 때
다계통 침범(multi-system involvement)을 반드시 고려해야 함을 잘 보여줍니다.
크게
생체표지자(Biomarkers),
조직병리 검사,
호흡사슬 효소 분석,
유전자 검사,
호흡측정(Respirometry)으로 나뉩니다.
1. 생체표지자 (Biomarkers)
혈액, 소변, 뇌척수액 등에서 측정하는 간접적 지표입니다.
기존 생체표지자
잠재적 생체표지자 (Potential biomarkers)
2. 조직병리 검사 (Histopathological examination)
근육, 간, 신장 등의 생검 조직을 사용합니다.
주요 염색법:
3. 호흡사슬 효소 분석 (Respiratory chain enzyme analysis)
생검 조직이나 세포에서 Complex I~V의 활성을 측정합니다.
4. 유전자 및 분자 검사
하단의 네 가지 주요 분석으로 구성됩니다.
nDNA sequencing (핵 DNA)
mtDNA sequencing 및 분석
RNA sequencing
Respirometry (기능적 호흡 측정)
진단 흐름 요약
이 그림은 미토콘드리아 질환 진단이 다단계·다각도 접근이 필수적임을 잘 보여줍니다.
이 그림은
미토콘드리아 치환 치료(Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy, MRT)의 주요 기법 4가지를 보여줍니다.
모체로부터 전달되는 결함 있는 mtDNA를
건강한 mtDNA로 교체하여,
미토콘드리아 질환이 자식에게 유전되는 것을 막는 기술입니다.
a. PNT (Pronuclear Transfer) – 전핵 이식
b. ST (Spindle Transfer) – 방추사-염색체 복합체 이식
c. PB1T (First Polar Body Transfer) – 제1극체 이식
d. PB2T (Second Polar Body Transfer) – 제2극체 이식
공통 목적과 의의
이 기술들은 “3인 아기(three-parent baby)”로 불리기도 하며, 윤리·법적 논쟁이 함께 존재하는 분야입니다.
이 그림은
미토콘드리아 DNA(mtDNA) 결함을 교정하거나 보완하는 최신 유전자 치료 전략
4가지를 보여줍니다.
a. mitoTALENs / mitoZFNs에 의한 결함 mtDNA 선택적 제거
→ Heteroplasmy shifting 전략의 대표적인 방법입니다.
b. 핵 유전자를 이용한 미토콘드리아 단백질 보완 (Allotopic expression)
→ mtDNA에 코딩된 단백질을 핵 DNA에서 발현시켜 보완하는 방식입니다.
c. DdCBE / TALE-DddA 기반 mtDNA 염기 편집 (Base editing)
A-to-G 편집 (왼쪽)
C-to-T 편집 (오른쪽)
→ 이중가닥 절단 없이 단일 염기만 정확히 바꾸는 정밀 편집 기술입니다.
d. mt-tRNA 기능 회복 전략
→ tRNA 구조·변형·번역 효율을 개선하여 단백질 합성을 회복시키는 전략입니다.
ABSTRACT
Mitochondria are multifaceted organelles with several life-sustaining functions beyond energy transformation, including cell signaling, calcium homeostasis, hormone synthesis, programmed cell death (apoptosis), and others. A defining aspect of these dynamic organelles is their remarkable plasticity, which allows them to sense, respond, and adapt to various stressors. In particular, it is well-established that the stress of exercise provides a powerful stimulus that can trigger transient or enduring changes to mitochondrial molecular features, activities, integrated functions, behaviors, and cell-dependent mitochondrial phenotypes. Evidence documenting the many beneficial mitochondrial adaptations to exercise has led to the notion of exercise as a mitochondrial medicine. However, as with other medicines, it is important to understand the optimal prescription (i.e., type, dose, frequency, duration). In this review, we build on a systematic biological framework that distinguishes between domains of mitochondrial biology to critically evaluate how different exercise prescription variables influence mitochondrial adaptations to training.
미토콘드리아는
에너지 변환 외에도
세포 신호 전달, 칼슘 항상성, 호르몬 합성, 프로그램된 세포사멸(아폽토시스) 등
여러 생명 유지 기능을 수행하는 다면적인 세포 소기관입니다.
이러한 역동적인 소기관의 특징적인 측면은
다양한 스트레스에 감지·반응·적응할 수 있는 놀라운 가소성입니다.
특히
운동이라는 스트레스가
미토콘드리아의 분자적 특징, 활성, 통합 기능, 행동,
그리고 세포 의존적 미토콘드리아 표현형에 일시적 또는 지속적인 변화를 유발하는
강력한 자극이 된다는 사실은 잘 확립되어 있습니다.
운동이
미토콘드리아에 미치는 여러 유익한 적응 효과를 입증하는 증거들은
‘운동이 미토콘드리아 의약(medicine)’이라는 개념으로 이어졌습니다.
그러나
다른 의약품과 마찬가지로,
최적의 처방(즉, 유형, 용량, 빈도, 기간)을 이해하는 것이 중요합니다.
이 리뷰에서는
미토콘드리아 생물학의 영역들을 구분하는 체계적인 생물학적 틀을 바탕으로,
다양한 운동 처방 변수가 훈련에 따른 미토콘드리아 적응에 어떻게 영향을 미치는지를 비판적으로 평가합니다.
Keywords
INTRODUCTION
The concept of exercise as medicine has its roots in antiquity. More than 2,000 years ago, Hippocrates wrote that “walking is man's best medicine,” and physicians from various ancient cultures prescribed exercise to enhance health and treat multiple diseases. Evidence supporting the many beneficial effects of regular exercise continues to grow (1). Exercise is one of the most cost-effective approaches to manage and prevent numerous diseases (2), has greater therapeutic value than many drugs, and is also a medicine with few side effects (3). The magnitude of the pleiotropic health benefits associated with regular exercise is influenced by factors including the frequency, intensity, and type of exercise performed.
The pioneering work of John Holloszy (4) [and earlier research by Olga Chepinoga (5)] established that exercise is also a mitochondrial medicine able to alter the content and function of mitochondria—a family of life-sustaining, multifaceted organelles with their own DNA that populate every nucleated cell in mammals. These organelles transform energy from breathed oxygen and ingested nutrients, powering activities and communication throughout the body. Mitochondria are the ultimate source of respiration and possibly the reason why animals evolved lungs and cardiovascular systems to supply mitochondria with life-giving oxygen (6).
Because exercise requires energy in the form of ATP, and most ATP is provided by mitochondria, adaptive mechanisms exist to couple regular exercise with specific mitochondrial adaptations within tissues. This can be considered a form of predictive regulation, or allostasis (7), in which exercised tissues anticipate future energy requirements and mount commensurate adaptations. As a result, exercise stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis (i.e., the synthesis of new mitochondrial components) in skeletal muscle (and other tissues and organs) (8), and many of the health benefits of exercise are believed to originate from subsequent changes in mitochondria (9, 10). However, as with other therapies, it is important to understand how the dose or prescription of exercise affects mitochondrial adaptations important for health.
운동이 약이라는 개념은
고대부터 그 뿌리를 두고 있다.
2,000년 이상 전 히포크라테스는
“걷기가 인간의 최고의 약이다”라고 썼으며,
다양한 고대 문화의 의사들은 건강을 증진하고 여러 질병을 치료하기 위해 운동을 처방했다.
규칙적인 운동의 많은 유익한 효과를 뒷받침하는 증거는
계속해서 증가하고 있다(1).
운동은
수많은 질병을 관리하고 예방하는 가장 비용 효율적인 접근법 중 하나이며(2),
많은 약물보다 더 큰 치료 가치를 지니고,
부작용이 거의 없는 약이기도 하다(3).
규칙적인 운동과 관련된 다면적(pleiotropic) 건강 이득의 크기는
운동의 빈도, 강도, 유형을 포함한 요인들에 의해 영향을 받는다.
John Holloszy의 선구적인 연구(4) [그리고 Olga Chepinoga의 초기 연구(5)]는
운동이 미토콘드리아의 함량과 기능을 변화시킬 수 있는 미토콘드리아 의학이기도 하다는 사실을 확립했다.
미토콘드리아는
자체 DNA를 가진 생명 유지의 다기능 세포 소기관으로,
포유류의 모든 유핵 세포에 존재한다.
이 소기관들은
호흡으로 들어온 산소와 섭취한 영양소에서 에너지를 변환하여
전신의 활동과 소통에 동력을 공급한다.
미토콘드리아는 호흡의 궁극적인 원천이며,
아마도 동물들이 생명에 필수적인 산소를 미토콘드리아에 공급하기 위해 폐와 심혈관계를 진화시킨 이유일 것이다(6).
운동은
ATP 형태의 에너지를 필요로 하며,
대부분의 ATP는 미토콘드리아에서 제공되기 때문에,
규칙적인 운동과 조직 내 특정 미토콘드리아 적응을 연결하는 적응 기전이 존재한다.
이는 운동한 조직이
미래의 에너지 요구를 미리 예측하고
그에 상응하는 적응을 일으키는 예측 조절, 즉 알로스타시스(allostasis)의 한 형태로 볼 수 있다
| 운동 생물학의 렌즈로 대사를 바라보는 것이 국소·전신 대사 조절에 대한 새로운 통찰을 얻는 데 매우 유용하다는 전제에서 출발합니다. 최근 방법론적 발전 덕분에 골격근이 운동으로 인한 많은 건강 이점의 중심 역할을 한다는 사실과, 훈련 적응의 분자적 기반이 더 명확해졌습니다. 논문은 골격근의 대사 유연성(metabolic flexibility)과 기능적 가소성(functional plasticity)을 운동에 대한 반응 관점에서 최신 지식을 바탕으로 정리합니다. 주요 구성:
골격근은 결합조직층과 근다발(fascicle)로 구성되며, 개별 근섬유(syncytial muscle fibre)는 기저막(endomysium)으로 둘러싸여 있습니다. 위성세포(satellite cell)가 근막-기저막 niche에 위치합니다.
2. 급성 운동 시 골격근 대사 고강도 운동을 중심으로 대사 경로의 조절을 상세히 설명합니다.
3. 운동 적응의 분자 조절 급성 운동으로 유발된 신호전달이 전사와 후성유전학적 변화를 통해 장기 적응으로 이어집니다.
4. 지식 공백과 향후 방향 논문은 다음과 같은 미해결 문제를 지적합니다:
이 리뷰는 운동이 단순 “에너지 소비”가 아니라 골격근의 구조·대사·유전자 발현을 재프로그래밍하는 강력한 자극임을 강조합니다. 대사 유연성 향상, 인슐린 감수성 개선, 미토콘드리아 기능 증진, 염증 조절 등이 운동의 건강 이점과 직접 연결됩니다. 특히 integrative medicine이나 만성질환 관리 맥락에서 운동 프로토콜 설계 시 강도, 시간, 개인 상태(훈련 상태, 연령, 대사 상태)를 세밀하게 고려해야 함을 시사합니다. |
| 1. 논문의 핵심 주제 미토콘드리아는 단순히 ATP를 생산하는 기관이 아니라, 환경 변화(영양 상태, 온도, 신체 활동 등)에 대응해 호흡 능력(respiratory capacity)을 동적으로 조절하는 적응적 소기관입니다. 이 리뷰는 미토콘드리아가 에너지 수요 증가에 맞춰 호흡을 증가시키는 분자적·구조적 적응 메커니즘을 체계적으로 정리합니다. 특히 운동처럼 에너지 수요가 급증하는 상황에서 세포와 개체가 생존·적합도를 유지하기 위해 미토콘드리아가 어떻게 “미리 대비”하는지에 초점을 맞춥니다. (사용자가 이전에 언급한 예측 조절 / 알로스타시스 개념과 직접 연결되는 논문입니다.) 2. 주요 적응 메커니즘 (논문에서 제시한 핵심 조절 요소) 이 과정들은 유전자 발현 → 단백질 번역 → 복합체 형성 → 막 수송 → 효소 활성 → 대사물 수준의 계층적 조절로 이루어집니다. 3. 생리학적·병리학적 의의
|
그 결과,
운동은 골격근(및 다른 조직과 장기)에서
미토콘드리아 생합성(즉, 새로운 미토콘드리아 구성 성분의 합성)을 자극하며(8),
운동의 많은 건강 이득은 이후의 미토콘드리아 변화에서 비롯되는 것으로 여겨진다(9, 10).
그러나
다른 치료법과 마찬가지로,
건강에 중요한 미토콘드리아 적응에 운동의 용량이나 처방이 어떻게 영향을 미치는지 이해하는 것이 중요하다.
MITOCHONDRIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Mitochondria are often described as the energy-producing powerhouses of the cell, an analogy first coined in 1957 (11). However, this powerhouse of the cell analogy does not capture the multifunctional nature of these organelles (12). Unlike powerhouses, whose sole function is energy transformation, mitochondria have many functions; these include generating cellular energy, cell signaling, calcium homeostasis, hormone synthesis, programmed cell death (apoptosis), and many other functions (13). Although the only way in which powerhouses can be dysfunctional is by exhibiting diminished energy production capacity, the dozens of mitochondrial functions can malfunction in different ways. For this reason, the terms mitochondrial function and mitochondrial dysfunction 1 are misleading misnomers that fail to capture the complexity of mitochondrial biology (12). Therefore, in this review we deliberately avoid using these terms, even when used in cited references. Instead, to better capture the complexity of mitochondrial biology, we have described the effects of exercise on specific cell-dependent mitochondrial phenotypes, features, activities, functions, and behaviors [as previously described (12) and illustrated in Figure 1 ].
Figure 1 Measurements across the domains of mitochondrial biology reviewed in this article. We build on a published systematic biological framework, which distinguishes five domains of mitochondrial biology: cell-dependent phenotypes (e.g., mitochondrial mass or content), features (molecular components or building blocks, generally measurable from frozen cellular material), activities (the interaction of multiple features, resulting in specific enzymatic activities or intrinsic properties of mitochondria), functions (the combination of several activities, resulting in the transformation of inputs into outputs at the organelle level), and behaviors (a series of activities and functions that often involve the organelle as a whole, rather than individual features). A more detailed description of these domains of mitochondrial biology is provided elsewhere (12). Abbreviations: I–IV, complexes I–IV; CoQ, coenzyme Q10; Cyt C, cytochrome C; DRP1, dynamin-related protein 1; ETC, electron transport chain; FIS1, mitochondrial fission 1; MFN1/2, mitofusin-1/2; mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA; OPA1, optic atrophy 1 (OPA1 mitochondrial dynamin-like GTPase); OxPhos, oxidative phosphorylation; PCr, phosphocreatine; Pi, inorganic phosphate; TCA, tricarboxylic acid. Figure adapted from images created in BioRender; Bishop D. 2025. https://BioRender.com/o51r251 .
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Cell-Dependent Phenotypes
The most common mitochondrial measure in exercise studies is mitochondrial content (sometimes referred to as mitochondrial mass, fractional area, or volume density, MitoVD ), reflecting the proportion of the muscle volume occupied by mitochondria. As the mitochondrial population exists in a three-dimensional (3D) network, high-resolution 3D confocal imaging or focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) are more direct approaches to quantify MitoVD. However, these techniques have not been used in the context of exercising humans, and two-dimensional imaging using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is usually regarded as the reference standard for measuring MitoVD. Because TEM is not available in many laboratories, surrogate measures (or biomarkers) of mitochondrial content are more often used in exercise training studies. Of these, cardiolipin content and the activity of citrate synthase (CS; an enzyme exclusively located in the mitochondria) were most strongly associated with MitoVD as measured by TEM; mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was a poor predictor of mitochondrial content (14). Nonetheless, a limitation with all biomarkers is that, despite the relatively strong correlations with mitochondrial content reported in cross-sectional studies, the validity of these biomarkers to assess training-induced changes in mitochondrial content has been questioned (15, 16).
Features
Mitochondrial features refer to the intrinsic building blocks of mitochondria that can be assessed with quantifiable metrics. In the context of exercise training, they have sometimes been assessed via static measures of mitochondrial morphology (e.g., cristae density, complexity, size, length, circularity). While mitochondrial features also include the abundance of specific mitochondrial proteins or protein complexes, there was insufficient space in this review to adequately discuss the influence of exercise prescription on these features. Changes in mitochondrial features are not always stoichiometrically linked to the overall change in mitochondrial content (17), and training-induced changes in some mitochondrial features (e.g., cristae density) have been proposed to contribute to altered mitochondrial respiratory function (18).
Activities
Molecular and morphological mitochondrial features combine and contribute to mitochondrial activities—dynamic processes that include the enzyme activities of single proteins (e.g., CS) or multiprotein complexes (e.g., the isolated enzymatic activities of the OxPhos complexes). As CS activity is more often used as a biomarker of mitochondrial content, we focus on training-induced changes in the enzymatic activities of the OxPhos complexes in this review. Another important activity is mitochondrial protein synthesis (MitoPS), which has been suggested as the best measure of mitochondrial biogenesis (19). The rate of MitoPS is typically quantified via the infusion of stable isotope–labeled amino acid tracers or the oral administration of the stable isotope deuterium oxide (heavy water); these two approaches are comprehensively reviewed elsewhere (20). MitoPS is often assessed in mitochondria-enriched fractions, but it can also be estimated from changes in protein synthesis in a sarcoplasmic fraction, which is also enriched for mitochondria (21); both of these fractions will also contain other myofibrillar proteins (17) and provide only an estimate of MitoPS.
Functions
Mitochondrial functions generally involve multiple activities contributing to the conversion of an input into an output. In the context of mitochondria and training, the function most frequently assessed is energy transformation. This function requires mitochondria to convert macronutrients, or their derivatives/metabolites, into ATP (energy) via OxPhos. Skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiratory function can be assessed via several techniques ( Figure 1 ). The rate of oxygen consumption may be determined from either isolated mitochondria (i.e., in vitro) or permeabilized muscle fibers (i.e., ex vivo), both of which are obtained from skeletal muscle biopsies. Rates of oxygen consumption determined on permeabilized fibers are typically expressed as mass-specific mitochondrial respiration (i.e., the rate of oxygen consumption per milligram of tissue) or mitochondria-specific (intrinsic) mitochondrial respiration (i.e., the rate of oxygen consumption normalized to a measure of mitochondrial content) (22). Furthermore, 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy techniques can determine phosphocreatine recovery rates and estimate mitochondrial ATP production rates in vivo. Mitochondrial ATP production rate can also be assessed in vitro via bioluminescent assays. Although each approach has its advantages and disadvantages, each method can influence the measurement of mitochondrial respiration in different ways (23), and their varied use throughout the literature compounds the difficulty of identifying and interpreting the effect of different exercise prescriptions on mitochondrial respiratory function.
Behaviors
Behaviors are best understood as a series of activities and functions that often involve the organelle as a whole, rather than individual features. Whereas mitochondrial activities and functions commonly refer to processes that take place endogenously within a mitochondrion, behaviors typically involve changes or movement of whole mitochondria and/or interactions with other organellar or intercellular partners. However, instead of directly visualizing mitochondrial behaviors in vivo (as is possible in cells and animal tissues), these events are usually assessed indirectly in humans via changes in regulatory proteins (features) that reflect the propensity or capacity for different behaviors. While this approach has provided important information, these techniques are insufficient to quantify changes in these dynamic processes (24). In the context of exercise, the most commonly assessed mitochondrial behaviors include indirect markers of the fusion and fission dynamics that morphologically and functionally reshape the whole organelle. Another behavior critical for the maintenance of mitochondria is the removal of mitochondria marked for degradation. This occurs via mitophagy, a form of targeted macroautophagy (hereafter termed autophagy 2 ) in which damaged mitochondria are targeted, engulfed by a double-membrane vesicle called an autophagosome, and degraded once fused with a lysosome (25).
PRINCIPLES OF EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION
Terminology
As with terms related to mitochondrial biology, concerns have been raised about the inconsistent use of terminology associated with the prescription of exercise (26, 27). These inconsistencies have the potential to hamper the establishment of evidence-based recommendations for the optimal prescription of exercise to improve mitochondrial characteristics important for health. In this review, we have adopted the terminology recently proposed in a joint expert statement from Exercise and Sport Science Australia (ESSA) and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (26).
Definitions of Key Terminology and Concepts
Responses to training are determined by characteristics of the exercise 3 stimulus ( Figure 2 ). In many guidelines, exercise is prescribed using the FITT-VP principle (28):
Figure 2 Common principles of exercise prescription. Exercise is often prescribed via the manipulation of variables such as frequency, intensity, time, type, volume, and progression. The MT1 is the first detectable change in metabolism (red dashed arrow), as usually identified by LT1, VT, or GET. The MT2 is often determined by LT2, MLSS, or CP/CS (red solid arrow). Abbreviations: CP/CS, critical power/speed; GET, gas exchange threshold [a nonlinear increase in carbon dioxide output (
CO2) plotted as a function of oxygen consumption −
O2]; LT1, first increase in blood lactate concentration above baseline; LT2, second lactate threshold; MLSS, maximal lactate steady state; MT1, first metabolic threshold; MT2, second metabolic threshold; VT, ventilatory threshold (a nonlinear increase in minute ventilation −
E);
O2max, maximal rate of oxygen consumption. Figure adapted from images created in BioRender; Bishop D. 2025. https://BioRender.com/m45y928 .
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There are two main exercise types: cardiorespiratory exercise and resistance exercise. Cardiorespiratory exercise requires the circulatory and respiratory systems to work together to support the metabolism of skeletal muscles and other organs to enable sustained exercise. Resistance exercise requires skeletal muscles to exert force to push or pull against resistance with sufficient effort such that the number of repetitions or duration of contractions is limited due to neuromuscular fatigue. Exercise frequency simply refers to the number of exercise sessions completed in a week. Although it is the easiest exercise prescription variable to manipulate, and a higher exercise frequency has been associated with greater health-related quality-of-life scores (29) and better glycaemic control (30), very few studies have directly investigated the effects of exercise frequency on mitochondrial characteristics (for this reason, it is only briefly addressed in this review). Exercise intensity is more complex and can be prescribed in absolute (e.g., 270 W or 19 km/h) or relative [i.e., as a percentage of an individual's maximal rate of oxygen consumption (
O2max ), e.g., 70% of
O2max] terms. Low-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise has been defined as efforts performed at an intensity below the first metabolic threshold, the first detectable change in metabolism (31) ( Figure 2 ). Moderate-intensity exercise has been defined as efforts generally performed at intensities between the first metabolic threshold and the second metabolic threshold, often determined by the maximal lactate steady state (MLSS), the critical power/speed (CP/CS), or lactate parameters derived from a graded exercise test (GXT) 4 (32). More details on the advantages and disadvantages of each method for determining the second metabolic threshold can be obtained from recent reviews (33, 34). Exercise performed at an intensity greater than the second metabolic threshold but less than the intensity associated with
O2max (Ẇmax ) is commonly described as high-intensity training (often in the form of high-intensity interval training, HIIT).fn5 Very-high-intensity training is characterized by efforts performed at intensities equal to or greater than Ẇmax and includes sprint interval training (SIT). Exercise time is the duration (seconds, minutes, or hours) of one continuous bout or multiple bouts of exercise. For this review, training volume 5 has been defined as the total amount of work performed during training [i.e., the product of exercise intensity and exercise time for cardiorespiratory exercises (35) or the amount of weight used multiplied by the total number of repetitions performed for resistance exercises (36)]; this is sometimes referred to as training load or volume load in the literature. Finally, it is well established that there is a reduced adaptive response when the same exercise session is repeated (37, 38). Progression, therefore, refers to a gradual increase in the exercise stress (e.g., via increases in the frequency, intensity, and time of exercise) in an attempt to maintain the stimulus for adaptation.
MITOCHONDRIAL ADAPTATIONS TO EXERCISE TRAINING
Cell-Dependent Phenotypes (i.e., Mitochondrial Content) and Training
Since the pioneering work of John Holloszy in the 1960s, exercise training has been known to increase mitochondrial content (as assessed by the total protein content of the mitochondria in rodent skeletal muscle) (4). Subsequent research using TEM has confirmed these results in healthy young men and women (16, 39–47), the elderly (48), and those with lifestyle diseases (49, 50). Training-induced increases in MitoVD range from ∼10% (51) to ∼90% (50), with as little as six exercise sessions sufficient to increase this parameter (41). The variable magnitude for the reported changes in MitoVD with training has been hypothesized to be attributable to the diverse training protocols used in the different studies (52).
While this topic continues to be debated (53, 54), there is evidence that total training volume is an important determinant of changes in MitoVD ( Figure 3a ). A study comparing five different training volumes ( Figure 3a ) reported that training-induced changes in MitoVD tended to increase with greater training volumes (41). However, the lack of significant differences between groups with the three highest training volumes indicates the potential existence of a plateau for changes in mitochondrial content at greater training volumes. Interestingly, four of the smallest changes in MitoVD coincide with some of the lowest exercise intensities ( Figure 3a ); this and recent research (55) suggest there may also be a role of exercise intensity in determining training-induced changes in mitochondrial content.
Figure 3 Cell-dependent phenotypes (i.e., mitochondrial content) and training. The relationship between (a) training volume and changes in MitoVD, (b) training volume and changes in CS activity, (c) exercise intensity and changes in CS activity, (d) exercise frequency and changes in CS activity, (e) exercise frequency and changes in CS activity (normalized to volume of training), and (f) training type and mitochondrial content. Note: for panels a–c, the colors correspond to the intensity zones depicted in Figure 2 , with the area of the shapes proportional to the training intensity employed in each study. Note also that the squares represent the results from a single study that compared five programs consisting of different training volumes. Abbreviations: CR, cardiorespiratory; CS, citrate synthase; MitoVD, mitochondrial volume density; TCA, tricarboxylic acid; TEM, transmission electron microscopy; Ẇmax, the intensity associated with the maximal rate of oxygen consumption (
O2max). Figure adapted from images created in BioRender. Bishop D. 2025. https://BioRender.com/d62p435 .
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It is difficult to draw strong conclusions regarding the effects of exercise intensity on training-induced changes in MitoVD. Although two studies from the same group have reported greater training-induced changes in MitoVD with higher-intensity training, the high-intensity groups also completed a greater training volume (51, 56). One study has reported greater increases in MitoVD with high- versus low-intensity training (49); however, this study recruited middle-aged adults with type 2 diabetes and employed quite a low intensity (∼50% Ẇmax) in the low-intensity group. In contrast, another study involving obese men observed almost twice the increase in MitoVD following moderate- (∼64% Ẇmax) versus very-high-intensity (∼200% Ẇmax) training (50). Further research is required, but it appears that training volume is the more important determinant of training-induced changes in MitoVD, and there may be an exercise-intensity threshold below which changes in MitoVD are limited. This is reinforced by the observation that no changes in MitoVD were reported after 32 days of low-intensity cross-country skiing (342 ± 42 min/day) (57). This result also seems to suggest that exercise time (duration) is not an independent determinant of changes in MitoVD, and a long exercise duration [nearly 6 h/d in this latter study (57)] cannot compensate for a low exercise intensity.
In skeletal muscle fibers, there are two main subpopulations of mitochondria: intermyofibrillar (IMF) mitochondria, which commonly account for >80% of total mitochondria, and subsarcolemmal (SS) mitochondria, which typically account for <20% of total mitochondria [although the relative amount of SS mitochondria has been reported to be >30% in competitive, professional cyclists (52)]. SS mitochondria are also termed paravascular mitochondria, as they are almost always located in sarcolemmal grooves adjacent to capillary blood vessels that supply the mitochondria substrates and oxygen (and remove metabolic byproducts) (58, 59). Most studies have reported that cardiorespiratory exercise training leads to a greater relative increase in SS mitochondria but a greater absolute increase in IMF mitochondria (16, 39, 40, 43, 51, 56). As a consequence, changes in the IMF mitochondria contribute more to the increase in total mitochondrial content than SS mitochondria. Both mitochondrial populations have been reported to increase in all fiber types; 6 however, while the average MitoVD varies in different fiber types [∼6% in type I fibers to ∼4.5% in type IIa fibers and ∼2.5% in type IIx fibers (61–63)], the largest training-induced increases in MitoVD occur in type IIa fibers, such that the MitoVD in type IIa fibers can be as high as in type I fibers (52, 61, 62). Whether different exercise prescriptions have divergent effects on the two mitochondrial populations, and fiber-specific adaptations, remains to be investigated. Given that skeletal muscle fiber recruitment is related to exercise intensity (64), further research is also required to investigate whether higher exercise intensities stimulate greater changes to MitoVD in type II fibers compared with lower exercise intensities.
There is also a relationship between total training volume and changes in mitochondrial content when assessed with CS activity (65, 66) ( Figure 3b ). This association was even stronger when studies employing very-high-intensity exercise were not included; this suggests that when relative exercise intensity is <100% Ẇmax, training volume is an important driver of increases in CS activity. There was, however, no significant association between exercise intensity and changes in CS activity ( Figure 3c ; consistent with observations for MitoVD). This does not imply that intensity is unimportant; in the two studies reporting greater increases in CS activity with higher-intensity training, the comparison group trained at a relatively low intensity (∼50% Ẇmax or walking) (67, 68). This again supports the hypothesis that there may be an exercise-intensity threshold below which changes in mitochondrial content are limited. There is also some evidence that a high intensity can compensate for a lower training volume; however, we are not aware of any studies reporting a significantly greater increase in CS activity with either high- or very-high-intensity exercise compared with moderate-intensity exercise (if the moderate intensity is >50% Ẇmax ) (69–73). While the effectiveness of higher exercise intensities to increase mitochondrial content continues to be debated (53, 54), what is clear is that very-high-intensity exercise can be more time efficient; i.e., changes in CS activity per exercise time or training volume are greater with very-high-intensity than moderate-intensity exercise (71–73).
We are not aware of studies directly investigating the role of exercise frequency on mitochondrial content, but some insights can be obtained by comparing the findings from studies that have employed different training frequencies. The first observation is that the relationship between exercise frequency and changes in CS activity appear to represent an inverted-U function ( Figure 3d ). The larger changes in CS activity with moderate- versus low-frequency training can probably be attributed to differences in total training volume (65). This is reinforced by the absence of a significant relationship between exercise frequency and change in CS activity normalized to total training volume ( Figure 3e ). The smaller change in CS activity with high- versus moderate-frequency training is more difficult to explain but can possibly be attributed to the reduced recovery between exercise sessions.
There has been limited research on the influence of exercise type on mitochondrial content, with most research conducted using cardiorespiratory exercise. This can probably be attributed to the view that resistance-training-induced increases in myofiber cross-sectional area are likely to dilute skeletal muscle mitochondrial volume (i.e., myofibrillar hypertrophy leads to a decrease in the proportion of the muscle volume occupied by mitochondria) (74–76). Indeed, early studies using TEM reported that MitoVD was reduced after six weeks to six months of resistance training in young, healthy adults; the absolute volume of mitochondria tended to remain constant (74–76). Resistance-training-induced dilutions of mitochondrial content have also been inferred from decreases in CS activity (per mg of muscle or protein) (77–80). However, the notion that resistance training always dilutes skeletal muscle mitochondrial content has been challenged by reports of unchanged MitoVD (81) or CS activity (82–89) after some resistance training interventions and the observation that elite strength athletes have a similar MitoVD to untrained individuals (90). This suggests that it is possible to achieve proportional increases in mitochondrial content and myofibrillar volume with some types of resistance training. Two studies have reported increased CS activity with resistance training (91, 92), but, in the only study to also include TEM (91), this was without a significant increase in MitoVD. Collectively, these results suggest that some resistance training prescriptions can increase absolute but not relative mitochondrial content in skeletal muscles. However, more research is required to determine whether some of the contrasting findings can be attributed to different resistance training prescriptions (e.g., weight lifted, training volume). Future investigations that include direct measures of mitochondrial volume (e.g., TEM, but also FIB-SEM) are also needed to clarify some of the conflicting findings.
Mitochondrial Features (Mitochondrial Morphology)
The relationship between form and function is a ubiquitous theme in biology, and the architecture of the mitochondria is an excellent example (93). Despite this, the effect of different exercise prescriptions on mitochondria form (morphological features) remains an underexplored topic. One of the most studied areas has been cristae density, with the consensus being that mitochondria are optimized and well-balanced units and that it is not possible to increase cristae density (total cristae surface area divided by mitochondrial volume), which is fixed at around 30 μm2·μm−3 (58, 94). For example, in a cross-sectional study, the mitochondrial cristae density in well-trained, moderately trained, and untrained individuals did not differ (58). More recent findings support the concept of plasticity, as mitochondrial cristae density was 25% higher in endurance-trained athletes (95) and 16% higher in resistance-trained athletes (90) when compared with untrained individuals ( Figure 4a ). Interestingly, values for mitochondrial cristae density close to 60 μm2·μm−3 have been reported in hummingbird flight muscles (96), which also supports the potential for mitochondrial cristae density in mammalian muscle to exceed 30 μm2·μm−3. Nonetheless, researchers have not observed significant changes in mitochondrial morphology with less than three months of either cardiorespiratory (95) or resistance (74) training, suggesting that the higher cristae density values in well-trained athletes cannot be achieved by short-term training (regardless of type). Much longer training studies, with potentially higher values of important exercise prescription variables like training volume and/or intensity, may be required to demonstrate training-induced changes in cristae density. Further research is also required on other underinvestigated areas, such as the effects of different exercise prescriptions on the size, length, circularity, and complexity of mitochondria.
Figure 4 Exercise alters multiple domains of mitochondrial biology. A summary of the effects of exercise on (a) mitochondrial cristae density, (b) mitochondrial protein synthesis, (c) activity of the ETC complexes (I–IV), (d) mitochondrial respiratory function, and (e) mitochondrial dynamics: fusion, fission, and mitophagy. In panel b, the thicker outline of the protein indicates an increase in activity of enzymes following exercise training. Abbreviations: CR, cardiorespiratory; CRE, cardiorespiratory exercise; ETC, electron transport chain; RE, resistance exercise; RT, resistance training. For panel d, each point represents an individual study, and the solid line represents the trend of the relationship between exercise intensity and change in respiration. Figure adapted from images created in BioRender; Bishop D. 2025. https://BioRender.com/w45v993 .
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Mitochondrial Activities (MitoPS and Activities of the OxPhos Complexes)
Based on the few studies that have directly assessed exercise-induced changes in MitoPS, there is emerging evidence that increases in MitoPS are more likely following higher (89, 97–99) than lower (97, 100, 101) intensity cardiorespiratory exercise; however, there has been limited comparison of different exercise intensities within the same study. Given the evidence that total training volume is an important determinant of changes in mitochondrial content [see the section titled Cell-Dependent Phenotypes (i.e., Mitochondrial Content) and Training], it would be interesting to investigate the influence of cardiorespiratory training volume on MitoPS (along with the influence of training frequency and exercise duration). Regarding exercise type, although resistance exercise has sometimes been reported to increase MitoPS (89, 102, 103), these changes are typically less than those observed following moderate- to high-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise (89, 97, 102) ( Figure 4b ). Most resistance exercise studies have employed relatively heavy loads (loads that can only be lifted 8–12 times), and it is not known whether higher training volumes might promote greater increases in MitoPS; one study has reported greater increases in MitoPS when concentric and eccentric actions were 6 s versus 1 s in duration (103), which suggests that time under tension might be an important determinant of resistance-exercise-induced increases in MitoPS. Finally, to maintain exercise-induced increases in MitoPS, it is likely to be important that progression is applied to the exercise stimulus. One study reported that exercise-induced increases in MitoPS were reduced after 10 weeks of either cardiorespiratory or resistance training (89); similar findings have been reported for myofibrillar protein synthesis (104).
Increased MitoPS, which includes the import of proteins from the cytoplasm into mitochondria, may underlie changes in the abundance and activities of the four multiprotein complexes (complexes I to IV) of the electron transport chain (in conjunction with F0F1–ATP synthase or complex V), which are responsible for energy conversion within mitochondria via OxPhos. However, we are aware of only three studies investigating changes in the enzymatic activities of the OxPhos complexes in humans (17, 105, 106). In the first study, there were similar increases in complex I to IV activity (46–61%) and CS activity (51%) following 6 weeks of training (a combination of moderate- and high-intensity exercise performed 4×/week across 24 sessions). A second study also reported that changes in complex I to IV activity (40–50%) were stoichiometrically associated with the overall increase in CS activity (∼40%), but were only significant following high (2×/day, 7 days/week, for 3 weeks across 40 sessions) and not normal (3×/week for 2 weeks across 6 sessions) volume high-intensity interval training (17). These findings of proportional changes in mitochondrial content and OxPhos enzyme activity raise the possibility that training-induced changes in OxPhos enzyme activity may also be influenced by total training volume ( Figure 4c ). However, more research is required to test this hypothesis and to assess the effects of manipulating other exercise parameters on OxPhos complex enzyme activities. While two studies have reported similar percentage changes in complexes I to IV with training (17, 105), another study from one of these two research groups reported much larger increases in complex I activity (152%) than the activities of complexes II to IV (40–58%) and CS activity (45%) (106). This finding is difficult to explain, as they employed a very similar training protocol to their previous study (105) (i.e., a combination of moderate- and high-intensity exercise performed 4×/week across 24 sessions). Nonetheless, given that it has previously been observed that changes in the relative protein abundance of complex I did not correlate with any other complex (48), and the capacity of complex I constrains ATP synthesis (107), further research should investigate whether the individual complex activities have divergent responses to different exercise prescriptions.
Mitochondrial Respiratory Function
Mitochondrial cell-dependent phenotypes (e.g., mitochondrial content), features (e.g., size and shape), and even activities (e.g., enzymatic activities of the OxPhos complexes) do not always reflect the functional capacities of mitochondria. Indeed, training-induced changes in mitochondrial respiratory function have been reported without concomitant changes in mitochondrial content (108–110) and vice versa (16, 40). This suggests that complex functions, which emerge from the interactions among more simple features and activities, can be modulated by mechanisms beyond the simple abundance of the molecular building blocks. In the context of understanding how exercise ultimately influences mitochondrial biology, this highlights the need to directly assess the influence of different exercise prescriptions on mitochondrial respiratory function (65).
The greatest training-induced changes in mass-specific mitochondrial respiration (i.e., the rate of oxygen consumption per gram of tissue) are typically observed with higher volumes of high-intensity cardiorespiratory training (17, 111–116) ( Figure 4d ). Neither a high training volume (117) nor a high training intensity (108, 109, 118–120) alone appears sufficient to achieve the largest increases in mass-specific mitochondrial respiration. For example, when directly comparing training groups matched for total training volume, only the group exercising at the higher exercise intensity increased mass-specific mitochondrial respiration (68, 111). Similarly, very-high-intensity training (108, 109, 118–120) was associated with smaller increases in mass-specific mitochondrial respiration than high-intensity training, probably due to the substantial reduction in training volume necessary to train at these very high intensities. It has, therefore, been hypothesised that to maximize improvements in mass-specific mitochondrial respiration it is important to exercise at the highest cardiorespiratory exercise intensity that will also allow a relatively large training volume to be completed (65). Nonetheless, it could be argued that very-high-intensity training is more time efficient, as it produces the largest gains in mass-specific mitochondrial respiration per total training volume or time (65, 121).
Despite the abovementioned results, it has recently been suggested that there might be an upper limit to the volume of high-intensity training that can be tolerated by healthy individuals before there is a decrease in mitochondrial respiratory function (122). In this study, there was a decrease in intrinsic mitochondrial respiration (i.e., in vitro respiratory function assessed in isolated mitochondria) when the volume of high-intensity training was increased by ∼70%. However, it is important to note that measures on isolated mitochondria, which represent only a small subpopulation of the mitochondria, might not accurately reflect changes to in vivo mitochondrial respiratory function (123). In support of this, two studies using the permeabilized muscle fiber technique (where fibers contain all of their mitochondria and where normal mitochondrial morphology and intracellular interactions are preserved) reported training-induced increases in mitochondrial respiration after a substantially greater training load (17, 112). Further research is required to clarify these disparate findings.
With respect to training type, few studies have investigated changes in mitochondrial respiratory function with resistance training. When measured using high-resolution respirometry and permeabilized skeletal muscle fibers, mass-specific mitochondrial respiration increased after 6–12 weeks of various resistance training interventions [including high-load, low-load, and blood flow–restricted training approaches (82, 85, 124)]. Furthermore, young, resistance-trained athletes (with ≥5 years of training) had higher mass-specific mitochondrial respiration than healthy controls (125). This suggests that both short- and long-term resistance training can increase mass-specific mitochondrial respiratory function in skeletal muscle. Furthermore, given that two of these studies reported unchanged CS activity (82, 85) (see the section titled Cell-Dependent Phenotypes), this indicates the potential for resistance training to increase intrinsic mitochondrial respiratory function. However, this idea contrasts with three studies from the same research group reporting unchanged mitochondrial respiratory function (measured in isolated mitochondria) after 8–12 weeks of resistance training in healthy, sedentary adults (81, 116, 126). As described earlier, these conflicting findings may be partially attributed to differences in rates of respiration when measured in isolated mitochondria versus within their usual cellular milieu (i.e., in permeabilized fibers) (127). The role of exercise frequency has not been directly investigated, but a higher frequency of cardiorespiratory exercise is associated with larger training-induced changes in mass-specific mitochondrial respiration (17); however, this can probably be attributed to the concomitant larger training volume rather than the greater training frequency, per se.
The mechanisms responsible for training-induced increases in mitochondrial respiration remain to be established. However, it has been suggested that improvements in mass-specific mitochondrial respiration can predominantly be attributed to an expansion of the mitochondrial network (i.e., an increase in mitochondrial content) (108). This is supported by reports that changes in mitochondrial respiration are no longer apparent when normalized to concomitant changes in various markers of mitochondrial content (17, 68, 108, 118, 128) and the absence of significant changes in mass-specific respiration when there is not a significant increase in mitochondrial content (117). However, there is evidence that very-high-intensity exercise (e.g., SIT) can increase mitochondrial respiration relative to mitochondrial content (i.e., it increases mitochondrial-specific or intrinsic respiration) (109). In contrast, studies have also reported greater training-induced increases in mitochondrial content than mitochondrial respiration, especially in studies employing relatively large training volumes (16, 68, 109, 119). Further investigation is warranted into the possible underlying mechanisms responsible for a dissociation between training-induced changes in mass-specific respiration and mitochondrial content (especially when assessed via TEM) and whether this can be attributed to specific exercise prescription variables.
Mitochondrial Behaviors
Mitochondrial fission and fusion are two integral behaviors that have been shown to influence other mitochondrial characteristics (e.g., mitochondrial morphology and various mitochondrial functions). In the absence of visual confirmation that exercise alters these behaviors, research in humans has largely been restricted to measuring the abundance of key regulatory proteins. Consistent with the more fused mitochondrial network that occurs in response to cardiorespiratory training, the relative abundance of proteins that regulate fusion (e.g., MFN1, MFN2, OPA1) has often (16, 37, 68, 81, 109, 129–131), but not always (37, 81, 131, 132), been reported to increase with cardiorespiratory training [with inconsistent changes sometimes reported for different proteins, even within the same study (37, 81, 131)] ( Figure 4e ). Two studies have reported similar increases in MFN2 abundance following moderate- or high-intensity training (68, 109), but one study reported greater increases in OPA1 with high- versus moderate-intensity training (81). Low-load, high-volume resistance training (i.e., 30% of the one-repetition maximum lifted until failure) has been observed to increase OPA1 (but not MFN2) protein abundance (133), whereas no changes in fusion proteins were reported after training that included higher training loads (81, 133, 134). The influence of training on fission proteins is less consistent. Increases (37, 129, 133), no changes (81, 109, 133, 134), and decreases (81, 131) in the relative abundance of proteins that regulate fission (e.g., FIS1 and DRP1) have been reported in response to cardiorespiratory exercise training. While it has been proposed that resistance exercise may promote a profission state (based on exercise-induced changes in mitochondrial morphology and genes that promote fission) (90), most resistance training studies (81, 133, 134) [except one study that included low-load, high-volume resistance training (133)] have not observed changes in fission proteins. In summary, we know little about the influence of different exercise prescriptions on fusion and fission, especially when these behaviors are measured directly.
Although there is some evidence that mitochondrial fission partitions severely damaged sections of mitochondria for subsequent removal, whether or not fission is a prerequisite for subsequent removal continues to be debated (135). Nonetheless, research in mice, which directly assessed mitophagy in vivo (with a fluorescent reporter gene, pMitoTimer), suggests that mitophagy is sensitive to energy stress and is induced by a single session of cardiorespiratory exercise (90 min at various treadmill speeds) (136). We are not aware of comparable studies in humans, but it is likely that exercise also induces mitophagy in human skeletal muscle. A recent study used an ex vivo autophagy flux assay (where the fusion of the autophagosome with the lysosome is chemically blocked, followed by measurement of the protein abundance of LC3-II, a marker of autophagosome content); results suggested that there is a conserved exercise-induced increase in whole-muscle autophagy flux in rodents and humans (137). Interestingly, the authors also reported a trend for a greater exercise-induced increase in autophagy with very-high-intensity exercise (SIT) compared with low-intensity exercise (137). Further research is required to investigate the effects of manipulating different exercise prescription variables (including exercise type) on autophagy/mitophagy flux. Interestingly, research on mitochondria-enriched fractions from mice indicates that exercise-induced mitophagy flux was attenuated following a period of exercise training (138). It would be valuable to investigate whether this response is also conserved in humans and whether it is possible to maintain the levels of exercise-induced mitophagy by progressing the exercise stimulus (e.g., by increasing the exercise intensity).
SUMMARY
For close to 100 years, it has been known that exercise is a potent stressor that can alter multiple domains of mitochondrial biology. Recent research has built on this foundation and is beginning to uncover how manipulating different exercise prescription variables influences mitochondrial adaptations to training. Cardiorespiratory training volume appears to be an important determinant of changes in mitochondrial content, but there may be an exercise-intensity threshold below which changes are limited. The long-held view that it is not possible to increase mitochondrial cristae density is being challenged by the findings of cross-sectional studies, but there is no evidence that cristae density can be increased by short-term training. Increases in MitoPS are more likely following higher- than lower-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise, and less strongly stimulated by resistance exercise. Training-induced changes in the enzymatic activities of the OxPhos complexes appear to be greater with higher volumes of high-intensity cardiorespiratory training and stoichiometrically associated with increases in mitochondrial content. The greatest training-induced changes in mass-specific mitochondrial respiration are typically observed with higher volumes of high-intensity cardiorespiratory training. The relative abundance of proteins that regulate fusion has often, but not always, been reported to increase with both cardiorespiratory and resistance training. Mitophagy appears to be induced by a single session of cardiorespiratory exercise, but more research using more direct measures (e.g., ex vivo autophagy flux assays) is required to confirm these findings. Nonetheless, while these findings highlight that much progress has been made, further research is required to optimize the prescription of exercise as a so-called mitochondrial medicine. This will assist the transition toward the more holistic medical framework envisioned by Hippocrates more than 2,000 years ago and allow scientists and practitioners to develop more effective prescriptions of “exercise as medicine” to better prevent disease and improve health.
disclosure statement
The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding or financial holdings that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
acknowledgments
Given the reference limits imposed by this journal, it was not possible to cite all relevant articles regarding this topic, and we would like to acknowledge that many relevant and excellent articles were not included in the final version of the article. This work was supported by Australian Research Council (ARC) and National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) grants to D.J.B. (DP140104165, DP200103542, and GNT2013427). M.P. gratefully acknowledges support from NIH grants (R01MH122706, R01AG066828, and R01MH119336), the Wharton Fund, and the Baszucki Group.
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