세일즈맨의 죽음(Death of a Salesman) - 대공황에 무너진 '아메리칸 드림'… 보편적 연민·감동 담았죠

[정승남세기영어교육연구회장]

[무대 위 인문학] 세일즈맨의 죽음(Death of a Salesman)

대공황에 무너진 '아메리칸 드림'… 보편적 연민·감동 담았죠

세일즈맨의 죽음

Death of a Salesman

아서 밀러 Arthur Miller

세일즈맨의 죽음(Death of a Salesman)의 작가이다.

30년간 오직 세일즈맨으로 살아온 윌리 로먼은 그 일을 자랑으로 생각하고 성실하게 살면 반드시 성공한다는 신념을 가지고 있었으나 세월이 지나면서 육체적·정신적 노동은 계속 늘어가는 반면 수입은 상대적으로 줄어드는 생활고를 겪게 된다. 유일한 희망이었던 두 아들 비프와 해피는 그의 기대와는 달리 방황하고 타락한다.

현실과 자식들에게 배반당하고도 그 사실을 인정하지 않던 완고한 윌리는 늘 다투어오던 비프와 화해하던 날, 아들에게 보험금을 물려줄 생각으로 자동차를 과속으로 몰아 자살한다. 그리스 비극과는 의미가 다르지만 현대사회에서도 고상한 비극 작품을 쓸 수 있다는 작가의 신념을 구체화한 작품으로, 상연되자마자 걸작으로 인정받고 퓰리처상과 연극비평가상을 받았다.

Death of a Salesman is a 1949 stage play written by the American playwright Arthur Miller. The play premiered on Broadway in February 1949, running for 742 performances. It is a two-act tragedy set in late 1940s Brooklyn told through a montage of memories, dreams, and arguments of the protagonist Willy Loman, a travelling salesman who is despondent with his life and appears to be slipping into senility. The play addresses a variety of themes, such as the American Dream, the anatomy of truth, and infidelity. It won the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for Drama and Tony Award for Best Play. It is considered by some critics to be one of the greatest plays of the 20th century.[1] The play is included in numerous anthologies.

Since its premiere, the play has been revived on Broadway five times, winning three Tony Awards for Best Revival. It has been adapted for the cinema on ten occasions, including a 1951 version by screenwriter Stanley Roberts, starring Fredric March. In 1999, New Yorker drama critic John Lahr said that with 11 million copies sold, it was "probably the most successful modern play ever published."[2]

최여정 ‘이럴 때 연극’ 저자 기획·구성=윤상진 기자 입력 2025.03.10. 00:40 조선일보

최근 국내 공연 연극 ‘세일즈맨의 죽음’에서 주인공 윌리 역할을 맡은 배우 박근형(왼쪽)씨와 아내 린다 역의 예수정씨. 극중 부부는 별다른 직업을 얻지 못하고 방황하는 큰아들 비프의 미래를 두고도 고민합니다. /쇼앤텔플레이·T2N미디어

20세기 최고의 희곡 중 하나로 꼽히는 ‘세일즈맨의 죽음(Death of a Salesman)’은 1949년 브로드웨이에서 초연됐습니다. 그해 최고 권위 상들인 퓰리처상과 토니상을 수상하며 작가 아서 밀러(1915~2005)에게 세계적인 명성을 안겨 줬죠. 한국에선 1950년대에 첫 공연이 올려진 이후 기주봉, 강신구, 이순재, 전무송 등 쟁쟁한 배우들이 이 작품의 주인공 ‘윌리’ 역을 거쳐 갔습니다. 최근 서울 공연을 마치고 15개 지방 공연(전주, 부산, 대구, 용인, 인천, 수원, 의정부 등)을 앞두고 있는 박근형 배우는 관객들의 눈시울을 적시는 연기로 큰 감동을 주었지요. 오늘은 연극 ‘세일즈맨의 죽음’과 세계적인 희곡 작가 아서 밀러의 작품 세계를 알아보겠습니다.

미국적 소재로 보편적 공감을

‘세일즈맨의 죽음(Death of a Salesman)’은 35년을 세일즈맨으로 산 윌리 로먼이 늦은 밤 집으로 돌아오는 것부터 시작합니다. 극은 다음 날 밤 윌리가 스스로 죽음을 택하며 막을 내리기까지 하루 동안의 사건을 담고 있지요. 주인공 윌리를 둘러싼 가족들의 현실과 과거가 교차하며 사건이 중첩되다 보니 하룻밤에 일어나는 일이라는 것을 알아채기 어려워요. 그만큼 아서 밀러는 탄탄한 구성으로 매우 치밀하게 이야기를 펼쳐 나가면서 관객들을 휘몰아치는 감정의 소용돌이의 중심으로 밀어 넣지요.

아서 밀러(Arthur Miller)는 ‘가장 미국적인 소재로 가장 보편적인 공감을 얻는 작품’을 썼다는 평가를 받습니다. 그는 시대와 개인의 정체성의 관계에 대해 끊임없이 질문을 한 작가였습니다. 폴란드계 유대인 이민 가정에서 태어난 자신의 배경, 그리고 1929년 세계를 덮친 경제 대공황의 여파로 아버지의 사업이 실패해 겪게 된 가족의 불행은 그의 작품 전반에서 중요한 모티브가 되죠.

1949년 ‘세일즈맨의 죽음’ 브로드웨이 초연 당시 윌리 역을 맡은 리 J. 콥(왼쪽)과 린다 역의 밀드레드 던녹. /Arthur Miller Society

뉴욕 할렘 지역에서 세 자녀 중 둘째로 태어난 밀러 역시 ‘세일즈맨의 죽음’의 윌리처럼 성공과 몰락을 겪게 되는 자신의 아버지를 지켜보며 성장해요. 제대로 된 교육 한번 받은 적 없지만 400명이 넘는 직원을 둘 정도로 큰 의류 공장을 키웠던 아버지. 하지만 경제 공황은 하루아침에 아버지를 파산으로 몰아넣고, 밀러 가족의 모든 것을 가져갑니다.

이 밖에도 ‘세일즈맨의 죽음’에는 아서 밀러의 개인적인 경험이 여럿 담겨 있습니다. 작품 발표 2년 전인 1947년 어느 날, 한 친척이 아서 밀러를 찾아옵니다. 그는 세일즈맨이었죠. 당시 밀러는 희곡 ‘모두가 나의 아들’로 브로드웨이에서 대성공을 거두며 촉망받는 작가로 이름을 알리기 시작하고 있었어요.

자신을 찾아온 친척은 자신의 아들도 밀러 못지않게 중요한 일을 하고 있다며 허풍을 떠는데요. 훗날 이 모습은 윌리가 변변한 직업도 갖지 못한 큰아들 비프를 ‘서부에서 아주 큰 사업을 하고 있어’라고 소개하는 장면에 그대로 담겨 있죠. 밀러는 이런 친척의 모습에서 평생 소시민으로 살았던 세일즈맨의 고단함과 자식에게 거는 기대를 꺾지 않는 아버지의 모습을 발견했어요.

‘세일즈맨의 죽음’은 미국의 대공황 이후 한 개인의 삶이 어떻게 바뀌는지를 보여줍니다. 35년을 하루같이 최선을 다해 일했는데, 삶은 왜 더 나아지기는커녕 하루하루 생활비를 걱정해야 하는 걸까요? 밀러는 이 작품에서 ‘아메리칸 드림’의 핑크빛 약속이 더 이상 유효하지 않다고 말합니다. ‘노력하면 성공한다’는 공식이 이젠 통하지 않는다는 것이죠. 사회의 급격한 변화에서 비롯된 평범한 가정의 몰락과 죽음은 그래서 깊은 연민과 감동을 자아냅니다.

미국 연극사를 바꿔놓은 작가

밀러는 ‘작가는 진실을 말하는 사람이어야 하고, 독자들에게 그들이 망각하기로 선택한 것을 기억나게 만들어야 한다’는 신념을 갖고 있었습니다. 그런 그에게 대공황에 이어 두 번째 시련이 닥칩니다. 바로 1950년대 초반 ‘매카시즘’ 열풍에 휩싸인 미국에서 공산주의자로 의심을 받게 된 거죠. 노동운동과 사회 정의에 관심이 많았고, 불평등과 부조리를 비판하던 그는 공산주의자라는 오명을 쓰고 반미 지식인 색출을 위한 청문회에 소환당해요.

제2차 세계대전 이후 미국과 소련의 대립이 첨예해지면서 미국 사회는 공산주의에 대한 불안감이 급속도로 확산됩니다. 반공 이데올로기는 상원 의원 조지프 매카시의 선동으로 불이 붙고, 이 과정에서 수많은 지식인과 문화계 인사들이 공산주의자로 몰려 조사를 받죠. 직업을 잃거나 사회적으로 매장된 이들도 부지기수였습니다.​

마녀 사냥을 다룬 아서 밀러의 연극 ‘시련’의 2015년 국내 공연 장면. 댄포스 부지사(이순재·맨 오른쪽) 앞에서 소녀 애비게일(정운선·오른쪽 둘째)이 마을에 마녀가 있다고 거짓 증언을 하고 있어요.

밀러 역시 공산주의자로 활동하는 동료들의 이름을 대라고 요구받습니다. 이후 다행히 혐의는 벗었지만 오랜 시간 의심의 굴레에서 자유롭지 않았던 그는 이때의 경험을 바탕으로 작품을 구상하죠. 종교적 마녀사냥을 소재로 정치적 마녀사냥을 비판한 ‘시련’(1953)이 대표적입니다. 연극 ‘시련’은 마침 오는 4월 9~27일 서울 예술의전당에서 공연을 앞두고 있어요. ‘추락 이후’(1964) 역시 매카시즘의 파괴성을 고발하는 작품이지요.

미국 배우 매릴린 먼로(왼쪽)와 아서 밀러. 1956년 결혼한 둘은 5년 후 이혼합니다. /위키피디아

밀러는 당대 최고의 여배우였던 매릴린 먼로와 5년간의 짧은 결혼 생활을 하고 이혼하는데요. 밀러와 먼로는 각각 세 번 결혼을 했는데, 먼로의 마지막 결혼 상대가 밀러였습니다. 밀러의 두 번째 아내가 먼로였고요. 훗날 그가 스스로 밝혔듯 공산주의자로 몰리며 겪어야 했던 힘든 시간이 파경과 무관하지 않았습니다. 밀러에게 닥친 시대의 격랑으로 두 사람은 서서히 멀어져 갔죠.

밀러의 작품은 미국 연극사의 흐름을 크게 바꿔놓았다는 평가를 받습니다. 20세기 초반 미국 연극계는 멜로 드라마와 유럽 연극이 판을 치고 있었지요. 그러나 그의 작품들로 인해 고유한 사회적 문제를 고발하고 보편적 가치를 탐구하는 연극들이 등장하게 됩니다. 그의 문학사적 업적을 평가할 때 노벨상 수상을 하지 못한 점이 지금도 논란의 불씨가 될 정도지요.

윤상진 기자 사회정책부

사회정책부 근무. '신문은 선생님' 코너를 기획합니다.

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Death of a Salesman

Death of a Salesman
First edition cover (Viking Press)
Written by	Arthur Miller
Characters	Willy Loman Linda Loman Biff Loman Happy Loman Ben Loman Bernard Charley The Woman Howard
Date premiered	February 10, 1949
Place premiered	Morosco Theatre New York City
Original language	English
Subject	The waning days of a failing salesman
Genre	Tragedy
Setting	Late 1940s; Willy Loman's house; New York City and Barnaby River; Boston

Death of a Salesman is a 1949 stage play written by the American playwright Arthur Miller. The play premiered on Broadway in February 1949, running for 742 performances. It is a two-act tragedy set in late 1940s Brooklyn told through a montage of memories, dreams, and arguments of the protagonist Willy Loman, a travelling salesman who is despondent with his life and appears to be slipping into senility. The play addresses a variety of themes, such as the American Dream, the anatomy of truth, and infidelity. It won the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for Drama and Tony Award for Best Play. It is considered by some critics to be one of the greatest plays of the 20th century.[1] The play is included in numerous anthologies.

Since its premiere, the play has been revived on Broadway five times, winning three Tony Awards for Best Revival. It has been adapted for the cinema on ten occasions, including a 1951 version by screenwriter Stanley Roberts, starring Fredric March. In 1999, New Yorker drama critic John Lahr said that with 11 million copies sold, it was "probably the most successful modern play ever published."[2]

Background

The genesis of the play was a chance encounter between Miller and his uncle Manny Newman, a salesman, whom he met in 1947 in the lobby of a Boston theater that was playing All My Sons.[2] Writing in a critical study of the play, author Brenda Murphy observed that Manny "lodged in his imagination and created a dramatic problem that he felt compelled to solve."[3]

Miller later recounted that when he saw Manny at the theater, "I could see the grim hotel room behind him, the long trip up from New York in his little car, the hopeless hope of the day's business." Without acknowledging Miller's greeting or congratulating him on the play, Manny said "Buddy is doing very well."[2] Buddy was Manny's son, and Manny saw Miller and his older brother as "running neck and neck" with his two sons "in some race that never stopped in his mind." When visiting Manny as a youth, Miller felt "gangling and unhandsome" and usually heard "some kind of insinuation of my entire life's probable failure."[4] Seeing him again in Boston, Manny seemed to the playwright to be "so absurd, so completely isolated from the ordinary laws of gravity, so elaborate in his fantastic inventions," yet so much in love with fame and fortune that "he possessed my imagination."[3] Manny died by suicide soon after,[4] which was the cause of death of two other salesmen Miller had known. One of Manny's sons told Miller that Manny had always wanted to create a business for his two sons. Learning that transformed Manny, in Miller's mind, to "a man with a purpose."

Miller had been thinking about a play about a salesman for years. He also had new interest in the simultaneousness of the past and present that was evident at their meeting, as it was plain that he and his cousins were viewed by Manny as they were when they were adolescents, many years earlier. Miller sought to "do a play without any transitions at all, dialogue that would simply leap from bone to bone of a skeleton that would not for an instant cease being added to, an organism as strictly economic as a leaf, as trim as an ant."[3]

In creating Willy and the other characters, Miller also drew on his relationship with his father as well as another salesman. Miller was himself the model of the young Bernard.[3]

Plot

The play takes place in 1949. The setting is the Loman home in Brooklyn,[5] located amidst a typical row of urban apartment buildings.

Willy Loman suddenly returns home exhausted after a failed business trip to Boston. Worried over Willy's rapidly declining state of mind and a recent near fatal car accident, his wife Linda suggests that he ask his boss, Howard, to allow him to work in his home city so he will no longer have to travel. Willy complains to Linda about their son, Biff, who is 34 years old and has yet to do something meaningful with his life. Despite Biff having a promising football career in high school with many scholarship offers, he failed in mathematics and was therefore unable to enter a university.

Biff and his younger brother, Happy, who is temporarily staying with Willy and Linda after Biff's unexpected return from the West, reminisce about their childhood together. They discuss their father's mental degeneration, which they have witnessed in the form of his constant indecisiveness and daydreaming about the boys' high school years. Eventually, Willy walks in, angry that the two boys have never amounted to anything. In an effort to pacify their father, Biff and Happy tell him that Biff plans to make an ambitious business proposition the next day.

The next day, Willy goes to Howard’s office for a job in town while Biff goes to make a business proposition, but they both fail. Howard refuses to give Willy a New York job, despite his desperate pleas. Willy then loses his temper and ends up getting fired when Howard tells him that he needs a long rest and is no longer allowed to represent the Wagner Company. On the other hand, Biff waits hours to see a former employer named Bill Oliver who does not remember him and turns him down. In response Biff, feeling crushed, impulsively steals a fountain pen. Willy then goes to the business office of his neighbor Charley, where he runs into Charley's son Bernard, who is now a successful lawyer about to argue a case in front of the Supreme Court and is happily married and has two children of his own. Bernard tells him that Biff originally wanted to go to summer school to make up for failing math, but something happened in Boston when Biff went to visit his father that changed his mind. Charley then offers Willy a stable do-nothing job, but Willy vehemently refuses despite losing his job. Charley, who feels insulted, reluctantly gives the now-unemployed Willy money to pay off his life-insurance premium, and Willy shocks Charley by remarking that ultimately, a man is "worth more dead than alive."

Happy, Biff, and Willy meet for dinner at a restaurant, but Willy refuses to hear the bad news from Biff. Happy tries to coax Biff to lie to their father. He tries to tell him what happened as Willy gets angry and slips into a flashback of what happened in Boston the day Biff came to see him: Biff had come to Boston to ask Willy to convince his teacher to curve his failing math grade, so he could graduate. However, Willy was in the middle of an extramarital affair with a receptionist named Miss Francis when Biff arrived unexpectedly, and saw the half-dressed woman with him. Biff did not accept his father's cover-up story for her presence, and angrily dismissed him as a liar and a fake before storming out. From that moment, Biff's views of his father changed and set him adrift.

Biff leaves the restaurant in frustration, followed by Happy flanked by a pair of attractive women named Miss Forsythe and Letta, leaving a confused and devastated Willy behind. When they later return home, Linda berates them for abandoning their father while Willy remains outside, talking to himself. Biff tries to reconcile with Willy, but the discussion quickly escalates into emotional conflict. Biff conveys plainly to his father that he is not meant for anything great, insisting that both of them are simply ordinary men meant to lead ordinary lives. The argument reaches an apparent climax as Biff hugs Willy and begins to cry as he tries to get Willy to let go of his unrealistic expectations. Rather than listen to what Biff actually says, Willy appears to believe his son has forgiven him and will follow in his footsteps, and after Linda goes upstairs to bed, lapses one final time into a hallucination, thinking he is talking to his long-dead wealthy brother Ben. In Willy's mind, Ben "approves" of the scheme Willy has dreamed up to take his own life in order to give Biff his life insurance money to help him start a business and that his funeral will be well attended with all his admirers which will leave Biff feeling “thunderstruck”. Willy then promptly exits the house, and Biff and Linda cry out in despair as the sound of Willy's car blares up and fades out. The car crashes and Willy instantly dies.

The final scene takes place at Willy's funeral. Linda and Happy stand in surprise after Willy’s funeral is sparsely attended only by his family, Charley, and Bernard (who does not speak during the scene). Biff upholds his belief that he is no longer interested in becoming a businessman like his father. Happy, on the other hand, chooses to follow in his father's footsteps. Linda who is liberated from her financial burdens begins to sob, repeating “We’re free. . . .” All exit, and the curtain falls.

Characters and cast

Notable casts

• William "Willy" Loman: The titular salesman. The product he is selling is never disclosed and is likely up to the imagination of the audience.[2] He is 63 years old, unstable, insecure, and self-deluded. He vacillates between different eras of his life throughout the play, and re-imagines them as if they were the present. Willy's age and deteriorating mental state make him appear childlike. His first name, Willy, reflects this childlike aspect as well as sounding like the question "Will he?"

• Linda Loman​: Willy's loyal and loving wife. Linda is supportive and docile when Willy talks unrealistically about hopes for the future, although she seems to have a good knowledge of what is really going on. She chides her sons, particularly Biff, for not helping their father, and supports Willy even though Willy treats her poorly. She is the first to realize that Willy is contemplating suicide at the beginning of the play.

• Biff Loman: Willy's elder son. Biff had a promising high school football career but failed math his senior year and dropped out of summer school when he saw Willy with another woman. He wavers between going home to try to fulfill Willy's dream for him as a businessman or ignoring his father by going West to be a farmhand where he feels happy. Biff steals because he wants evidence of success, even if it is false evidence.

• Harold "Happy" Loman: Willy's younger son. He has lived in the shadow of his older brother Biff, but he still tries to be supportive toward his family. He has a restless lifestyle as a womanizer and ambitions of career advancement. He takes bribes at work. He yearns for approval from his parents, but he rarely gets any. He makes things up for attention, such as repeatedly telling his parents he is going to get married. His relationship with Linda is turbulent; she looks down on him for his lifestyle.

• Charley: Willy's wisecracking yet kind neighbor. He frequently lends Willy money and plays cards with him, although Willy treats him poorly. Willy is envious of him because his son is more successful than Willy's. Charley offers Willy a stable do-nothing job, but Willy declines every time.

• Bernard: Charley's son. In Willy's flashbacks, he is a nerd, and Willy forces him to give Biff test answers. Later, he is a successful lawyer, married, and expecting a second son – the same successes that Willy wants for his sons.

• Ben: Willy's deceased older brother, a diamond tycoon. Though long dead, Willy frequently “speaks” to him in his hallucinations. He represents Willy's idea of the American Dream success story, and is shown visiting the Lomans' house while on business trips to share stories.

• The Woman: A woman, whom Willy calls "Miss Francis", with whom Willy cheated on Linda.

• Howard Wagner: Willy's boss and the owner of the Wagner Company. Willy worked originally for Howard's father Frank whom Willy had immense respect for and claims to have suggested the name Howard for his newborn son. After Howard’s father passed away, Howard inherited the company. In contrast to his father, Howard, ingnoring the fact that Willy has devoted 34 years to the firm, sees Willy as nothing but a liability for the company and eventually fires him when Willy loses his temper over Howard refusing to give Willy a New York job. Howard is extremely proud of his wealth, which is manifested in his new wire recorder, and of his family.

• Jenny: Charley's secretary.

• Stanley: A waiter at the restaurant Frank’s Chop House who seems to be friends or acquainted with Happy.

• Miss Forsythe: A girl whom Happy picks up at the restaurant. She is attractive and claims to have had her picture on several magazine covers even though she is actually a prostitute. Happy lies to her, portraying himself and Biff as important and successful individuals by saying that Biff is a star quarterback for the New York Giants and he is a successful champagne salesman.

• Letta: Miss Forsythe's friend.

Themes

Reality and illusion

Reality and illusion are prominent themes in Death of a Salesman. The play uses flashbacks to present Willy's memories, but it is unclear whether they are accurate. He makes up lies about his and Biff's success. The more he indulges in the illusion, the harder it is for him to face reality. Biff realizes the problem and wants to face the truth. In this conflict, the play shows how the American Dream could be a lie.[6]

Tragedy

In several statements, Miller compared the play's characters to Greek tragedy. Miller wanted to show that the common man and those with status had much in common.[7][8]

Writing in The New York Times in 1999, journalist John Tierney argued that the play was not constructed like a classical tragedy. He observed that the mental illness suffered by Loman was a "biochemical abnormality" that was "not the sort of tragic flaw that makes a classic play." But he noted that "Willy's fate is supposed to be partly a result of his own moral failings, in particular the adulterous affair [...], he is haunted by the memory of his infidelity and by the fear that it ruined his son's life."[4]

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