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PMCID: PMC6235219 PMID: 30376864
Abstract
Background
An association between gout and renal disease is well-recognised but few studies have examined whether gout is a risk factor for subsequent chronic kidney disease (CKD). Additionally, the impact of urate-lowering therapy (ULT) on development of CKD in gout is unclear. The objective of this study was to quantify the risk of CKD stage ≥ 3 in people with gout and the impact of ULT.
Methods
This was a retrospective cohort study using data from the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD). Patients with incident gout were identified from general practice medical records between 1998 and 2016 and randomly matched 1:1 to patients without a diagnosis of gout based on age, gender, available follow-up time and practice. Primary outcome was development of CKD stage ≥ 3 based on estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) or recorded diagnosis. Absolute rates (ARs) and adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) were calculated using Cox regression models. Risk of developing CKD was assessed among those prescribed ULT within 1 and 3 years of gout diagnosis.
Results
Patients with incident gout (n = 41,446) were matched to patients without gout. Development of CKD stage ≥ 3 was greater in the exposed group than in the unexposed group (AR 28.6 versus 15.8 per 10,000 person-years). Gout was associated with an increased risk of incident CKD (adjusted HR 1.78 95% CI 1.70 to 1.85). Those exposed to ULT had a greater risk of incident CKD, but following adjustment this was attenuated to non-significance in all analyses (except on 3-year analysis of women (adjusted HR 1.31 95% CI 1.09 to 1.59)).
Conclusions
This study has demonstrated gout to be a risk factor for incident CKD stage ≥ 3. Further research examining the mechanisms by which gout may increase risk of CKD and whether optimal use of ULT can reduce the risk or progression of CKD in gout is suggested.
배경
통풍과 신장 질환 간의 연관성은 잘 알려져 있으나,
통풍이 후속 만성 신장 질환(CKD)의 위험 인자인지 여부를 조사한 연구는 거의 없다.
또한 통풍에서 요산 저하 요법(ULT)이
CKD 발병에 미치는 영향은 불분명하다.
본 연구의 목적은 통풍 환자에서
CKD 3기 이상 위험도를 정량화하고
ULT의 영향을 평가하는 것이다.
방법
본 연구는 임상실무연구데이터링크(CPRD) 데이터를 활용한 후향적 코호트 연구이다. 1998년부터 2016년 사이 일반의 진료 기록에서 새로 발생한 통풍 환자를 선별하고, 연령, 성별, 이용 가능한 추적 관찰 기간 및 진료 기관을 기준으로 통풍 진단이 없는 환자와 1:1로 무작위 대조군을 매칭하였다. 주요 결과는 추정 사구체 여과율(eGFR) (eGFR) 또는 기록된 진단을 기준으로 한 만성 신장병(CKD) 3기 이상 발병이었다. 절대 발생률(AR)과 조정 위험비(HR)는 Cox 회귀 모델을 사용하여 계산하였다. 통풍 진단 후 1년 및 3년 이내에 ULT를 처방받은 환자군에서 CKD 발병 위험을 평가하였다.
결과
발병성 통풍 환자 (n = 41,446)을 통풍이 없는 환자군과 매칭하였다. 노출군에서 CKD 3기 이상 발생률은 비노출군보다 높았다(10,000인년당 AR 28.6 대 15.8).
통풍은
CKD 발생 위험 증가와 연관되었다(조정 HR 1.78, 95% CI 1.70~1.85) .
ULT에 노출된 집단은 CKD 발생 위험이 더 높았으나,
조정 후 모든 분석에서 유의미하지 않은 수준으로 감소하였다(여성의 3년 분석 제외: 조정 위험비 1.31, 95% 신뢰구간 1.09~1.59).
결론
본 연구는 통풍이
CKD 3기 이상 발생의 위험인자임을 입증하였다.
통풍이 CKD 위험을 증가시키는 기전과
최적의 ULT 사용이 통풍 환자의 CKD 위험 또는 진행을 감소시킬 수 있는지 여부를 조사하는
추가 연구가 제안된다.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (10.1186/s13075-018-1746-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Keywords: Gout, Chronic kidney disease, Urate-lowering therapy, Cohort
Background
Gout is the most prevalent inflammatory arthritis, affecting 2.5% of adults in the UK and 3.9% in the USA [1, 2]. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is also a common problem, with the global prevalence of CKD stages 3–5 (estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) < 60 mL/min/1.73m2) estimated to be 10.6% [3]. An association between gout and CKD has been recognised for many years [4–6].
CKD can progress to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and can lead to premature mortality [7]. The rate of progression to renal replacement therapy (RRT) or death over 5 years in patients with CKD stage 3 is 1.3% and 24.3%, respectively, and with stage 4 it is 19.9% and 45.7%, respectively [8]. In our recent systematic review and meta-analysis, 24% of people with gout had CKD stage ≥ 3 [9]. The association between hyperuricaemia, gout and CKD is thought to be bidirectional, with CKD known to be an independent risk factor for gout [10–13] and gout potentially predisposing to CKD by a number of mechanisms including hyperuricaemia, chronic inflammation and drug therapy with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). In addition, hypertension, diabetes mellitus and obesity are highly prevalent in gout [14] and CKD, and are risk factors for CKD [15]. Our systematic review identified only two cohort studies investigating the risk of CKD in people with gout. Although large, both examined risk of ESRD rather than the earlier stages of CKD and neither used data from Europe [16, 17]. Better understanding of the risk of earlier stages of CKD in people with gout would help guide screening and the management of associated comorbidities and could aid the early identification or possible prevention of CKD in gout.
Urate-lowering therapy (ULT) should be considered for all patents with gout, in particular those with recurrent flares or tophi [18–20]. Data from randomised trials suggests that ULT in patients with CKD can slow the rate of decline of eGFR and reduce risk of progression to ESRD [21]. However, these trials were largely conducted in individuals without gout and the impact of ULT on development of CKD in people with gout remains unclear. The aim of this study was to quantify the risk of developing CKD stage ≥ 3 among patients with incident gout and assess the impact of ULT on this risk.
배경
통풍은 가장 흔한 염증성 관절염으로,
영국 성인의 2.5%, 미국 성인의 3.9%가 이 질환을 앓고 있습니다[1, 2].
만성 신장 질환(CKD) 또한 흔한 문제로,
전 세계적으로 CKD 3~5기(추정 사구체 여과율(eGFR) <60 mL/min/1.73m2)의 유병률은
10.6%로 추정됩니다[3].
통풍과 CKD 간의 연관성은
CKD는
말기 신부전(ESRD)으로 진행될 수 있으며
조기 사망을 초래할 수 있습니다[7].
CKD 3기 환자의 5년간 신대체요법(RRT) 진행률 또는 사망률은
각각 1.3%와 24.3%이며, 4기 환자의 경우 각각 19.9%와 45.7%입니다[8] .
최근 체계적 문헌고찰 및 메타분석에서
통풍 환자의 24%가 CKD 3기 이상을 동반한 것으로 나타났다[9].
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4404569/
고요산혈증, 통풍 및 CKD 간의 연관성은
양방향적이라고 여겨지며,
CKD는 통풍의 독립적 위험인자로 알려져 있다[10–13].
또한 통풍은
고요산혈증, 만성 염증, 비스테로이드성 항염증제(NSAIDs) 치료 등
다양한 기전을 통해 CKD 발병을 촉진할 수 있다.
또한
고혈압, 당뇨병, 비만은
통풍[14] 및 CKD에서 높은 유병률을 보이며, CKD의 위험인자이기도 하다[15].
본 체계적 문헌고찰에서는 통풍 환자의 CKD 위험을 조사한 코호트 연구가 단 두 건만 확인되었다. 두 연구 모두 규모는 컸으나, CKD 초기 단계보다는 말기 신부전(ESRD) 위험을 조사했으며 유럽 데이터를 사용하지 않았다[16, 17].
통풍 환자의 초기 CKD 위험에 대한 이해 증진은
관련 동반 질환의 선별 및 관리 지침 수립에 도움이 될 것이며,
통풍에서 CKD의 조기 발견 또는 예방 가능성에 기여할 수 있다.
모든 통풍 환자,
특히 재발성 발작이나 토피가 있는 환자에게는 요산 저하 요법(ULT)을 고려해야 한다[18–20].
무작위 임상시험 데이터에 따르면,
CKD 환자에서 ULT는 eGFR 감소 속도를 늦추고
말기 신부전(ESRD)으로의 진행 위험을 감소시킬 수 있다[21].
그러나 이러한 임상시험은
대부분 통풍이 없는 개인을 대상으로 수행되었으며,
통풍 환자의 CKD 발병에 대한 ULT의 영향은 여전히 불분명하다.
본 연구의 목적은
통풍이 새로 발생한 환자에서 CKD 3기 이상 발병 위험을 정량화하고,
이 위험에 대한 ULT의 영향을 평가하는 것이다.
Methods
Data source and study population
This retrospective cohort study utilised data from the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD). The CPRD is a large database containing anonymised UK primary care medical records [22]. Approximately 98% of the population of England and Wales is registered with a general practitioner (GP), who is responsible for the majority of a patient’s medical care [23]. The CPRD covers more than 7% of the UK population and is representative of the general UK population in terms of age and gender distribution [23]. More than 58% of CPRD practices are linked to hospital episode statistics (HES). HES holds data items including admissions, diagnoses and operative procedures for all patients treated in hospitals in England [24]. The linkage is performed by a trusted third party based on National Health Service number, date of birth and gender. As HES only covers England; practices from Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland were excluded from this analysis.
In this cohort study the exposed group consisted of individuals with a first-ever recorded diagnosis of gout and these were identified from general practice between 1998 and 2016 using previously published methods [25]. Ascertainment of gout was based on a medical (Read) code assigned by the GP. Gout diagnoses have been validated in the CPRD and have a positive predictive value of 90% [26]. Each patient with gout was assigned an index date corresponding to the date of gout diagnosis and randomly matched to one patient without a gout diagnosis or evidence of ULT, on age (± 5 years), gender, available follow-up time (± 3 years) and practice. Matching on follow up is a common approach when using the CPRD as patients with chronic illness typically have longer follow up compared to those without, and gout is associated with several comorbidities [25], it is a proxy method of minimising the potential bias this may induce. For both exposed and unexposed patients, follow up commenced from the index date. Those with evidence of CKD stage ≥ 3 or RRT before the index date or < 1 year after the index date were excluded from the study.
The primary outcome was developing CKD stage ≥ 3 and was based on two consecutive measurements of eGFR< 60 mL/min/1.73m2 at least 3 months apart. eGFR was calculated using serum creatinine values recorded in patients’ medical records using the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration equation [27]. For those considered to have CKD stage ≥ 3, the date of the first eGFR measurement was taken as the first occurrence of CKD. We also identified patients with CKD stage ≥ 3 or more based on a recorded diagnosis of CKD stages 3–5, ESRD or having evidence of renal replacement therapy (RRT (kidney transplant or dialysis)) in their primary or secondary care medical record.
방법
데이터 출처 및 연구 대상
본 후향적 코호트 연구는 임상실무연구데이터링크(CPRD)의 데이터를 활용하였다. CPRD는 익명화된 영국 1차 진료 의료 기록을 포함하는 대규모 데이터베이스이다[22]. 잉글랜드와 웨일즈 인구의 약 98%가 일반의(GP)에 등록되어 있으며, GP는 환자의 의료 서비스 대부분을 담당한다[23]. CPRD는 영국 인구의 7% 이상을 포괄하며, 연령 및 성별 분포 측면에서 영국 일반 인구를 대표한다 [23]. CPRD에 등록된 진료소 중 58% 이상이 병원 진료 통계(HES)와 연계되어 있다. HES는 잉글랜드 내 병원에서 치료받은 모든 환자의 입원, 진단 및 수술 절차 등 데이터 항목을 보유하고 있다[24]. 연계 작업은 국민건강보험 번호, 생년월일 및 성별을 기반으로 신뢰할 수 있는 제3자에 의해 수행된다. HES는 잉글랜드만을 대상으로 하므로, 스코틀랜드, 웨일스 및 북아일랜드의 진료소는 본 분석에서 제외되었습니다.
본 코호트 연구에서 노출군은
통풍의 최초 기록된 진단을 받은 개인들로 구성되었으며,
이들은 1998년부터 2016년 사이에 일반 진료소에서 이전에 발표된 방법[25]을 사용하여 식별되었습니다.
통풍 확인은 일반의(GP)가 할당한 의료(Read) 코드를 기반으로 했습니다.
통풍 진단은 CPRD에서 검증되었으며 양성 예측값은 90%이다 [26].
각 통풍 환자에게는 통풍 진단일과 일치하는 기준일이 할당되었으며,
통풍 진단이 없거나 ULT 증거가 없는 환자 한 명과 연령(±5세),
성별, 이용 가능한 추적 관찰 기간(±3년), 진료소 기준으로 무작위 대조되었습니다.
CPRD 사용 시 추적 관찰 기간에 따른 대조는 흔한 접근법입니다.
만성 질환 환자는
일반적으로 질환이 없는 환자에 비해 추적 관찰 기간이 더 길며,
통풍은 여러 동반 질환과 연관되어 있기 때문입니다
[25]과 연관되어 있으므로,
이로 인해 발생할 수 있는 잠재적 편향을 최소화하는 대리 방법이다.
노출군 및 비노출군 모두에서 추적 관찰은 지표일로부터 시작되었다.
기준일 이전 또는 기준일 이후
1년 이내에 CKD 3기 이상 또는 RRT 증거가 있는 환자는
연구에서 제외되었습니다.
주요 결과는 CKD 3기 이상 발병이었으며,
최소 3개월 간격으로 연속적으로 측정된 eGFR이 60 mL/min/1.73m2 미만인 경우를 기준으로 했습니다.
eGFR은 만성 신장병 역학 협력(CKDEC) 방정식[27]을 사용하여
환자 진료 기록에 기록된 혈청 크레아티닌 값으로 계산하였다. [27].
CKD 3기 이상으로 간주된 환자의 경우,
최초 eGFR 측정일을 CKD 최초 발생일로 간주하였다.
또한 1차 또는 2차 진료 기록에 CKD 3-5기, 말기신부전(ESRD) 진단 기록 또는
신대체요법(RRT, 신장이식 또는 투석) 증거가 있는 CKD 3기 이상 환자도 확인하였다.
Covariates
To assess the independent association between gout and CKD stage ≥ 3, information on various baseline characteristics was extracted. These included body mass index (BMI), smoking status, index of multiple deprivation (IMD), and specific comorbidities. The comorbidities included were; myocardial infarction, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis, congestive heart failure, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, hospitalisations and treated hypertension or diabetes mellitus before the index date. Information was extracted on NSAID use (two or more prescriptions) in the 6 months before gout diagnosis. In addition, baseline serum uric acid (SUA) level was adjusted for in the analyses examining risk of CKD associated with ULT prescription. Finally, for each subject we calculated the visit rate on unique calendar dates with a medical diagnosis code over the observation time to estimate how often they visited their general practitioner. The visit rate was then categorised into tertiles.
Landmark analysis is routinely used to assess the impact of treatment where there is a potential lag between disease occurrence and initiation of therapy [28]. As the timing of initiation of ULT varies after gout diagnosis, we utilised landmark analysis to examine the effect of ULT on the risk of CKD. Landmark analysis deals with the issue of immortal time bias, which biases the results in favour of the treatment under study by granting a spurious survival advantage to the treated group [28]. In the case of gout, patients receiving ULT must have at least survived from time of diagnosis to time of treatment whereas no such requirement is necessary for the unexposed group (individuals with gout not receiving ULT). Bias would be introduced by ignoring this, as ULT exposure status may be dependent on the length of follow up. In landmark analysis, a fixed time after the initiation of therapy is selected a priori for conducting survival analysis [29]. Only those alive, event-free and contributing data at the landmark time were included in the analysis. Exposure to ULT was evaluated between the index date (diagnosis of gout) and the landmark time, whereas development of CKD stage ≥ 3 was only considered after the landmark time point. Two landmark points were considered in the analysis (1 and 3 years after diagnosis) based on a previously published study [30]. Only patients initiated on and prescribed more than 6 months of ULT were considered to be exposed (Fig. 1). This was based on previous literature [30] and expert consensus, as allopurinol is started at a low dose and increased gradually and it can take several months to escalate the dose sufficiently to lower serum urate to below the biochemical target level. The duration of ULT was calculated based on quantity prescribed and numeric daily dose.
Fig. 1.
Graphical illustration of landmark analysis. ULT, urate-lowering therapy
Statistical analysis
Absolute rates (ARs) of CKD stage ≥ 3 per 10,000 person-years and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated for the exposed and unexposed groups. These were stratified by age, gender, IMD and time after diagnosis. Hazard ratios (HRs) were modelled using Cox proportional hazards regression adjusting for the stated confounding factors. Those with missing body mass index (BMI) status were categorised separately and included in the analysis, as BMI was assumed not to be missing at random. Similarly, we compared the risk of CKD stage ≥ 3 among those prescribed ULT within 1 and 3 years after diagnosis to patients with gout who were not prescribed ULT. The HRs were additionally adjusted for baseline serum creatinine and uric acid levels. Baseline serum creatinine and uric acid level was considered before the ULT exposure or landmark date for those not prescribed ULT. For those with missing laboratory values, an indicator variable was included in the regression analysis. All missing values were imputed using a constant to ensure that all data were included in the analysis. This study was approved by the CPRD in-house Independent Scientific Advisory Committee (ISAC) reference number 15_214RA.
Sample size calculations: based on previous literature, we anticipated at least 30,000 cases of incident gout in HES-linked CPRD matched to a similar number of unexposed individuals [31]. Given the annual incidence of stage 3 CKD is 15% (aged 65–74 years) in the UK, our sample size provided more than 99% power to detect a HR of 1.5 using Cox proportional hazards model at 5% level of significance. For the landmark analysis, assuming that 10% of patients with gout are treated with ULT within the first year, we had approximately 82% power to detect a HR of 1.35 between ULT users and non-users, using a Cox proportional hazards model at 5% level of significance.
Results
Patients with incident gout (n = 41,446) were identified and matched to 41,446 patients without gout. At baseline, mean participant age was 57 years and 81% were male. The median duration of follow up was 6 years with a total of 484,455 person-years of follow up. At baseline, patients with gout had a higher prevalence of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, vascular disease and obesity. In addition, patients with gout attended their GP more frequently and received more NSAID prescriptions than patients without gout (Table 1).
결과
발병성 통풍 환자(n = 41,446)를 식별하여
통풍이 없는 41,446명의 환자와 매칭했습니다.
기준선에서
참가자의 평균 연령은 57세였으며
81%가 남성이었습니다.
추적 관찰 기간의 중앙값은 6년이었으며
총 추적 관찰 인년수는 484,455인년이었습니다.
기초 조사 시,
통풍 환자는
당뇨병, 고혈압, 혈관 질환 및 비만 유병률이 더 높았다.
또한 통풍 환자는 통풍이 없는 환자보다 일반의(GP)를 더 자주 방문했으며,
더 많은 비스테로이드성 항염증제(NSAID) 처방을 받았다(표 1).
Table 1.
Basic characteristics of the study population
VariableGoutNon-goutNumberPercentageNumberPercentage
| Total number | 41,446 | 41,446 | ||
| Mean age (SD) | 57.2 | (13.6) | 57.1 | (13.7) |
| Median follow up (IQR) | 6.0 | (3.3, 9.5) | 5.9 | (3.2, 9.4) |
| Male | 33,574 | 81.0 | 33,574 | 81.0 |
| Body mass index | ||||
| Normal | 7394 | 17.8 | 12,341 | 29.8 |
| Underweight | 349 | 0.8 | 681 | 1.6 |
| Overweight | 15,537 | 37.5 | 14,760 | 35.6 |
| Obese | 15,311 | 36.9 | 8417 | 20.3 |
| Missing | 2855 | 6.9 | 5247 | 12.7 |
| Smoking status | ||||
| Never/ex-smoker | 36,153 | 87.2 | 34,406 | 83.0 |
| Current smoker | 5293 | 12.8 | 7040 | 17.0 |
| Comorbidities | ||||
| Diabetes mellitus | 2686 | 6.5 | 2417 | 5.8 |
| Treated hypertension | 11,982 | 28.9 | 6648 | 16.0 |
| Rheumatoid arthritis | 276 | 0.7 | 302 | 0.7 |
| SLE | 25 | 0.1 | 24 | 0.1 |
| Heart failure | 1342 | 3.2 | 482 | 1.2 |
| Myocardial infarction | 1660 | 4.0 | 1166 | 2.8 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 1537 | 3.7 | 1241 | 3.0 |
| Peripheral vascular disease | 901 | 2.2 | 670 | 1.6 |
| Anti-diabetic drugs | 1847 | 4.5 | 1881 | 4.5 |
| NSAIDs | 5852 | 14.1 | 1619 | 3.9 |
| Previous hospitalisations | 11,016 | 26.6 | 9129 | 22.0 |
| GP consultation rates (tertiles) | ||||
| 1 | 10,375 | 25.0 | 17,256 | 41.6 |
| 2 | 14,609 | 35.2 | 13,022 | 31.4 |
| 3 | 16,462 | 39.7 | 11,168 | 26.9 |
| IMD quintiles | ||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 10,526 | 25.4 | 10,485 | 25.3 |
| 2 | 10,220 | 24.7 | 10,232 | 24.7 |
| 3 | 8411 | 20.3 | 8330 | 20.1 |
| 4 | 7034 | 17.0 | 7164 | 17.3 |
| 5 (most deprived) | 5216 | 12.6 | 5206 | 12.6 |
SLE systemic lupus erythematosus, NSAID non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, GP general practitioner, IMD Index of multiple deprivation
During follow up, 6694 patients (16.2%) with gout developed CKD stage ≥ 3 compared to 3953 (9.5%) patients without gout (absolute rate 28.6 versus 15.8 per 10,000 person-years respectively). A diagnosis of gout was associated with increased risk of development of CKD stage ≥3 compared to patients without gout (unadjusted HR 1.79 95% CI 1.72 to 1.86). Adjustment for age, gender, comorbidities, deprivation, NSAID use, frequency of hospital admission and GP attendance, had a minimal effect and the association remained statistically significant (adjusted HR 1.78 95% CI 1.70 to 1.85) (Table 2).
Table 2.
Absolute rate of CKD per 10,000 person-years and hazard ratios
VariableGoutNon-goutUnadjustedAdjusted*nRate‡95% CInRate‡95% CIHazard ratio95% CIHazard ratio95% CI
| Overall | 6694 | 28.6 | 27.9, 29.3 | 3953 | 15.8 | 15.3, 16.3 | 1.79 | 1.72, 1.86 | 1.78 | 1.70, 1.85 |
| Male | 4608 | 23.6 | 22.9, 24.3 | 2681 | 13.0 | 12.5, 13.5 | 1.80 | 1.71, 1.89 | 1.78 | 1.69, 1.87 |
| Female | 2086 | 53.8 | 51.5, 56.1 | 1272 | 28.7 | 27.1, 30.3 | 1.82 | 1.70, 1.95 | 1.79 | 1.66, 1.93 |
| Age at index in years | ||||||||||
| < 55 years | 690 | 5.8 | 5.4, 6.30 | 279 | 2.3 | 2.1, 2.6 | 2.52 | 2.19, 2.89 | 1.78 | 1.54, 2.07 |
| 55–65 | 1581 | 24.6 | 23.4, 25.8 | 844 | 12.3 | 11.5, 13.2 | 1.99 | 1.83, 2.16 | 1.76 | 1.61, 1.92 |
| 65–75 | 2506 | 66.2 | 63.6, 68.8 | 1498 | 33.8 | 32.1, 35.5 | 1.91 | 1.79, 2.04 | 1.87 | 1.75, 2.00 |
| > 75 | 1917 | 141.0 | 134.8, 147.5 | 1332 | 78.1 | 74.0, 82.4 | 1.75 | 1.63, 1.88 | 1.71 | 1.59, 1.84 |
| IMD (quintiles) | ||||||||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 1579 | 25.6 | 24.3, 26.9 | 914 | 13.9 | 13.0, 14.8 | 1.81 | 1.67, 1.97 | 1.84 | 1.69, 2.01 |
| 2 | 1689 | 29.2 | 27.9, 30.7 | 1008 | 16.2 | 15.2, 17.2 | 1.78 | 1.65, 1.92 | 1.79 | 1.65, 1.94 |
| 3 | 1439 | 30.9 | 29.3, 32.5 | 831 | 16.7 | 15.6, 17.9 | 1.83 | 1.68, 1.99 | 1.77 | 1.62, 1.94 |
| 4 | 1143 | 29.4 | 27.8, 31.2 | 698 | 16.6 | 15.4, 17.8 | 1.76 | 1.60, 1.93 | 1.78 | 1.61, 1.97 |
| 5 (most deprived) | 841 | 29.1 | 27.2, 31.2 | 501 | 16.5 | 15.1, 18.0 | 1.76 | 1.57, 1.96 | 1.67 | 1.49, 1.88 |
CKD chronic kidney disease, IMD index of multiple deprivation
*Adjusted for age, gender, body mass index, smoking status, diabetes mellitus, treated hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, heart failure, IMD, myocardial infraction, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, history of hospitalisation, consultation rates, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug exposure, when not stratified by them, ‡ per 10,000 person-years
In the stratified analyses, for both exposed and unexposed patients, the absolute rate of development of CKD stage ≥ 3 was greater in women and increased with age. The adjusted HRs remained largely consistent between genders and across all age groups and IMD quintiles (Table 2). Risk of development of CKD stage ≥ 3 was found to be higher within the first 2 years of gout diagnosis (adjusted HR 2.20 95% CI 2.07 to 2.36) compared to 6–10 years following diagnosis (adjusted HR 1.45 95% CI 1.29 to 1.63). Figure 2 describes the development of CKD stage ≥ 3 in patients with gout and patients without gout during follow up.
추적 관찰 기간 동안 통풍 환자 6694명(16.2%)이
만성 신장병(CKD) 3기 이상으로 진행한 반면,
통풍이 없는 환자 3953명(9.5%)은 각각 10,000인년당 28.6명과 15.8명의 절대 발생률을 보였습니다.
통풍 진단은
만성 신장병(CKD) 발생 위험 증가와 연관되었습니다(9.5%).
(9.5%)의 통풍이 없는 환자군과 비교하여 관찰되었다(절대 발생률 각각 10,000인년당 28.6 대 15.8).
통풍 진단은 통풍이 없는 환자군에 비해 만성 신장병 3기 이상 발병 위험 증가와 연관되었다(미조정 위험비 1.79, 95% 신뢰구간 1.72~1.86) . 연령, 성별, 동반 질환, 사회경제적 취약성, 비스테로이드성 항염증제(NSAID) 사용, 입원 빈도 및 일반의 진료 횟수를 조정해도 영향은 미미했으며, 연관성은 통계적으로 유의미하게 유지되었다(조정 위험비 1.78, 95% 신뢰구간 1.70~1.85)(표 2).
Fig. 2.
Development of chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage ≥ 3 in patients with gout and patients without gout (non-gout) during follow up
In the landmark analysis, patients with gout were excluded due to either death, developing CKD or transfer from general practice within 1 year (n = 1962) or 3 years (n = 12,947) of gout diagnosis. Of the remaining patients with gout, 4198 (10.6%) in the 1-year landmark analysis and 4793 (16.8%) in the 3-year landmark analysis were receiving ULT (Additional file 1: Figure S1).
Those receiving ULT were older, more frequently hypertensive and diabetic and had higher baseline serum urate levels compared to those unexposed to ULT (Table 3). Those exposed to at least 6 months of ULT within 1 and 3 years of gout diagnosis had a greater risk of development of CKD stage ≥ 3, compared to those not exposed (1-year unadjusted HR 1.47 95% CI 1.35 to 1.59, 3-year unadjusted HR 1.35 95% CI 1.23 to 1.49). This risk however, following adjustment, was attenuated to non-significance in all analyses apart from the 3-year landmark analysis in women only (adjusted HR 1.31 95% CI 1.09 to 1.59) (Table 4).
Table 3.
Basic characteristics of gout cases by ULT exposure with 1 and 3 years after gout diagnosis
Variable1-Year landmark3-Year landmarkExposedn = 4198Unexposedn = 35,286Exposedn = 4793Unexposedn = 23,706N%N%N%N%
| Mean age (SD) | 58.2 | (12.8) | 56.3 | (13.5) | 56.1 | (12.1) | 55.1 | (12.9) |
| Male | 3485 | 83.0 | 28,809 | 81.6 | 4151 | 86.6 | 19,526 | 82.4 |
| Body mass index | ||||||||
| Normal | 530 | 12.6 | 6385 | 18.1 | 575 | 12.0 | 4335 | 18.3 |
| Underweight | 22 | 0.5 | 292 | 0.8 | 15 | 0.3 | 196 | 0.8 |
| Overweight | 1504 | 35.8 | 13,294 | 37.7 | 1781 | 37.2 | 9036 | 38.1 |
| Obese | 1893 | 45.1 | 12,801 | 36.3 | 2177 | 45.4 | 8581 | 36.2 |
| Missing | 249 | 5.9 | 2514 | 7.1 | 245 | 5.1 | 1558 | 6.6 |
| Smoking status | ||||||||
| Never/ex-smoker | 3808 | 90.7 | 30,501 | 86.4 | 4355 | 90.9 | 20,459 | 86.3 |
| Current smoker | 390 | 9.3 | 4785 | 13.6 | 438 | 9.1 | 3247 | 13.7 |
| Comorbidities | ||||||||
| Diabetes mellitus | 357 | 8.5 | 2114 | 6.0 | 338 | 7.1 | 1259 | 5.3 |
| Treated hypertension | 1539 | 36.7 | 9509 | 26.9 | 1625 | 33.9 | 5856 | 24.7 |
| Rheumatoid arthritis | 40 | 1.0 | 213 | 0.6 | 39 | 0.8 | 122 | 0.5 |
| Heart failure | 200 | 4.8 | 900 | 2.6 | 166 | 3.5 | 372 | 1.6 |
| Myocardial infraction | 219 | 5.2 | 1247 | 3.5 | 216 | 4.5 | 685 | 2.9 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 176 | 4.2 | 1172 | 3.3 | 143 | 3.0 | 627 | 2.6 |
| Peripheral vascular disease | 118 | 2.8 | 663 | 1.9 | 85 | 1.8 | 351 | 1.5 |
| Anti-diabetic drugs | 233 | 5.6 | 1462 | 4.1 | 208 | 4.3 | 860 | 3.6 |
| NSAIDs | 1082 | 25.8 | 4455 | 12.6 | 1143 | 23.8 | 2887 | 12.2 |
| Previous hospitalisations | 1256 | 29.9 | 8964 | 25.4 | 1200 | 25.0 | 5392 | 22.7 |
| IMD quintiles | ||||||||
| 1 | 871 | 20.7 | 9211 | 26.1 | 1089 | 22.7 | 6338 | 26.7 |
| 2 | 1021 | 24.3 | 8700 | 24.7 | 1178 | 24.6 | 5894 | 24.9 |
| 3 | 889 | 21.2 | 7076 | 20.1 | 977 | 20.4 | 4733 | 20.0 |
| 4 | 764 | 18.2 | 5935 | 16.8 | 827 | 17.3 | 3915 | 16.5 |
| 5 | 647 | 15.4 | 4332 | 12.3 | 717 | 15.0 | 2810 | 11.9 |
| Mean serum urate (SD) μmol/L | 478.4 | (90.8) | 432.2 | (98.1) | 476.5 | (95.7) | 427.3 | (99.1) |
| Mean serum creatinine (SD)* μmol/L | 89.5 | (16.7) | 87.2 | (16.1) | 90.3 | (15.2) | 86.4 | (15.4) |
NSAID non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, IMD Index of multiple deprivation
*Missing serum creatinine value = 10,335 (1-year landmark), 5872 (3-year landmark), missing serum urate: 15,638 (1-year landmark), 10,176 (3-year landmark)
Table 4.
Absolute rate of CKD by ULT exposure
VariableExposedUnexposedUnadjustedAdjusted*nRate‡95% CInRate‡95% CIHazard ratio95% CIHazard ratio95% CI
| 1-Year landmark | ||||||||||
| Overall | 674 | 34.3 | 31.8, 37.0 | 4058 | 23.3 | 22.6, 24.0 | 1.47 | 1.35, 1.59 | 1.09 | 0.99, 1.18 |
| Male | 450 | 26.4 | 24.1, 28.9 | 2878 | 19.8 | 19.1, 20.5 | 1.33 | 1.21, 1.47 | 1.08 | 0.98, 1.20 |
| Female | 224 | 86.7 | 76.1, 98.9 | 1180 | 41.0 | 38.7, 43.4 | 2.01 | 1.74, 2.32 | 1.11 | 0.96, 1.29 |
| 3-Year landmark | ||||||||||
| Overall | 549 | 26.1 | 24.0, 28.4 | 2027 | 19.3 | 18.4, 20.1 | 1.35 | 1.23, 1.49 | 1.03 | 0.94, 1.14 |
| Male | 390 | 20.7 | 18.8, 22.9 | 1538 | 17.5 | 16.6, 18.4 | 1.19 | 1.06, 1.33 | 0.96 | 0.85, 1.07 |
| Female | 159 | 71.1 | 60.9, 83.1 | 489 | 28.3 | 25.9, 31.0 | 2.43 | 2.03, 2.90 | 1.31 | 1.09, 1.59 |
CKD chronic kidney disease, ULT urate-lowering therapy
*Adjusted for age, gender, body mass index, smoking status, diabetes mellitus, treated hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis, heart failure, index of multiple deprivation, myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, history of hospitalisation, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug exposure and baseline serum creatine and uric acid, when not stratified by them. ‡ per 10,000 person-years
Discussion
This retrospective cohort study, set in a large UK primary care population, compared the risk of developing CKD stage ≥ 3 in those with gout versus those without gout. Following adjustment for age, gender, comorbidities, deprivation, NSAID use, frequency of hospital admission and GP attendance, patients with gout had 78% increased risk of development of CKD stage ≥ 3 compared to patients without gout. Risk of CKD development was highest in the first 2 years following gout diagnosis. Following adjustment patients with gout exposed to at least 6 months ULT had no increased risk of developing CKD compared to those not exposed, in all analyses apart from analysis in women receiving ULT within 3 years of diagnosis.
This study has a number of strengths. Participants were from primary care where the majority of patients with gout are managed, thus aiding generalisability. The sample size was large and the median follow up was 6 years, which should be sufficient for development and ascertainment of CKD stage ≥ 3. Ascertainment of the primary outcome required either a clinical diagnostic code or two consecutive eGFR measurements < 60 mL/min/1.73m2. Utilising biochemical data and Read codes should aid completeness compared to using codes alone, as GP coding of CKD has been shown to capture only 72% of those with biochemically evident disease [32]. Previous cohort studies examining gout and renal disease used either record linkage or diagnostic codes alone and examined either the severest form of CKD (ESRD) [16, 17] or “renal diseases” [25], which would include a large number of heterogenous conditions. This is the first study to the best of our knowledge to examine risk of earlier stages of CKD and to use biochemical data, which is an additional strength. Immortal time bias, which could have resulted in lower observed risk of CKD associated with ULT exposure, was addressed with the use of landmark analysis, which is also a strength of this study.
An important caveat is gout ascertainment based on GP-coded diagnoses alone, risking misclassification bias, although gout diagnoses have been validated in CPRD and have a positive predictive value of 90% [26]. Ascertainment bias is a possible limitation of this study as patients with gout presented more frequently to their GP and hospital and had higher prevalence of hypertension and diabetes mellitus, which could have prompted more frequent renal function testing. GP consultation rates during follow up were adjusted for in the statistical analysis but may not completely address this issue. Furthermore, it was not possible to account for patient ethnicity or the severity of comorbidities. Regarding ULT prescription data, prescriptions do not necessarily equate to dispensing of ULT and it was not possible assess adherence.
In this study, those with CKD stage ≥ 3 or RRT occurring pre-index or within 1 year of gout diagnosis were excluded. Despite this, the possibility of reverse causation could still potentially underlie an association between gout and CKD e.g. undiagnosed or mild renal dysfunction leading to hyperuricaemia, thus conferring risk of gout development, with later progression to CKD [33]. It is possible that our finding of the risk of CKD development being highest within 2 years of gout diagnosis reflects this. It is also of note that nine genetic loci associated with both CKD and serum urate concentration, with varying direction of effect, have been identified by genome-wide association studies, which could further complicate the relationship between gout and CKD [34].
The prevalence of CKD stage ≥ 3 in gout was found to be 24% in our recent systematic review and meta-analysis [9]. We identified only two other prospective studies examining the risk of CKD associated with gout. These studies reported an increased risk of ESRD of 57% [17] and 80% [16], in keeping with our risk estimate for CKD stage ≥ 3. One study published subsequent to our systematic review found three times increased risk of “renal diseases” (defined using Read codes rather than eGFR) following gout diagnosis but did not differentiate between acute or chronic forms [25]. In our study allopurinol accounted for 99% of all ULT prescriptions. We did not find clear evidence that ULT exposure influenced the risk of developing CKD. Risk was greater in those exposed to ULT, but those exposed were older and more frequently had diabetes mellitus and hypertension and these factors appeared to explain the ULT-CKD association in our data. In previous studies examining the association between ULT and renal disease, benefits were noted to be greatest in those taking higher doses of ULT [35] or reaching target SUA levels [36]. It is of note, however, that patients with gout often remain on lower doses of allopurinol and the majority do not reach target SUA levels [37, 38]. This study has not explored whether target SUA levels were reached and our finding of no association may reflect suboptimal urate-lowering rather than the true effect of ULT.
Women who develop gout are typically older, have more comorbidities such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus and obesity and receive ULT less frequently than men [39]. Possible explanations for our finding of increased risk of CKD associated with ULT in women in the 3-year analysis include women prescribed ULT potentially having more severe gout and therefore possibly conferring greater risk of CKD, incomplete adjustment for comorbidities or medications or ascertainment bias, as comorbid women taking allopurinol may have more frequent renal function testing. It is possible that allopurinol has deleterious effects on renal function in women with gout but to the best of our knowledge this has not been found in previous studies. The finding of increased risk was not replicated in the 1-year analysis, however, suggesting the finding in the 3-year analysis could be related to chance.
Whilst it is not possible to make causal inferences from this observational study, it is worth considering the potentially plausible mechanisms for the association between gout and CKD. Renal damage could result from comorbid hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity or use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Hyperuricaemia-mediated endothelial dysfunction has been suggested to lead to renovascular disease [40], although Mendelian randomisation studies have not found an association between urate and CKD [34]. Inflammation in gout is increasingly recognised to persist in the intercritical period between acute attacks [41, 42], raising the possibility that inflammatory mechanisms contribute to increased risk. Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and subsequent production of interleukin-1β is a key inflammatory process in gout [43]. This is of note as renal NLRP3 expression is significantly increased in CKD and it has been suggested that this and interleukin-1β contribute to progression of CKD [44, 45]. We are unable to make comparisons to previous cohort studies, as they have used different outcome measures and, as discussed above, the possibility of reverse causation complicates temporal inferences from this study. As also noted previously, a number of conditions associated with gout are also risk factors for CKD and incomplete adjustment for these could result in residual confounding.
논의
영국 대규모 1차 진료 인구를 대상으로 한 이 후향적 코호트 연구는
통풍 환자와 비통풍 환자 간
만성 신장병(CKD) 3기 이상 발병 위험을 비교하였다.
연령, 성별, 동반 질환, 박탈 지수, 비스테로이드성 항염증제(NSAID) 사용, 입원 빈도 및 일반의 진료 횟수를 조정한 후,
통풍 환자는 비통풍 환자에 비해 CKD 3기 이상 발병 위험이 78% 증가하였다.
통풍 진단
후 첫 2년 동안 CKD 발병 위험이 가장 높았다.
조정 후, 최소 6개월간 ULT(요산 저하 치료)를 받은 통풍 환자는
ULT를 받지 않은 환자에 비해 CKD 발병 위험이 증가하지 않았으며,
단, 진단 후 3년 이내에 ULT를 받은 여성에 대한 분석을 제외한 모든 분석에서 그러했다.
본 연구는 여러 강점을 지닌다.
참가자는
대부분의 통풍 환자가 관리되는 1차 진료 기관에서 모집되어
일반화 가능성을 높였다.
표본 크기가 크고 추적 관찰 기간 중앙값이 6년으로,
CKD 3기 이상 발생 및 확인에 충분한 기간이다.
주요 결과 확인에는 임상 진단 코드 또는 연속 두 번의 eGFR 측정값이 60 mL/min/1. 73m2 미만이어야 한다. 생화학적 데이터와 Read 코드를 활용하면 코드 단독 사용 대비 완전성을 높일 수 있다. 일반의의 CKD 코딩은 생화학적 증거가 있는 환자의 72%만 포착하는 것으로 나타났기 때문이다[32]. 통풍과 신장 질환을 조사한 기존 코호트 연구들은 기록 연계 또는 진단 코드 단독을 사용했으며, 가장 심각한 형태의 CKD(말기 신부전, ESRD)[16, 17] 또는 “신장 질환”[25]을 조사했는데, 이는 다양한 이질적 상태를 포함한다.
본 연구는 우리가 아는 한 CKD 초기 단계의 위험을 조사하고 생화학적 데이터를 사용한 최초의 연구로, 이는 추가적인 강점이다. [25]을 조사했는데, 이는 다양한 이질적 상태를 포함할 수 있다. 본 연구는 우리가 아는 한 CKD 초기 단계의 위험을 조사하고 생화학적 데이터를 사용한 최초의 연구로, 이는 추가적인 강점이다. ULT 노출과 관련된 CKD의 관찰된 위험을 낮출 수 있는 불멸 시간 편향은 랜드마크 분석을 통해 해결되었으며, 이는 본 연구의 또 다른 강점이다.
중요한 주의사항은 통풍 확인이 일반의사(GP) 코드화된 진단만으로 이루어져
오분류 편향의 위험이 있다는 점이다.
다만 CPRD에서 통풍 진단은 검증되었으며
양성 예측값이 90%이다[26].
확인 편향은
본 연구의 가능한 한계점이다.
통풍 환자는
일반의사 및 병원을 더 자주 방문했으며
고혈압과 당뇨병 유병률이 높아 신기능 검사를 더 자주 받을 수 있었기 때문이다.
추적 관찰 기간 중 GP 진료 빈도는
통계 분석에서 조정되었으나
이 문제를 완전히 해결하지는 못했을 수 있다.
또한 환자 인종이나 동반 질환의 중증도를 고려하지 못했다.
ULT 처방 데이터와 관련하여,
처방이 반드시 ULT 조제와 일치하는 것은 아니며 복약 순응도를 평가할 수 없었다.
본 연구에서는
지표 시점 이전 또는 통풍 진단 후 1년 이내에
CKD 3기 이상 또는 RRT가 발생한 환자를 제외하였다.
그럼에도 불구하고 역인과성 가능성은
여전히 통풍과 CKD 간의 연관성을 설명할 수 있다.
예를 들어,
진단되지 않았거나 경미한 신기능 장애가 고요산혈증을 유발하여
통풍 발병 위험을 증가시키고,
이후 CKD로 진행될 수 있다[33].
우리 연구에서 통풍 진단 후 2년 이내에
CKD 발생 위험이 가장 높게 나타난 결과가 이를 반영할 수 있다.
또한 전장유전체 연관 연구를 통해 CKD와 혈청 요산 농도 모두와 연관된 9개의 유전자 좌위가 확인되었으며, 이들 좌위의 효과 방향은 다양하여 통풍과 CKD 간의 관계를 더욱 복잡하게 만들 수 있다는 점도 주목할 만하다 [34].
최근 체계적 문헌고찰 및 메타분석에서
통풍 환자의 CKD 3기 이상 유병률은
24%로 확인되었다[9].
통풍 관련 CKD 위험을 조사한 전향적 연구는 단 두 건만 확인되었다. 이들 연구는 말기 신부전(ESRD) 위험이 각각 57%[17] 및 80%[16] 증가한다고 보고했으며, 이는 본 연구의 CKD 3기 이상 위험 추정치와 일치한다. 본 체계적 문헌고찰 이후 발표된 한 연구에서는 통풍 진단 후 “신장 질환”(eGFR 대신 Read 코드로 정의) 위험이 3배 증가했으나 급성과 만성 형태를 구분하지 않았다[25].
본 연구에서
모든 ULT 처방의 99%를
알로퓨리놀이 차지했다.
ULT 노출이 CKD 발병 위험에 영향을 미친다는 명확한 증거는 발견되지 않았다. ULT에 노출된 집단에서 위험도가 높았으나, 이 집단은 연령이 더 높고 당뇨병 및 고혈압을 동반한 경우가 더 빈번했으며, 이러한 요인들이 본 데이터에서 ULT-CKD 연관성을 설명하는 것으로 나타났다. ULT와 신장 질환의 연관성을 조사한 기존 연구들에서는 ULT 고용량 복용자[35] 또는 목표 혈청 요산(SUA) 수치 달성자[36]에서 가장 큰 혜택이 관찰되었다. 그러나 통풍 환자들은 종종 낮은 용량의 알로퓨리놀을 계속 복용하며 대다수가 목표 SUA 수치에 도달하지 못한다는 점은 주목할 만하다[37, 38]. 본 연구는 목표 SUA 수치 달성 여부를 조사하지 않았으며, 연관성이 관찰되지 않은 결과는 ULT의 진정한 효과보다는 요산 저하가 충분히 이루어지지 않았기 때문일 수 있다.
통풍이 발생하는 여성은 일반적으로 연령이 높고, 고혈압, 당뇨병, 비만과 같은 동반 질환이 더 많으며, 남성보다 ULT를 덜 받는 경향이 있다 [39]. 3년간 분석에서 여성의 ULT와 CKD 위험 증가 연관성을 보인 가능성 있는 설명으로는, ULT 처방 여성의 통풍이 더 중증일 수 있어 CKD 위험이 더 클 수 있음, 동반 질환이나 약물에 대한 불완전한 조정, 또는 확인 편향(동반 질환이 있는 알로퓨리놀 복용 여성은 신기능 검사를 더 자주 받을 수 있음) 등이 포함된다. 알로퓨리놀이 통풍 여성의 신기능에 해로운 영향을 미칠 가능성은 있으나, 현재까지 알려진 바에 따르면 기존 연구에서는 그러한 결과가 확인되지 않았다. 다만 1년 분석에서는 위험 증가가 재현되지 않아, 3년 분석 결과는 우연성 때문일 수 있음을 시사한다.
이 관찰 연구에서 인과적 추론을 내리는 것은 불가능하지만,
통풍과 만성 신장 질환(CKD) 간 연관성에 대한
잠재적으로 타당한 기전을 고려해 볼 가치가 있습니다.
신장 손상은
동반 고혈압, 당뇨병, 비만 또는
비스테로이드성 항염증제(NSAID) 사용으로 인해 발생할 수 있습니다.
고요산혈증에 의한 내피 기능 장애가
신혈관 질환으로 이어질 수 있다는 제안이 있었으나 [40]을 유발할 수 있으나,
멘델식 무작위화 연구에서는 요산과 CKD 간 연관성을 확인하지 못했다[34].
통풍의 염증은
급성 발작 사이의 간발기에도 지속된다는 점이 점차 인정받고 있어[41, 42],
염증 기전이 위험 증가에 기여할 가능성을 제기한다.
NLRP3 인플라마좀 활성화와 이에 따른 인터루킨-1β 생성은
통풍의 핵심 염증 과정이다[43].
이는 신장 NLRP3 발현이 CKD에서 현저히 증가하며,
이 발현과 인터루킨-1β가 CKD 진행에 기여한다는 제안이 있기에 주목할 만하다[44, 45].
기존 코호트 연구들은 서로 다른 결과 측정법을 사용했으며, 앞서 논의한 바와 같이 역인과성의 가능성으로 인해 본 연구의 시간적 추론이 복잡해지므로 비교가 불가능하다. 또한 이전에 언급된 바와 같이, 통풍과 연관된 여러 질환들도 CKD의 위험 인자이며, 이에 대한 불완전한 조정은 잔여 혼란 요인을 초래할 수 있다.
결론
본 연구는 연령, 성별, 동반 질환, 사회경제적 불리함, NSAID 사용, 입원 빈도 및 일반의 진료 횟수를 조정한 후에도 통풍이 CKD 3기 이상 발생의 위험 인자임을 입증하였다. 임상 현장에서는 통풍 환자의 신기능 모니터링이 종종 부적절하게 이루어지는 것으로 알려져 있으며[36], 이는 개선이 필요한 부분임을 시사한다. 고요산혈증의 역할 및 관련 염증 과정 등을 포함하여 통풍이 CKD 위험을 증가시키는 기전을 규명하는 추가 연구가 제안된다. 통풍 환자에서 CKD 유병률이 높다는 점을 고려할 때, 최적의 ULT(요독증 치료) 활용이 통풍 환자의 CKD 위험 또는 진행을 감소시킬 수 있는지 여부에 대한 추가 연구 역시 가치가 있을 것이다.
Conclusion
This study has demonstrated gout to be a risk factor for incident CKD stage ≥ 3, after adjustment for age, gender, comorbidities, deprivation, NSAID use, frequency of hospital admission and GP attendance. In clinical practice, renal function monitoring is often suboptimal in gout [36] suggesting an area for improvement. Further research examining the mechanisms by which gout may increase risk of CKD is suggested, including the role of hyperuricaemia and possible linked inflammatory processes. Due to high prevalence of CKD in gout, further research into whether optimal use of ULT can reduce the risk or progression of CKD in patients with gout would also be of value.
Additional file
Additional file 1: (1.4MB, tif)
Figure S1. Landmark analysis. (A) 1-year landmark. (B) 3-year landmark. (TIF 1482 kb)
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Funding
MJR received a bursary from the Jean Shanks Foundation to fund his intercalated MPhil. CDM is funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Collaborations for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care West Midlands, the NIHR School for Primary Care Research and a NIHR Research Professorship in General Practice, which also supports AAS and RW (NIHR-RP-2014-04-026). LC is funded by an NIHR Clinical Lectureship in General Practice. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the National Health Service (NHS), the NIHR or the Department of Health or Social Care. The funder was not involved in the study design; in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
AbbreviationsAR
Absolute rate
BMI
Body mass index
CKD
Chronic kidney disease
CPRD
Clinical practice research datalink
eGFR
Estimated glomerular filtration rate
ESRD
End-stage renal disease
GP
General practitioner
HES
Hospital episode statistics
HR
Hazard ratio
IMD
Index of multiple deprivation
ISAC
Independent scientific advisory committee
NSAIDs
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
RRT
Renal replacement therapy
SLE
Systemic lupus erythematosus
SUA
Serum uric acid
ULT
Urate-lowering therapy
Authors’ contributions
ER, LC and CDM conceived the study. Analysis was undertaken by AAS, SM and RW. All authors were involved in the design, interpretation of data, and drafting, revising and final approval of the manuscript. ER is guarantor and affirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate and transparent account of the study being reported, and that no important aspects of the study have been omitted. There are no discrepancies from the study as planned. All authors had full access to all of the data (including statistical reports and tables) in the study and can take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
This study was approved by the CPRD in-house Independent Scientific Advisory Committee (ISAC) reference number 15_214RA.
Consent for publication
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