Re:한정사쓰임 참고

[Jeffrey]

CHAPTER 20.  DETERMINERS

As indicated in the tables below, many determiners can be used either as adjectives or as pronouns. As will be pointed out in the next chapter, when a determiner is used as an adjective modifying a noun, the determiner usually precedes any other adjectives modifying the same noun.

The use of the following determiners has already been discussed in previous chapters: a, an, the, this, that, these and those. The possessive adjectives my, your, his, her, our and their can also be classified as determiners.

As indicated below, many determiners may be used only with certain types of noun. In the following tables, the abbreviation CN stands for Countable Noun, and the abbreviation UN stands for Uncountable Noun. In these tables, the noun tree is used as an example of a countable noun, and the noun grass is used as an example of an uncountable noun.

Determiners used as Adjectives

Determiner	Used With	Example	Meaning
all	plural CN	all trees	trees in general
	UN	all grass	grass in general
another	singular CN	another tree	one additional or different tree
any	singular CN	any tree	refers to one tree, without
			specifying which, of a group
			of more than 2 trees
	plural CN	any trees	refers to 2 or more trees,
			without specifying which
	UN	any grass	refers to some grass,
			without specifying which
both	plural CN	both trees	refers to 2 trees of a
			group of 2
each	singular CN	each tree	refers to every tree,
			considered individually,
			of a group of 2 or more
either	singular CN	either tree	refers to 1 of 2 trees,
			without specifying which
enough	plural CN	enough trees	a sufficient number of trees
	UN	enough grass	a sufficient amount of grass
every	singular CN	every tree	all trees, without exception,
			of a group of more than 2 trees
few	plural CN	few trees	a small number of trees
fewer	plural CN	fewer trees	a smaller number of trees
less	UN	less grass	a smaller amount of grass
little	UN	little grass	a small amount of grass
many	plural CN	many trees	a large number of trees
more	plural CN	more trees	an additional number of trees
	UN	more grass	an additional amount of grass
most	plural CN	most trees	nearly all trees
	UN	most grass	nearly all grass
much	UN	much grass	a large amount of grass
neither	singular CN	neither tree	no tree of a group of 2 trees
no	singular CN	no tree	not any tree
	plural CN	no trees	not any trees
	UN	no grass	not any grass
one	singular CN	one tree	a single tree
only	plural CN	only trees	nothing except trees
	UN	only grass	nothing except grass
other	plural CN	other trees	different trees
	UN	other grass	different grass
several	plural CN	several trees	more than 2 trees, but not
			a large number of trees
some	singular CN	some tree	an unspecified tree
	plural CN	some trees	unspecified trees
	UN	some grass	unspecified grass
such	singular CN	such a tree	a tree of a certain kind
	plural CN	such trees	trees of a certain kind
	UN	such grass	grass of a certain kind
that	singular CN	that tree	a particular tree, which
			is not nearby
	UN	that grass	particular grass, which
			is not nearby
these	plural CN	these trees	particular trees, which
			are nearby
this	singular CN	this tree	a particular tree, which
			is nearby
	UN	this grass	particular grass, which
			is nearby
those	plural CN	those trees	particular trees, which
			are not nearby
what	singular CN	what tree	asks in general for one
			tree to be specified
	plural CN	what trees	asks in general for particular
			trees to be specified
	UN	what grass	asks in general for particular
			grass to be specified
which	singular CN	which tree	asks for one tree to be specified
			from a certain group of trees
	plural CN	which trees	asks for trees to be specified
			from a certain group of trees
	UN	which grass	asks for some of certain
			grass to be specified

The following determiners can be used independently, as pronouns:

Determiners used as Pronouns

Determiner	Used With	Example	Meaning
all	plural CN	all (of) the trees	refers to every tree in a
			group of more than 2
			trees
	UN	all (of) the grass	refers to the whole amount
			of certain specified grass
another	plural CN	another of the trees	one more of certain
			specified trees
any	plural CN	any of the trees	refers to 1 or more
			unspecified trees from a
			group of more than 2
	UN	any of the grass	refers to some of certain
			specified grass
both	plural CN	both of the trees	refers to 2 trees of a
			group of 2
each	plural CN	each of the trees	refers to every tree,
			considered individually,
			of a group of 2 or more
either	plural CN	either of the trees	refers to 1 of 2 trees,
			without specifying which
enough	singular CN	enough of the tree	a sufficient amount of a
			specified tree
	plural CN	enough of the trees	a sufficient number of
			certain specified trees
	UN	enough of the grass	a sufficient amount of
			certain specified grass
few	plural CN	few of the trees	a small number from a
			specified group of trees
fewer	plural CN	fewer of the trees	a smaller number from a
			specified group of trees
less	UN	less of the grass	a smaller amount of certain
			specified grass
little	UN	little of the grass	a small amount of certain
			specified grass
many	plural CN	many of the trees	a large number of certain
			specified trees
more	plural CN	more of the trees	an additional number of
			certain specified trees
	UN	more of the grass	an additional amount of
			certain specified grass
most	plural CN	most of the trees	nearly all of certain
			specified trees
	UN	most of the grass	nearly all of certain
			specified grass
much	UN	much of the grass	a large proportion of
			certain specified grass
neither	plural CN	neither of the trees	no tree of a group of 2 trees
none	plural CN	none of the trees	no tree of certain specified
			trees
	UN	none of the grass	no grass of certain specified
			grass
one	plural CN	one of the trees	a single tree of certain
			specified trees
others	plural CN	others of the trees	different trees, from a
			particular group of trees
several	plural CN	several of the trees	more than 2, but not a large
			number, of certain specified
			trees
some	singular CN	some of the tree	an unspecified portion of
			a particular tree
	plural CN	some of the trees	unspecified trees from a
			particular group of trees
	UN	some of the grass	an unspecified portion
			of particular grass
such	plural CN	such of the trees	trees of a certain kind,
			from a certain specified
			group of trees
	UN	such of the grass	grass of a certain kind,
			from certain specified
			grass
those	plural CN	those of the trees	particular trees, from a
			certain specified group
			of trees
which	plural CN	which of the trees	asks for one or more trees
			to be specified, from a
			particular group of trees

1. Determiners used to refer to groups of two persons or things

In Old English, there were singular forms, plural forms and dual forms. Dual forms are used to refer to two persons or things. In modern English, a few words still remain which refer to two persons or things.
For example, the determiners both, either and neither are used when referring to groups of two. Both refers to two things of a group of two, either refers to one thing of a group of two, and neither refers to zero things of a group of two.
e.g. I have two brothers. Both of them are engineers.
      I had two maps of the city, but I cannot find either of them.
      There are two textbooks for the course. Neither of them is expensive.

In contrast, the determiners all, any and none may be used when referring to groups with more than two members. All may refer to every member of a group of three or more, any may refer to one member of a group of three or more, and none may refer to zero members of a group of three or more.
e.g. I have three brothers. All of them are engineers.
      I had four maps of the city, but I cannot find any of them.
      There are six textbooks for the course. None of them is expensive.

See Exercise 1.

The following rules for the use of either and neither should be noted.

If it is desired to change a clause beginning with either so as to express a negative meaning, either must be changed to neither.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Either of the alternatives is acceptable.
      Negative Meaning: Neither of the alternatives is acceptable.

      Affirmative Meaning: Either hotel will offer you its best room.
      Negative Meaning: Neither hotel will offer you its best room.

A sentence which contains the word either, in which either does not occur at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express a negative meaning either by using the word not, or by changing either to neither.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: You may borrow either of the books.
      Negative Meaning: You may not borrow either of the books.
      Negative Meaning: You may borrow neither of the books.

      Affirmative Meaning: I might give the message to either boy.
      Negative Meaning: I might not give the message to either boy.
      Negative Meaning: I might give the message to neither boy.

It should be noted that in modern English, the determiner neither is most often used only at the beginning of a clause. Otherwise, the meaning of neither is usually expressed by the combination not ... either.

In addition to being used as determiners, the words both, either and neither can also be used as conjunctions. Conjunctions will be discussed in Chapter 28.

2. Determiners used as singular or plural pronouns

In formal English, the pronouns another, each, either, neither and one always take singular verbs.
e.g. Each of the children wants to win the prize.
      Either of the alternatives is acceptable.
      Neither of the books has good illustrations.
      Every one of the students was ready on time.
In these examples, the singular verbs wants, is, has, and was are used with the pronouns each, either, neither and one.

In informal English, plural verbs are sometimes used with pronouns such as each, either and neither.
e.g. Neither of the books have good illustrations.
However, this use of the plural verb is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English.

It should also be noted that in formal English, when the words another, each, every, either, neither and one are used in combination with personal pronouns or possessive adjectives, singular forms are always used. As mentioned previously, in formal English, the adjective his or the phrase his or her may be used when referring to a group containing both male and female members.
e.g. Each of the children waited impatiently for his turn.
      Every student raised his or her hand.
      Neither of the girls has finished her homework.
      Either of the hotels will offer you its best room.
In these examples, each, every, neither and either are used in combination with the singular forms his, his or her, her and its.

In informal English, plural possessive adjectives are often used in this type of sentence.
e.g. Neither of the girls finished their homework.
However, this use of the plural possessive adjective is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English.

It should be noted that in both formal and informal English, none is used sometimes with singular, and sometimes with plural verbs.
e.g. None of them is here. or
      None of them are here.

In contrast, the pronouns both, few, many and several are always plural. They take plural verbs, and are used in combination with plural personal pronouns and possessive adjectives. In addition, the pronoun all is always plural when used with countable nouns.
e.g. Both of the boys have completed their essays.
      Several of the musicians are giving their first performances tonight.
      All of the girls have finished their homework.

In these examples, the pronouns both, several and all take the plural verbs have completed, are giving and have finished, and are used in combination with the plural possessive adjective their.

See Exercise 2.

3. The use of All, Both and Each

In addition to being used as attributive adjectives and as pronouns followed by of, the words all, both and each can also be used in apposition. A word used in apposition immediately follows the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition, and refers to the same thing as the subject or object. In the following examples, the words in apposition are printed in bold type.
e.g. We both wondered what would happen next.
      The boys all looked forward to seeing the circus.
      I sent them each an invitation.

In the first two examples, both and all are used in apposition to the subjects we and the boys. In the third example, each is used in apposition to the object them.

Words used in apposition can be referred to as appositives. Like relative clauses, appositives can be defining or non-defining. Non-defining appositives must be preceded and followed by commas.
e.g. Our leader, Tom Smith, was prepared for any emergency.
In this example Tom Smith is a non-defining appositive, in apposition to our leader.

Defining appositives such as all, both and each are not preceded and followed by commas.
e.g. We each have our own ideas.
In this example, the defining appositive each is in apposition to we. It should be noted that although each is singular, the verb have must be plural to agree with the subject we.

When used in clauses with auxiliary verbs or with the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb to be, all, both and each generally follow the first auxiliary or the verb to be, rather than being used in apposition to the subject of the verb.
e.g. The boys had all been looking forward to seeing the circus.
      We are both very happy to see you.
In the first example, all follows the first auxiliary had. In the second example, both follows the Simple Present of the verb to be.

4. The use of No, None and Not

The words no, none and not have similar meanings, but different grammatical functions.

The determiner no can be used as an adjective, but not as a pronoun; whereas none can be used as a pronoun, but not as an adjective.
e.g. He has no books.
      None of the books are his.
In the first example, no is used as an adjective modifying the noun books. In the second example, none functions as a pronoun.

As has already been pointed out, the adverb not may be placed after the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb to be, or after the first auxiliary of other verbs, in order to form a negative sentence or clause.
e.g. You are not late.
      I have not forgotten what you said.

See Exercise 3.

Just as neither can be said to be equivalent to the combination not ... either, none can be said to be equivalent to not ... any. For instance, the following sentence:
      He will have no difficulty.
could also be written:
      He will not have any difficulty.

5. The use of Some and Any

The determiners some and any have slightly different meanings. The use of the word some generally implies a belief in the existence of the object or objects under consideration, whereas the use of the word any may imply a doubt about the existence of the object or objects under consideration.

The words some, somebody, someone, something and somewhere are used in affirmative statements, as well as in polite questions and questions expecting an affirmative reply.
e.g. Affirmative Statement: I saw some birds in the park.
      Polite Question: Would you like some tea?
      Affirmative Reply Expected: You seem worried. Is something wrong?

In contrast, the words any, anybody, anyone, anything and anywhere are used in questions and negative statements, as well as in affirmative statements referring in an indefinite way to a type of object, without specifying a particular object.
e.g. Question: Did you see any birds in the park?
      Negative Statement: I do not know anyone here.
      Indefinite Reference: Any drug store can supply you with aspirin.

The words some, somebody, someone, something and somewhere usually cannot be used in a negative statement. If it is desired to change a clause beginning with the word some so that it expresses a negative meaning, some may be changed to no or none, depending on whether an adjective or pronoun is required.

In the following example, some is used as an adjective modifying the noun books. In order to change the sentence to express a negative meaning, some is replaced by the adjective no.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Some books were left on the shelf.
      Negative Meaning: No books were left on the shelf.

In the following example, some is used as a pronoun. In order to change the sentence to express a negative meaning, some is replaced by the pronoun none.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Some of the visitors arrived late.
      Negative Meaning: None of the visitors arrived late.

Similarly, if it is desired to change a clause beginning with somebody, someone, something or somewhere so that it expresses a negative meaning, these words may be replaced by nobody, no one, nothing and nowhere, respectively.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Someone left a message.
      Negative Meaning: No one left a message.

      Affirmative Meaning: Something has happened.
      Negative Meaning: Nothing has happened.

A sentence containing the word some, in which some does not occur at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express a negative meaning by changing the sentence to a negative statement using not, and by changing some to any.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: I bought some potatoes.
      Negative Meaning: I did not buy any potatoes.

      Affirmative Meaning: We will copy some of the recipes.
      Negative Meaning: We will not copy any of the recipes.

It is possible to use no or none in such sentences instead of the construction with not ... any.
e.g. I bought no potatoes.
      We will copy none of the recipes.
However, in modern English, the construction with not ... any is more often used than the construction with no or none.

See Exercise 4.

Similarly, a sentence containing the word somebody, someone, something or somewhere, in which the word beginning with some does not occur at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express a negative meaning by changing the sentence to a negative statement using not, and by changing the word beginning with some to the corresponding word beginning with any.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: I met someone I used to know.
      Negative Meaning: I did not meet anyone I used to know.

      Affirmative Meaning: We will buy something.
      Negative Meaning: We will not buy anything.

In such sentences, nobody, no one, nothing or nowhere may be used instead of a negative statement with not and the word anybody, anyone, anything or anywhere.
e.g. I met no one I used to know.
      We will buy nothing.
However, the construction with not is more often used.

See Exercise 5.

6. The use of Another, Other, Others and Else

The words another, other, others and else are used to indicate one or more additional or different things.

Another is formed from a combination of the words an and other, and has a meaning similar to one other. When used as an adjective, another can precede only a singular countable noun. When used as a pronoun, another takes a singular verb.
e.g. Please bring me another knife.
      Another of her uncles lives in Montreal.
In the first example, another modifies the singular noun knife. In the second example, the pronoun another is the subject of the singular verb lives.

Other can be used with singular countable, plural countable or uncountable nouns.
e.g. The other door is open.
      The other streets are paved.
      Do you have any other luggage?
In these examples, other modifies the singular countable noun door, the plural countable noun streets, and the uncountable noun luggage.

Another usually cannot be immediately preceded by a determiner. In contrast, when used before a singular countable noun, other usually must be preceded by a determiner.
e.g. Please pass me the other cup.
      I do not know any other way to do it.
      There must be some other explanation.
In these examples, other is used with the singular countable nouns cup, way and explanation, and is preceded by the determiners the, any and some.

When other modifies a singular countable noun, the noun is sometimes omitted, particularly in the expression‎ one ... the other.
e.g. I have two pens. One is green and the other is blue.
      One of my parents is a teacher; the other is a doctor.

In these examples, the nouns following the word other are understood, rather than expressed. In the following sentences, the nouns which are understood are enclosed in square brackets.
e.g. I have two pens. One is green and the other [pen] is blue.
      One of my parents is a teacher; the other [parent] is a doctor.

Others is a pronoun. Others can be used to take the place of the word other, followed by a plural countable noun.
e.g. Those trees are hemlocks; the others are pines.
      Ten people belong to the group, and five others are planning to join.
In the first example, others takes the place of the words other trees. In the second example, others takes the place of the words other people.

Others is often used in the expression‎ some ... others.
e.g. Some books are easy to read, but others are quite difficult.
      Some people like classical music, while others prefer jazz.

The word else has a meaning similar to other. However, rather than being used as an adjective preceding a noun, else usually follows interrogative pronouns such as who and what, and indefinite pronouns such as anyone and someone.
e.g. Who else was at the meeting?
      What else is on the agenda?
      Has anyone else solved the problem?
      Someone else may be able to help you.

See Exercise 6.

7. The use of Only

In addition to being used as a determiner, the word only can be used to modify almost any part of a sentence. In general, the word only immediately precedes the part of the sentence which it modifies.

The following examples illustrate how changing the position of the word only can change the meaning of a sentence.
e.g. Only the trees were somewhat damaged by last year's storm.
      Meaning: Nothing except the trees was somewhat damaged by last year's storm.

      The only trees were somewhat damaged by last year's storm.
      Meaning: The few trees which existed were somewhat damaged by last year's storm.

      The trees were only somewhat damaged by last year's storm.
      Meaning: The trees were not completely damaged by last year's storm.

      The trees were somewhat damaged only by last year's storm.
      Meaning: The trees were somewhat damaged by nothing except last year's storm.

      The trees were somewhat damaged by last year's only storm.
      Meaning: The trees were somewhat damaged by the one storm which occurred last year.

See Exercise 7.

8. The use of Few, Little and Several

The use of the word a with the determiners few and little somewhat changes the meaning which is expressed.

The expressions a few and a little merely refer to a small quantity of something.
e.g. A few of his friends came to the party.
      Meaning: Some of his friends came to the party.

      I had a little time to consider the situation.
      Meaning: I had a small amount of time to consider the situation.

In contrast, few and little not only refer to a small quantity of something, but also imply that the quantity is remarkably, or undesirably small.
e.g. Few of his friends came to the party.
      Meaning: Only a very small number of his friends came to the party.

      I had little time to consider the situation.
      Meaning: I had almost no time to consider the situation.

See Exercise 8.

The expressions a few and several can both be used to refer to three or more things. However, there is a slight difference in meaning. The expression‎ a few generally emphasizes that the quantity referred to is relatively small, while the expression‎ several generally emphasizes that the quantity referred to is relatively large.

For instance, the following sentences could both refer to an event which occurred four or five times.
e.g. I saw him a few times.
      Meaning: I saw him, but I did not see him often.

      I saw him several times.
      Meaning: I saw him more than once or twice.

9. The expressions Such ... That, So ... That, and Too

a. Such ... That
The determiner such is often used in combination with a clause beginning with that, in order to indicate a cause and effect relationship.
e.g. There was such a strong wind that we decided to stay indoors.
      He has such high marks that he has applied for a scholarship.

In the first example, a strong wind refers to the cause, and we decided to stay indoors refers to the effect. In the second example, high marks refers to the cause, and he has applied for a scholarship refers to the effect.

It should be noted that when such is used as an adjective modifying a singular countable noun, the word a or an usually follows the word such.
e.g. such a strong wind
      such an unusual event

The construction usually used with the expression‎ such ... that is summarized below, followed by examples.

such a			that clause stating the
such an   +	adjective   +	noun   +	effect of the situation
or such			described in the main clause
She is such a	hard	worker	that she is sure to succeed.
That is such an	interesting	book	that I read it three times.
He has such	good	ideas	that he may be promoted.

b. So ... That
The word so combined with a clause beginning with that can also be used in order to indicate a cause and effect relationship.

Whereas such usually modifies a noun, in this construction so is used as an intensifier modifying an adjective or adverb. Intensifiers will be discussed in a later chapter.
e.g. The wind was so strong that we decided to stay indoors.
      His marks are so high that he has applied for a scholarship.
      The wind blew so fiercely that we decided to stay indoors.
In the first two examples, so modifies the adjectives strong and high. In the last example, so modifies the adverb fiercely.

This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

			adverb or	that clause stating the
subject   +	verb   +	so   +	adjective   +	effect of the situation
				described in the main clause
She	sang	so	well	that she had to sing an encore.
The moon	was	so	bright	that we could see for miles.

In informal English, the word that in the expressions such ... that and so ... that is often omitted.
e.g. There was such a strong wind, we decided to stay indoors.
      The moon was so bright, we could see for miles.

So can also be followed by many, much, few or little, followed by a noun, followed by a clause beginning with that. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

		many		that clause stating the
	so   +	much,   +	noun   +	effect of the situation
		few or		described in the main clause
		little
There were	so	many	spectators	that there was standing room only.
I did	so	much	swimming	that I became very strong.
He knew	so	few	people	that he often felt lonely.
There was	so	little	snow	that we could not go skiing.

c. Too
The intensifier too used in combination with an infinitive can also be used to indicate a cause and effect relationship. In the following examples, the word too is printed in bold type, and the infinitives are underlined.
e.g. It is too windy for us to go outside.
      He is too poor to continue studying without a scholarship.
      It was raining too hard for us to leave the house.
In the first two examples, too modifies the adjectives windy and poor. In the last example, too modifies the adverb hard.

The construction usually used with too in combination with an infinitive is summarized below, followed by examples.

			adverb or	phrase containing an infinitive,
subject   +	verb   +	too   +	adjective   +	indicating the effect of the
				situation described using too
They	walked	too	quickly	for me to overtake them.
The writing	was	too	difficult	to read.

[Jeffrey]

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