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Robot

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A machine capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically.

This article is about mechanical robots. For software agents, see BotRobot (disambiguation)

Atlas (2016), a bipedal humanoid robot

ASIMO (2000) at the Expo 2005

Articulated welding robots used in a factory are a type of industrial robot

The quadrupedal military robot Cheetah, an evolution of BigDog (pictured), was clocked as the world's fastest legged robot in 2012, beating the record set by an MIT bipedal^[1]

A robot is a machine—especially one programmable by a computer^[2] Robots can be guided by an external control device or the control

Robots can be autonomousHonda's Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility (ASIMO) and TOSY's TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot (TOPIO) to industrial robots, medical operating robots, patient assist robots, dog therapy robots, collectively programmed swarm robots, UAV drones such as General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, and even microscopic nano robotsthoughtAutonomous things are expected to proliferate in the coming decade,^[3] with home robotics and the autonomous car^[4]

The branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots,^[5] as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing is roboticsmanufacturing processesbio-inspired roboticssoft robotics

From the time of ancient civilizationautomataIndustrial ageremote-control

The term comes from a Slavic root, robot-, with meanings associated with labor. The word 'robot' was first used to denote a fictional humanoid in a 1920 Czech-language play R.U.R. (Rossumovi Univerzální Roboti - Rossum's Universal Robots) by [[Karel Čapek], though it was Karel's brother Josef Čapek^[6][7][8] Electronics evolved into the driving force of development with the advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by William Grey Walter in Bristol, England in 1948, as well as Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machine tools in the late 1940s by John T. Parsons and Frank L. Stulenprogrammable robot was built by George Devol in 1954 and was named the UnimateGeneral Motors in 1961 where it was used to lift pieces of hot metal from die casting machines at the Inland Fisher Guide Plant in the West Trenton section of Ewing Township, New Jersey^[9]

Robots have replaced humans^[10] in performing repetitive and dangerous tasks which humans prefer not to do, or are unable to do because of size limitations, or which take place in extreme environments such as outer space or the bottom of the sea. There are concerns about the increasing use of robots and their role in society. Robots are blamed for rising technological unemployment^[11] The use of robots in military combat raises ethical concerns. The possibilities of robot autonomy and potential repercussions have been addressed in fiction and may be a realistic concern in the future.

Contents

• 1 Summary
• 2 History
  • 2.1 Early beginnings
  • 2.2 Remote-controlled systems
  • 2.3 Origin of the term 'robot'
  • 2.4 Early robots
  • 2.5 Modern autonomous robots
• 3 Future development and trends
  • 3.1 New functionalities and prototypes
• 4 Etymology
• 5 Modern robots
  • 5.1 Mobile robot
  • 5.2 Industrial robots (manipulating)
  • 5.3 Service robot
  • 5.4 Educational (interactive) robots
  • 5.5 Modular robot
  • 5.6 Collaborative robots
• 6 Robots in society
  • 6.1 Autonomy and ethical questions
  • 6.2 Military robots
  • 6.3 Relationship to unemployment
• 7 Contemporary uses
  • 7.1 General-purpose autonomous robots
  • 7.2 Factory robots
    • 7.2.1 Car production
    • 7.2.2 Packaging
    • 7.2.3 Electronics
    • 7.2.4 Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)
      • 7.2.4.1 Early AGV-style robots
      • 7.2.4.2 Interim AGV technologies
      • 7.2.4.3 Intelligent AGVs (i-AGVs)
  • 7.3 Dirty, dangerous, dull or inaccessible tasks
    • 7.3.1 Space probes
    • 7.3.2 Telerobots
    • 7.3.3 Automated fruit harvesting machines
    • 7.3.4 Domestic robots
  • 7.4 Military robots
  • 7.5 Mining robots
  • 7.6 Healthcare
    • 7.6.1 Home automation for the elderly and disabled
    • 7.6.2 Pharmacies
  • 7.7 Research robots
    • 7.7.1 Bionic and biomimetic robots
    • 7.7.2 Nanorobots
    • 7.7.3 Reconfigurable robots
    • 7.7.4 Soft-bodied robots
    • 7.7.5 Swarm robots
    • 7.7.6 Haptic interface robots
  • 7.8 Contemporary art and sculpture
• 8 Robots in popular culture
  • 8.1 Literature
  • 8.2 Films
  • 8.3 Sex robots
  • 8.4 Problems depicted in popular culture
• 9 See also
  • 9.1 Specific robotics concepts
  • 9.2 Robotics methods and categories
  • 9.3 Specific robots and devices
  • 9.4 Other related articles
• 10 References
• 11 Further reading
• 12 External links

Summary

KITT

iCub

The word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are usually referred to as bots^[12] There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots but there is general agreement among experts, and the public, that robots tend to possess some or all of the following abilities and functions: accept electronic programming, process data or physical perceptions^[13][14] Closely related to the concept of a robot is the field of Synthetic Biology, which studies entities whose nature is more comparable to beings

History

Main article: History of robots

The idea of automata originates in the mythologies of many cultures around the world. Engineers and inventors from ancient civilizations, including Ancient China,^[15] Ancient Greece, and Ptolemaic Egypt,^[16] attempted to build self-operating machines, some resembling animals and humans. Early descriptions of automata include the artificial doves of Archytas,^[17] the artificial birds of Mozi and Lu Ban,^[18] a "speaking" automaton by Hero of Alexandria, a washstand automaton by Philo of Byzantium, and a human automaton described in the Lie Zi.^[15]

Early beginnings

Many ancient mythologies, and most modern religions include artificial people, such as the mechanical servants built by the Greek god Hephaestus^[19] (Vulcan to the Romans), the clay golems of Jewish legend and clay giants of Norse legend, and Galatea, the mythical statue of PygmalionCrete include Talos

In ancient Greece, the Greek engineer Ctesibius^[20][21] In the 4th century BC, the Greek mathematician ArchytasHero of Alexandria (10–70 AD), a Greek mathematician and inventor, created numerous user-configurable automated devices, and described machines powered by air pressure, steam and water.^[22]

Al-Jazari – A Musical Toy

The 11th century Lokapannatti tells of how the Buddha's relics were protected by mechanical robots (bhuta vahana yanta), from the kingdom of Roma visaya (Rome); until they were disarmed by King Ashoka^{[23] [24]}

In ancient China, the 3rd-century text of the Lie Zi describes an account of humanoid automata, involving a much earlier encounter between Chinese emperor King Mu of Zhou^[15] There are also accounts of flying automata in the Han Fei Zi and other texts, which attributes the 5th century BC Mohist philosopher Mozi and his contemporary Lu Ban with the invention of artificial wooden birds (ma yuan) that could successfully fly.^[18]

Su Song

In 1066, the Chinese inventor Su Song built a water clock^[25][26][27] His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bumped into little levers^[27]

Samarangana Sutradhara, a Sanskrit treatise by Bhoja (11th century), includes a chapter about the construction of mechanical contrivances (automata^[28][29][30]

13th century Muslim Scientist Ismail al-Jazari^[31] He also invented the earliest known automatic gates, which were driven by hydropower,^[32] created automatic doors as part of one of his elaborate water clocks^[33] One of al-Jazari's humanoid automata^[34] Al-Jazari invented a hand washing automaton incorporating a flush mechanism now used in modern flush toiletshumanoid automaton^[35]

Mark E. Rosheim summarizes the advances in robotics

Unlike the Greek designs, these Arab examples reveal an interest, not only in dramatic illusion, but in manipulating the environment for human comfort. Thus, the greatest contribution the Arabs made, besides preserving, disseminating and building on the work of the Greeks, was the concept of practical application. This was the key element that was missing in Greek robotic science.^[36]

Model of Leonardo's robotLeonardo da Vinci^[37]

In Renaissance Italy, Leonardo da VinciLeonardo's robot^[38] The design was probably based on anatomical research recorded in his Vitruvian Man. It is not known whether he attempted to build it. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, Leonardo da Vinci^[31]

In Japan, complex animal and human automata were built between the 17th to 19th centuries, with many described in the 18th century Karakuri zui (Illustrated Machinery, 1796). One such automaton was the karakuri ningyō, a mechanized puppet^[39] Different variations of the karakuri existed: the Butai karakuri, which were used in theatre, the Zashiki karakuri, which were small and used in homes, and the Dashi karakuri which were used in religious festivals, where the puppets were used to perform reenactments of traditional myths and legends

In France, between 1738 and 1739, Jacques de Vaucanson^[40]

Remote-controlled systems

The Brennan torpedo, one of the earliest 'guided missiles'

Remotely operated vehicles were demonstrated in the late 19th century in the form of several types of remotely controlled torpedoestorpedoes by John Ericsson (pneumatic), John Louis Lay (electric wire guided), and Victor von Scheliha^[41]

The Brennan torpedo, invented by Louis Brennantorpedopractical guided missile".^[42] In 1897 the British inventor Ernest Wilson was granted a patent for a torpedo remotely controlled by "Hertzian" (radio) waves^[43][44] and in 1898 Nikola Teslatorpedo that he hoped to sell to the US Navy^[45][46]

Archibald Low, known as the "father of radio guidance systems" for his pioneering work on guided rockets and planes during the First World WarRoyal Flying Corps

Origin of the term 'robot'

'Robot' was first applied as a term for artificial automata in the 1920 play R.U.R. by the Czech writer, Karel ČapekJosef Čapek^[7][8] The word 'robot' itself was not new, having been in the Slavic language as robota (forced laborer), a term which classified those peasants obligated to compulsory service under the feudal system (see: Robot Patent^[47][48] Čapek's fictional story postulated the technological creation of artificial human bodies without souls, and the old theme of the feudal robota class eloquently fit the imagination of a new class of manufactured, artificial workers.

English pronunciation of the word has evolved relatively quickly since its introduction. In the U.S. during the late '30s to early '40s the second sylable was pronounced with a long "O" like "row-boat."^{[49][better source needed]} By the late '50s to early '60s, some were pronouncing it with a short "U" like "row-but" while others used a softer "O" like "row-bought."^[50] By the '70s, its current pronunciation "row-bot" had become predominant.

Early robots

W. H. Richards with "George", 1932

In 1928, one of the first humanoid robots, Eric, was exhibited at the annual exhibition of the Model Engineers Society in Londonaluminium body of armour with eleven electromagnets^[51] Both Eric and his "brother" George toured the world.^[52]

Westinghouse Electric CorporationElektro was debuted at the 1939 New York World's Fair^[53][54] Seven feet tall (2.1 m) and weighing 265 pounds (120.2 kg), it could walk by voice command, speak about 700 words (using a 78-rpm record playerGakutensoku

Modern autonomous robots

The first electronic autonomous robots with complex behaviour were created by William Grey Walter of the Burden Neurological Institute at Bristolbrain cells could give rise to very complex behaviorsElmer and Elsie, were constructed between 1948 and 1949 and were often described as tortoises due to their shape and slow rate of movement. The three-wheeled tortoise robots were capable of phototaxis

Walter stressed the importance of using purely analogue electronics to simulate brain processes at a time when his contemporaries such as Alan Turing and John von Neumann were all turning towards a view of mental processes in terms of digital computationRodney Brooks, Hans Moravec and Mark Tildenturtles may be found in the form of BEAM robotics^[55]

U.S. Patent 2,988,237, issued in 1961 to Devol

The first digitally operated and programmable robot was invented by George Devol in 1954 and was ultimately called the Unimate^[56] Devol sold the first Unimate to General Motors in 1960, and it was installed in 1961 in a plant in Trenton, New Jersey to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting^[57] Devol's patent for the first digitally operated programmable robotic arm represents the foundation of the modern robotics industry.^[58]

The first palletizing robot^[59] In 1973, a robot with six electromechanically driven axes was patented^[60][61][62] by KUKA robotics in Germany, and the programmable universal manipulation arm was invented by Victor Scheinman in 1976, and the design was sold to Unimation

Commercial and industrial robots are now in widespread use performing jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and reliability than humans. They are also employed for jobs which are too dirty, dangerous or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, and mass production of consumer and industrial goods.^[63]

Future development and trends

Atlas, The Next Generation

Further information: Robotics

Various techniques have emerged to develop the science of robotics and robots. One method is evolutionary roboticsdevelopmental robotics^[64]

As robots become more advanced, eventually there may be a standard computer operating system designed mainly for robots. Robot Operating SystemStanford University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Technical University of Munichrobot's navigationimage recognition^[65]

Japan hopes to have full-scale commercialization of service robots by 2025. Much technological research in Japan is led by Japanese government agencies, particularly the Trade Ministry.^[66]

Many future applications of robotics seem obvious to people, even though they are well beyond the capabilities of robots available at the time of the prediction.^[67][68] As early as 1982 people were confident that someday robots would:^[69] 1. Clean parts by removing molding flashcable harnesspacking problemprosthesis

Generally such predictions are overly optimistic in timescale.

New functionalities and prototypes

In 2008, Caterpillar Inc.^[70] Many analysts believe that self-driving trucks may eventually revolutionize logistics.^[71] By 2014, Caterpillar had a self-driving dump truck which is expected to greatly change the process of mining. In 2015, these Caterpillar trucks were actively used in mining operations in Australia by the mining company Rio Tinto Coal Australia^{[72][73][74][75]} Some analysts believe that within the next few decades, most trucks will be self-driving.^[76]

A literate or 'reading robot' named Marge has intelligence that comes from software. She can read newspapers, find and correct misspelled words, learn about banks like Barclays, and understand that some restaurants are better places to eat than others.^[77]

Baxter^[78]

Etymology

See also: Glossary of robotics

A scene from Karel Čapek's 1920 play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), showing three robots

The word robot was introduced to the public by the Czech interwar writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), published in 1920.^[79] The play begins in a factory that uses a chemical substitute for protoplasm to manufacture living, simplified people called robots. The play does not focus in detail on the technology behind the creation of these living creatures, but in their appearance they prefigure modern ideas of androidsexploited

Karel Čapek himself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in the Oxford English Dictionary in which he named his brother, the painter and writer Josef Čapek^[79]

In an article in the Czech journal Lidové noviny in 1933, he explained that he had originally wanted to call the creatures laboři ("workers", from Latin labor). However, he did not like the word, and sought advice from his brother Josef, who suggested "roboti". The word robota means literally "corvée", "serf labor", and figuratively "drudgery" or "hard work" in Czech and also (more general) "work", "labor" in many Slavic languagesBulgarian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Polish, Macedonian, Ukrainian, archaic Czech, as well as robot in Hungarianrobota (Hungarian robot) was the work period a serf (corvéeOld Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian) rabota "servitude" ("work" in contemporary Bulgarian and Russian), which in turn comes from the Proto-Indo-European root *orbh-. Robot is cognate with the German root Arbeit (work).^[80][81]

The word robotics, used to describe this field of study,^[5] was coined by the science fiction writer Isaac AsimovThree Laws of Robotics" which are a recurring theme in his books. These have since been used by many others to define laws used in fiction. (The three laws are pure fiction, and no technology yet created has the ability to understand or follow them, and in fact most robots serve military purposes, which run quite contrary to the first law and often the third law. "People think about Asimov's laws, but they were set up to point out how a simple ethical system doesn't work. If you read the short stories, every single one is about a failure, and they are totally impractical," said Dr. Joanna Bryson of the University of Bath.^[82])

Modern robots

A laparoscopic robotic surgery machine

Mobile robot

Main articles: Mobile robot and Automated guided vehicle

Mobile robots^[83] have the capability to move around in their environment and are not fixed to one physical location. An example of a mobile robot that is in common use today is the automated guided vehicle or automatic guided vehicle (AGV). An AGV is a mobile robot that follows markers or wires in the floor, or uses vision or lasers.^[84] AGVs are discussed later in this article.

Mobile robots are also found in industry, military and security environments.^[85] They also appear as consumer products, for entertainment or to perform certain tasks like vacuum cleaning. Mobile robots are the focus of a great deal of current research and almost every major university has one or more labs that focus on mobile robot research.^{[citation needed]}

Mobile robots are usually used in tightly controlled environments such as on assembly linesdomestic robotsmilitary^{[citation needed]}

Industrial robots (manipulating)

Main articles: Industrial robot and Manipulator (device)

A pick and place robot in a factory

Industrial robots usually consist of a jointed armend effectorgripper

The International Organization for Standardization gives a definition of a manipulating industrial robot in ISO 8373:

"an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications."^[86]

This definition is used by the International Federation of Robotics^[87]

Service robot

Main article: Service robot

Most commonly industrial robots are fixed robotic arms and manipulators used primarily for production and distribution of goods. The term "service robot" is less well-defined. The International Federation of Robotics^[88]

Educational (interactive) robots

Main article: Educational robotics

Robots are used as educational assistants to teachers. From the 1980s, robots such as turtles were used in schools and programmed using the Logo^[89][90]

There are robot kits like Lego Mindstorms, BIOLOIDrobot competitions with the company FIRSTFIRST Robotics Competition, FIRST LEGO League, Junior FIRST LEGO League, and FIRST Tech Challenge

There have also been robots such as the teaching computer, Leachim (1974).^[91] Leachim was an early example of speech synthesis using the using the Diphone synthesis2-XL (1976) was a robot shaped game / teaching toy based on branching between audible tracks on an 8-track tape player, both invented by Michael J. Freeman^[92] Later, the 8-track was upgraded to tape cassettes and then to digital.

Modular robot

Main article: Self-reconfiguring modular robot

Modular robots are a new breed of robots that are designed to increase the utilization of robots by modularizing their architecture.^[93] The functionality and effectiveness of a modular robot is easier to increase compared to conventional robots. These robots are composed of a single type of identical, several different identical module types, or similarly shaped modules, which vary in size. Their architectural structure allows hyper-redundancy for modular robots, as they can be designed with more than 8 degrees of freedom (DOF). Creating the programming, inverse kinematics

Modular robotic technology is currently being applied in hybrid transportation,^[94] industrial automation,^[95] duct cleaning^[96] and handling. Many research centres and universities have also studied this technology, and have developed prototypes.

Collaborative robots

A collaborative robot or cobot is a robot that can safely and effectively interact with human workers while performing simple industrial tasks. However, end-effectors and other environmental conditions may create hazards, and as such risk assessments should be done before using any industrial motion-control application.^[97]

The collaborative robots most widely used in industries today are manufactured by Universal Robots^[98]

Rethink Robotics—founded by Rodney Brooks, previously with iRobot—introduced Baxter in September 2012; as an industrial robot^[99] Baxters stop if they detect a human in the way of their robotic arms and have prominent off switches. Intended for sale to small businesses, they are promoted as the robotic analogue of the personal computer.^[100] As of May 2014^[update], 190 companies in the US have bought Baxters and they are being used commercially in the UK.^[11]

Robots in society

TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played ping pong at Tokyo International Robot Exhibition (IREX) 2009^[101][102]

Roughly half of all the robots in the world are in Asia, 32% in Europe, and 16% in North America, 1% in Australasia^[103] 40% of all the robots in the world are in Japan,^[104] making Japan the country with the highest number of robots.

Autonomy and ethical questions

Main articles: Roboethics and Ethics of artificial intelligence

An android, or robot designed to resemble a human, can appear comforting to some people and disturbing to others^[105]

As robots have become more advanced and sophisticated, experts and academics have increasingly explored the questions of what ethics might govern robots' behavior,^[106] and whether robots might be able to claim any kind of social, cultural, ethical or legal rights.^[107] One scientific team has said that it is possible that a robot brain will exist by 2019.^[108] Others predict robot intelligence breakthroughs by 2050.^[109] Recent advances have made robotic behavior more sophisticated.^[110] The social impact of intelligent robots is subject of a 2010 documentary film called Plug & Pray.^[111]

Vernor Vingethe Singularity^[112] He suggests that it may be somewhat or possibly very dangerous for humans.^[113] This is discussed by a philosophy called Singularitarianism

In 2009, experts attended a conference hosted by the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence^[112] Various media sources and scientific groups have noted separate trends in differing areas which might together result in greater robotic functionalities and autonomy, and which pose some inherent concerns.^{[114][115][116]} In 2015, the Nao alderen robots were shown to have a capability for a degree of self-awareness. Researchers at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute AI and Reasoning Lab in New York conducted an experiment where a robot became aware of itself, and corrected its answer to a question once it had realised this.^[117]

Military robots

Some experts and academics have questioned the use of robots for military combat, especially when such robots are given some degree of autonomous functions.^[118] There are also concerns about technology which might allow some armed robots to be controlled mainly by other robots.^[119] The US Navy has funded a report which indicates that, as military robots^[120][121] One researcher states that autonomous robots might be more humane, as they could make decisions more effectively. However, other experts question this.^[122]

One robot in particular, the EATR, has generated public concerns^[123] over its fuel source, as it can continually refuel itself using organic substances.^[124] Although the engine for the EATR is designed to run on biomass and vegetation^[125] specifically selected by its sensors, which it can find on battlefields or other local environments, the project has stated that chicken fat can also be used.^[126]

Manuel De Landa^[127]

Relationship to unemployment

Main article: Technological unemployment

For centuries, people have predicted that machines would make workers obsolete and increase unemployment^[128]

A recent example of human replacement involves Taiwanese technology company Foxconn^[129]

Lawyers have speculated that an increased preval‎ence of robots in the workplace could lead to the need to improve redundancy laws.^[130]

Kevin J. Delaney said "Robots are taking human jobs. But Bill Gates believes that governments should tax companies’ use of them, as a way to at least temporarily slow the spread of automation and to fund other types of employment."^[131] The robot tax

The World Bank's World Development Report^[132]

Contemporary uses

A general-purpose robot acts as a guide during the day and a security guard at night.

See also: List of robots

At present, there are two main types of robots, based on their use: general-purpose autonomous robots

Robots can be classified by their specificity

General-purpose autonomous robots

Main article: Autonomous robot

General-purpose autonomous robots can perform a variety of functions independently. General-purpose autonomous robots typically can navigate independently in known spaces, handle their own re-charging needs, interface with electronic doors and elevators and perform other basic tasks. Like computers, general-purpose robots can link with networks, software and accessories that increase their usefulness. They may recognize people or objects, talk, provide companionship, monitor environmental quality, respond to alarms, pick up supplies and perform other useful tasks. General-purpose robots may perform a variety of functions simultaneously or they may take on different roles at different times of day. Some such robots try to mimic human beings and may even resemble people in appearance; this type of robot is called a humanoid robot. Humanoid robots are still in a very limited stage, as no humanoid robot can, as of yet, actually navigate around a room that it has never been in.^{[citation needed]} Thus, humanoid robots are really quite limited, despite their intelligent behaviors in their well-known environments.

Factory robots

Car production

Over the last three decades, automobile factoriesindustrial robotswelded, glued

Packaging

Industrial robots are also used extensively for palletizing and packaging of manufactured goods, for example for rapidly taking drink cartons from the end of a conveyor belt and placing them into boxes, or for loading and unloading machining centers.

Electronics

Mass-produced printed circuit boardsSCARA manipulators, which remove tiny electronic components^[133] Such robots can place hundreds of thousands of components per hour, far out-performing a human in speed, accuracy, and reliability.^[134]

Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)

An intelligent AGV drops-off goods without needing lines or beacons in the workspace.

Mobile robots, following markers or wires in the floor, or using vision^[84] or lasers, are used to transport goods around large facilities, such as warehouses, container ports, or hospitals.^[135]

Early AGV-style robots

Limited to tasks that could be accurately defined and had to be performed the same way every time. Very little feedback or intelligence was required, and the robots needed only the most basic exteroceptors

Interim AGV technologies

Developed to deploy triangulation from beacons or bar code grids for scanning on the floor or ceiling. In most factories, triangulation systems tend to require moderate to high maintenance, such as daily cleaning of all beacons or bar codes. Also, if a tall pallet or large vehicle blocks beacons or a bar code is marred, AGVs may become lost. Often such AGVs are designed to be used in human-free environments.

Intelligent AGVs (i-AGVs)

Such as SmartLoader,^[136] SpeciMinder,^[137] ADAM,^[138] Tug^[139] Eskorta,^[140] and MT 400 with Motivity^[141] are designed for people-friendly workspaces. They navigate by recognizing natural features. 3D scanners or other means of sensing the environment in two or three dimensions help to eliminate cumulative errors in dead-reckoningsimultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) and use those maps to navigate in real time with other path planningphotomaskstime-of-flight or stereovision

Dirty, dangerous, dull or inaccessible tasks

See also: Dirty, dangerous and demeaning

There are many jobs which humans would rather leave to robots. The job may be boring, such as domestic cleaning or sports field line marking, or dangerous, such as exploring inside a volcano^[142] Other jobs are physically inaccessible, such as exploring another planet,^[143] cleaning the inside of a long pipe, or performing laparoscopic^[144]

Space probes

Almost every unmanned space probe^[145][146] Some were launched in the 1960s with very limited abilities, but their ability to fly and land (in the case of Luna 9Voyager probes

Telerobots

A U.S. Marine Corps technician prepares to use a telerobot to detonate a buried improvised explosive device near Camp Fallujah, Iraq

Teleoperated robots, or telerobots, are devices remotely operated^[144] They can also be used to avoid exposing workers to the hazardous and tight spaces such as in duct^[147] Teleoperated robot aircraft, like the Predator Unmanned Aerial Vehicle^[148][149] Hundreds of robots such as iRobot's Packbot and the Foster-Miller TALON are being used in Iraq and Afghanistan by the U.S. military to defuse roadside bombs or improvised explosive devices (IEDs) in an activity known as explosive ordnance disposal^[150]

Automated fruit harvesting machines

Robots are used to automate picking fruit

Domestic robots

The Roomba domestic vacuum cleaner robot does a single, menial job

Domestic robotsvacuum cleaning, floor washing, and lawn mowingRoomba

Military robots

Main article: Military robot

Military robots include the SWORDS robot^{[151][152][153]}

Unmanned combat air vehicles (UCAVs), which are an upgraded form of UAVsBAE Systems Mantis^[154] The BAE Taranis^[155] Flight trials are expected to begin in 2011.^[156]

The AAAI has studied this topic in depth^[106] and its president has commissioned a study to look at this issue.^[157]

Some have suggested a need to build "Friendly AI^[158] Several such measures reportedly already exist, with robot-heavy countries such as Japan and South Korea^[159] having begun to pass regulations requiring robots to be equipped with safety systems, and possibly sets of 'laws' akin to Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics^[160][161] An official report was issued in 2009 by the Japanese government's Robot Industry Policy Committee.^[162] Chinese officials and researchers have issued a report suggesting a set of ethical rules, and a set of new legal guidelines referred to as "Robot Legal Studies."^[163] Some concern has been expressed over a possible occurrence of robots telling apparent falsehoods.^[164]

Mining robots

Mining robots are designed to solve a number of problems currently facing the mining industry, including skills shortages, improving productivity from declining ore grades, and achieving environmental targets. Due to the hazardous nature of mining, in particular underground miningloadersRio Tinto, has recently expanded its autonomous truck fleet to the world's largest, consisting of 150 autonomous Komatsu trucks, operating in Western Australia^[165] Similarly, BHP has announced the expansion of its autonomous drill fleet to the world's largest, 21 autonomous Atlas Copco^[166]

Drilling, longwall and rockbreaking^[167] The Atlas Copco Rig Control System can autonomously execute a drilling plan on a drilling rig^[168] Similarly, the Transmin^[169] These systems greatly enhance the safety and efficiency of mining operations.

Healthcare

Robots in healthcare have two main functions. Those which assist an individual, such as a sufferer of a disease like Multiple Sclerosis, and those which aid in the overall systems such as pharmacies and hospitals.

Home automation for the elderly and disabled

Further information: Disability robot

The Care-Providing Robot FRIEND

Robots used in home automation have developed over time from simple basic robotic assistants, such as the Handy 1,^[170] through to semi-autonomous robots, such as FRIEND

The population is aging^[171][172] Humans make the best carers, but where they are unavailable, robots are gradually being introduced.^[173]

FRIEND is a semi-autonomous robot designed to support disabled and elderlypatients who are paraplegic, have muscle diseases or serious paralysis

Pharmacies

Main article: Pharmacy automation

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Script Pro manufactures a robot designed to help pharmacies fill prescriptions that consist of oral solids or medications^{[174][better source needed]} The pharmacist or pharmacy technician

McKesson's Robot RX is another healthcare robotics product that helps pharmacies dispense thousands of medications daily with little or no errors.^[175] The robot can be ten feet wide and thirty feet long and can hold hundreds of different kinds of medications and thousands of doses. The pharmacy saves many resources like staff members that are otherwise unavailable in a resource scarce industry. It uses an electromechanical head coupled with a pneumaticbarcode

Research robots

See also: Robotics research

While most robots today are installed in factories or homes, performing labour or life saving jobs, many new types of robot are being developed in laboratories^{[citation needed]}

Bionic and biomimetic robots

Further information: Biomimetics

Further information: Bionics

One approach to designing robots is to base them on animals. BionicKangaroo

Nanorobots

Further information: Nanorobotics

Nanorobotics is the emerging technology field of creating machines or robots whose components are at or close to the microscopic scale of a nanometer (10⁻⁹ meters). Also known as "nanobots" or "nanites", they would be constructed from molecular machinessynthetic molecular motors^[176] Researchers also hope to be able to create entire robots as small as viruses or bacteria, which could perform tasks on a tiny scale. Possible applications include micro surgery (on the level of individual cells), utility fog,^[177] manufacturing, weaponry and cleaning.^[178] Some people have suggested that if there were nanobots which could reproduce, the earth would turn into "grey goo^[179][180]

Reconfigurable robots

Main article: Self-reconfiguring modular robot

A few researchers have investigated the possibility of creating robots which can alter their physical form to suit a particular task,^[181] like the fictional T-1000^[182]

Soft-bodied robots

Robots with silicone bodies and flexible actuators (air muscles, electroactive polymers, and ferrofluids^[183] Soft, flexible (and sometimes even squishy) robots are often designed to mimic the biomechanics of animals and other things found in nature, which is leading to new applications in medicine, care giving, search and rescue, food handling and manufacturing, and scientific exploration.^[184][185]

Swarm robots

Main article: Swarm robotics

Inspired by colonies of insects such as ants and bees, researchers are modeling the behavior of swarmsemergent behaviorsuperorganism, exhibiting swarm intelligence^[186] and the Open-source Micro-robotic Project swarm, which are being used to research collective behaviors.^[187][188] Swarms are also more resistant to failure. Whereas one large robot may fail and ruin a mission, a swarm can continue even if several robots fail. This could make them attractive for space exploration missions, where failure is normally extremely costly.^[189]

Haptic interface robots

Further information: Haptic technology

Robotics also has application in the design of virtual realityhaptictouch^[190]

Contemporary art and sculpture

Further information: Robotic art

Robots are used by contemporary artists to create works that include mechanical automation. There are many branches of robotic art, one of which is robotic installation art, a type of installation artkinetic art

Le Grand Palais^[191]

Robots in popular culture

Toy robots on display at the Museo del Objeto del Objeto

See also: List of fictional robots and androids and Droid (Star Wars)

Literature

Main article: Robots in literature

Robotic characters, androids (artificial men/women) or gynoids (artificial women), and cyborgs (also "bionic

The first reference in Western literature to mechanical servants appears in Homer's Iliad. In Book XVIII, Hephaestus^[192] According to the Rieu

Possibly the most prolific author of the twentieth century was Isaac Asimov (1920–1992)^[193] who published over five-hundred books.^[194] Asimov is probably best remembered for his science-fiction stories and especially those about robots, where he placed robots and their interaction with society at the center of many of his works.^[195][196] Asimov carefully considered the problem of the ideal set of instructions robots might be given in order to lower the risk to humans, and arrived at his Three Laws of Robotics^[197] These were introduced in his 1942 short story "Runaround", although foreshadowed in a few earlier stories. Later, Asimov added the Zeroth Law: "A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm"; the rest of the laws are modified sequentially to acknowledge this.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first passage in Asimov's short story "Liar!" (1941) that mentions the First Law is the earliest recorded use of the word robotics. Asimov was not initially aware of this; he assumed the word already existed by analogy with mechanics, hydraulics, and other similar terms denoting branches of applied knowledge.^[198]

Films

See also: Category:Robot films

Robots appear in many films. Most of the robots in cinema are fictional. Two of the most famous are R2-D2 and C-3PO from the Star Wars franchise.

Sex robots

Main article: Sex robot

The concept of humanoid sex robots^{[199][200][201][202]} They argue that the introduction of such devices would be socially harmful, and demeaning to women and children.^[200]

Problems depicted in popular culture

Italian movie The Mechanical Man (1921), the first film to have shown a battle between robots.

Fears and concerns about robots have been repeatedly expressed in a wide range of books and films. A common theme is the development of a master race of conscious and highly intelligent robots, motivated to take over or destroy the human race. Frankenstein (1818), often called the first science fiction novel, has become synonymous with the theme of a robot or android advancing beyond its creator.

Other works with similar themes include The Mechanical Man, The Terminator, Runaway, RoboCop, the Replicators in Stargate, the Cylons in Battlestar Galactica, the Cybermen and Daleks in Doctor Who, The Matrix, Enthiran and I, Robot. Some fictional robots are programmed to kill and destroy; others gain superhuman intelligence and abilities by upgrading their own software and hardware. Examples of popular media where the robot becomes evil are 2001: A Space Odyssey, Red Planet and Enthiran.

The 2017 game Horizon Zero Dawn explores themes of robotics in warfare, robot ethics, and the AI control problem

Another common theme is the reaction, sometimes called the "uncanny valley^[105]

More recently, fictional representations of artificially intelligent robots in films such as A.I. Artificial Intelligence and Ex Machina and the 2016 TV adaptation of Westworld have engaged audience sympathy for the robots themselves.

See also

• Index of robotics articles
• Outline of robotics
• Artificial intelligence
• William Grey Walter

Specific robotics concepts

• Robot locomotion
• Simultaneous localization and mapping
• Tactile sensor
• Teleoperation
• Uncanny valley
• von Neumann machine
• Wake-up robot problem
• Neuromorphic engineering

Robotics methods and categories

• Cognitive robotics
• Companion robot
• Domestic robot
• Epigenetic robotics
• Evolutionary robotics
• Humanoid robot
• Autonomous robot
• Microbotics
• Robot control

Specific robots and devices

• AIBO
• Autonomous spaceport drone ship
• Driverless car
• Friendly Robotics
• Lely Juno family
• Liquid handling robot
• PatrolBot
• RoboBee
• Roborior
• Robot App Store

Other related articles

• Unmanned vehicle
• Remote control vehicle
• Automated guided vehicle

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Further reading

• See this humanoid robot artist sketch drawings from sight (CNN, Video, 2019)
• Čapek, Karel (1920). R.U.R., Aventinum, Prague.
• Margolius, Ivan. 'The Robot of Prague', Newsletter, The Friends of Czech Heritage no. 17, Autumn 2017, pp. 3 – 6. https://czechfriends.net/images/RobotsMargoliusJul2017.pdf
• Glaser, Horst Albert and Rossbach, Sabine: The Artificial Human, Frankfurt/M., Bern, New York 2011 "A Tragical History"
• TechCast Article Series, Jason Rupinski and Richard Mix, "Public Attitudes to Androids: Robot Gender, Tasks, & Pricing"
• Cheney, Margaret [1989:123] (1981). Tesla, Man Out of Time. Dorset Press. New York. ISBN 0-88029-419-1
• Craig, J.J. (2005). Introduction to Robotics, Pearson Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
• Gutkind, LAlmost Human: Making Robots Think. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
• Needham, JosephScience and Civilization in China: Volume 2. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
• Sotheby's New York. The Tin Toy Robot Collection of Matt Wyse (1996)
• Tsai, L. W. (1999). Robot Analysis. Wiley. New York.
• DeLanda, ManuelWar in the Age of Intelligent Machines. 1991. Swerve. New York.
• Journal of Field Robotics

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to: Robot

Robotat Wikipedia's sister projects

• Definitions from Wiktionary
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• Robot at the Encyclopædia Britannica
• Robotics at Curlie

show v t e Robotics
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show v t e Machines
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