마다가스카르의 역사
마다가스카르에는 철기시대부터 인도네시아와 아프리카로부터 항해해온 사람들이 살았는데, 서로 무인지대를 사이에 두고 몇몇 종족으로 나뉜 상태로 여러 세기 동안 고립해 있었던 것으로 보인다. BC 2세기경 알렉산드리아의 지리학자 프톨레미가 ‘메누티아스(Menuthias)’라고 적은 것이 마다가스카르인 것으로 추정되는데, 이후 이 섬에는 인도에서 온 항해자도 있었으며, 9세기에는 아랍계 사람들도 내항하였다. 1500년 포르투갈인(人) 디오고 디아스가 유럽인에게 처음 소개하여 17~18세기에는 프랑스가 동해안에 기지를 건설하였으며, 1811년에는 영국이 토아마시나(옛 타마타브)을 점령하였다.
그후 영국과 프랑스가 서로 이 섬을 쟁탈하였는데, 19세기 후반에 프랑스가 메리나 왕국에 간섭하여 1896년 식민지로 만들었다. 제2차 세계대전이 끝나자 1947년경부터 반(反)프랑스 민족독립투쟁이 격렬히 일어났으며,
프랑스는 장기간 무력진압을 꾀하였으나, 1957년에는 프랑스 공동체 안의 자치공화국으로서 ‘말라가시공화국’이라는 국명을 갖게 되었다. 1958년 공화국을 선언하였고 1960년 6월 26일 필리베르트 치라나나를 초대 대통령으로 선출해 독립하였다.
1975년 국명을 마다가스카르민주공화국으로 개칭하였다.
위치 : 아프리카 동방 인도양상. 모잠비크해협을 사이에 두고 모잠비크와.
면적 : 58만 7041㎢
인구 : 1660만 6000명(2003)
인구밀도 : 28.3명/㎢(2003)
수도 : 안타나나리보(Antananarivo)
정체 : 공화제
공용어 : 프랑스어, 마다가스카르어, 근년에는 영어도 공영어로 포함되었다.
통화 : 말라가시 프랑(ariary, MGA)
환율 : 1,750MGA = 1$(2007.9)
1인당 국민총생산 : 270$(2003)
관습
마다가스카르에서는 관혼상제 등 친척이나 가까운 사이에서는 무리를 해서라도 화려하게 행사를 하는데 그 중 몇몇 독특한 종교풍습이 있다. 먼저 '죽은 사람의 부활'이라고 하여 죽어서 매장한 지 몇 년이 지난 후에 묘지에서 다시 사체를 꺼내어 본가로 옮겨 사체를 싸고 있던 천을 다른 천으로 바꾸어 주는 의식이다.
이 때 마을에서는 친척은 물론이고 이웃들을 초대하여 음주가무로 죽은 사람을 위로한다. 이 의식은 특히 중앙고지에서 활발한 의식으로 조상을 기리고 조상과의 유대를 중시하는 습관에서 나온 것 이다.
또한 마다가스카르에서는 '할례'라 하여 2세∼4세의 유아를 대상으로 음경의 포피를 조금 잘라내는 풍습으로 건기인 6월∼9월에 실시한다. 이 때가 되면 친척과 이웃들이 꽹과리와 북을 치고 국기를 장대에 매달아 거리를 누비는 광경을 볼 수 있다.
History of Madagascar
1 Pre-history
2 Arab and Bantu immigration
3 Arrival of European colonists
4 Pirates and slave-traders
5 The Merina monarchy
5.1 King Andrianampoinimerina
5.2 King Radama I (1810 - 1828)
5.3 Queen Ranavalona I (1828 - 1861)
5.4 King Radama II (1861 - 1863)
5.5 Queen Rasoaherina (1863 - 1868)
5.6 Queen Ranavalona II (1868 - 1883)
5.7 Queen Ranavalona III (1883 - 1897)
5.8 The end of the monarchy
6 French control
7 The independent Malagasy Republic
1. Pre-history
Archaeologists(고고학자) place the arrival of humans on Madagascar in the centuries between 200 and 500 A.D., when seafarers(해상여행자, 뱃사람) from southeast Asia (probably from Borneo or the southern Celebes) arrived in their outrigger canoes(안정성을 확보하기위하여 측면에 부착한 횡목).
It appears that the first inhabitants of Madagascar came directly across the Indian Ocean from Indonesia, a journey of 3,700 miles, by following the trade-winds and the equatorial east-west current.
The anthropologist(인류학자) Jared Diamond has written about the Austronesian expansion to Madagascar, noting many similarities between Malagasy and Indonesians (both cultures cultivating rice in a similar manner and using outrigger canoes, for instance) and differences between Malagasy and Africans (Malagasy favoring rectangular huts as opposed to African round huts, and wearing cloth woven of vegetable fibers as opposed to African animal skins, for instance).
Madagascar gets its current name from Marco Polo, (1254 — 1324), the Venetian explorer, who described an African island of untold wealth called Madeigascar in his memoirs (1298 - 1320). Polo heard about the island second-hand during his travels in Asia (1271 - 1295). Most scholars believe that he described Mogadishu, the port located in present-day Somalia. Nevertheless, Italian cartographers attached the name "Madagascar" to the island during the Renaissance.
2 Arab and Bantu immigration
Bantu settlers probably crossed the Mozambique Channel to Madagascar at about the same time as or shortly after the Indonesians arrived. Although the majority of words in the Malagasy language have Malayan-Polynesian affinities, a smattering of Bantu words — omby (ox), ondry (sheep), and others — appears as well. From this evidence, some anthropologists believe that Indonesian and Bantu settlers intermixed early in the island’s story.
The Bantus brought with them the gourd(호리병박) and the multi-stringed valiha, the instruments of Malagasy music. The Bantus also brought a cultural trait associated with East Africa — an obsession with cattle. Especially on the southern savannahs of Madagascar, where African influences hold the greatest sway(지배, 동요), people measure wealth and social status in terms of cattle, and the zebu(혹소) outnumber the inhabitants by two or three to one.
According to the traditions of some Malagasy peoples, the first Arabs to settle in Madagascar came as refugees from the civil wars that followed the death of Mohammed in 632. Beginning in the tenth or eleventh century, Arabic and Zanzibari slave-traders worked their way down the east coast of Africa and established settlements on the west coast of Madagascar. The last wave of Arab immigrants, the Antalaotra, immigrated from eastern African colonies. They settled the north-west of the island (Majunga area) and introduced, for the first time, Islam to Madagascar. Arab immigrants, though few in number compared to the Indonesians and Bantus, nevertheless left a lasting impression. The Malagasy names for seasons, months, days, and coins come from Arabic origins, as do cultural features such as the practice of circumcision(할례), the communal grain-pool, and different forms of salutation.
3. Arrival of European colonists
By the fifteenth century Europeans had wrested control of the spice-trade from the Muslims. They did this by by-passing the Middle East and sending their cargo-ships around the Cape of Good Hope to India. The Portuguese mariner Diogo Dias became the first European to set foot on Madagascar when his ship, bound for India, blew off course in 1500. In the ensuing two-hundred years, the English and French tried (and failed) to establish settlements on the island.
Fever, dysentery(이질), hostile Malagasy tribespeople, and the trying arid climate of southern Madagascar soon terminated the English settlement near Toliary (Tuléar) in 1646. Another English settlement in the north in Nosy Bé came to an end in 1649. The French colony at Taolañaro (Fort Dauphin) fared a little better: it lasted thirty years. On Christmas night 1672, local Antanosy tribesmen, perhaps angry because fourteen French soldiers in the fort had recently divorced their Malagasy wives to marry fourteen French orphan-women sent out to the colony, massacred the fourteen grooms and thirteen of the fourteen brides.
In 1665, François Caron, the Director General of the newly formed French East India Company, sailed to Madagascar. The Company failed to found a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon and Île-de-France (today's Réunion and Mauritius respectively). In the late 17th century, the French established trading-posts along the east coast.
4. Pirates and slave-traders
Between 1680 and 1725, Madagascar became a pirate stronghold(근거지, 요새). Many unfortunate sailors would became shipwrecked and stranded(좌초) on the island. Those who survived settled down with the natives, or more often, found French or English colonies on the island or even pirate havens(안식처) and thus become pirates themselves.
Pirate luminaries(빛나는 두목) such as William Kidd, Henry Every, John Bowen, and Thomas Tew made Antongil Bay and Nosy Boraha (St. Mary’s Island) (a small island 12 miles off the north-east coast of Madagascar) their bases of operations. The pirates plundered merchant ships in the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. They deprived Europe-bound ships of their silks, cloth, spices, and jewels. Vessels captured going in the opposite direction (to India) lost their coin, gold, and silver. The pirates robbed the Indian cargo ships that traded between ports in the Indian Ocean as well as ships commissioned by the East India Companies of France, England, and the Netherlands. The pilgrim fleet sailing between Surat in India and Mocha!! on the tip of the Arabian Peninsula provided a favorite target, because the wealthy Muslim pilgrims often carried jewels and other finery with them to Mecca. Merchants in India, various ports of Africa, and Réunion Island showed willingness to fence the pirates' stolen goods. The low-paid seamen who manned merchant ships in the Indian Ocean hardly put up a fight, seeing as they had little reason or motivation to risk their lives. The pirates often recruited crewmen from the ships they plundered(약탈).
Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Malagasy tribes occasionally waged wars to capture and enslave prisoners. They either sold the slaves to Arab traders or kept them on-hand as laborers. Following the arrival of European slavers, human chattels(가재, 동산) became more valuable, and the coastal tribes of Madagascar took to warring with each other to obtain prisoners for the lucrative slave-trade. Instead of spears and cutlasses, the tribesmen fought with muskets(구식보병총), musket-balls, and gunpowder that they obtained from Europeans, conducting fierce and brutal wars. On account of their relationship to the pirates on Nosy Boraha, the Betsimisaraka in eastern Madagascar had more firearms than anyone else. They overpowered their neighbors the Antakarana and Tsimihety and even raided the Comoros Islands. As the tribe on the west coast with the most connections to the slave-trade, the Sakalava also had access to guns and powder. They subdued the other tribes on the west coast. Tribal chiefs who failed to capture prisoners for the slave-trade sometimes did the previously unthinkable -— they sold their own people into slavery.
5. The Merina monarchy
5.1. King Andrianampoinimerina
The Merina kingdom In the central highlands of Madagascar, a state of rice-farmers, had lived in relative isolation from the rest of Madagascar for several centuries, but by 1824 the Merina had conquered nearly all of Madagascar — thanks to the leadership of two shrewd kings, Andrianampoinimerina (circa 1745 – 1810) and his son Radama I (1792 – 1828).
By marrying the princesses of different Merina clans and by warring against the princes, Andrianampoinimerina united the Merina kingdom. He established Antananarivo as the capital of Madagascar and built the royal palace, or rova, on a hilltop overlooking the city. The king ambitiously proclaimed: Ny ranomasina no valapariako (“the sea is the boundary of my rice-field”). He introduced the metal spade(가래, 삼) and compelled rice farmers to use it. He operated as an exemplary military commander. By the time of his death in 1810, he had conquered the Bara and Betsileo highland tribes and had started to prepare to push the boundaries of his kingdom to the shores of the island.
5.2. King Radama I (1810 - 1828)
Andrianampoinimerina's son Radama I (Radama the Great) assumed the throne during a turning-point in European history that had repercussions(격퇴) for Madagascar. With the defeat of Napoléon in 1814/1815, the balance of power in Europe and in the European colonies shifted in Britain's favor. The British, eager to exert control over the trade routes of the Indian Ocean, had captured the islands of Réunion and Mauritius from the French in 1810. Although they returned Réunion to France, they kept Mauritius as a base for expanding the British Empire. Mauritius’s governor, to woo(구애하다) Madagascar from French control, recognized Radama I as King of Madagascar, a diplomatic maneuver meant to underscore the idea of the sovereignty of the island and thus to preclude(배제하다) claims by any European powers.
Radama I signed treaties with the United Kingdom outlawing the slave-trade and admitting Protestant missionaries into Madagascar. On the face of it, the terms of these treaties seem innocuous(해가 없는) enough, but Protestant missionaries (the English knew) would spread British influence as well as Christian charity; and outlawing the slave-trade (the English hoped) would weaken Réunion by depriving that island of slave-laborers for its sugar-plantations. In return for outlawing the slave trade, Madagascar received what the treaty called "The Equivalent": an annual sum of a thousand dollars in gold, another thousand in silver, stated amounts of gun powder, flints(부싯돌, 라이터), and muskets, plus 400 surplus British Army uniforms. The governor of Mauritius also sent military advisers who accompanied and sometimes led Merina soldiers in their battles against the Sakalava and Betsimisaraka. In 1824, having defeated the Betsimisaraka, Radama I declared, “Today, the whole island is mine! Madagascar has but one master.” The king died in 1828 while leading his army on a punitive expedition against the Betsimisaraka.
5.3. Queen Ranavalona I (1828 - 1861)
The 33-year reign of Queen Ranavalona I (Ranavalona the Cruel), the widow of Radama I, began inauspiciously(불길하게) with the queen murdering the dead king’s heir and other relatives. The aristocrats and sorcerers(마법사) (who had lost influence under the liberal régime of the previous two Merina kings) re-asserted their power during the reign of Ranavalona I. The queen repudiated(거부하다) the treaties that Radama I had signed with Britain. Emerging from a dangerous illness in 1835, she credited her recovery to the twelve sampy, the talismans(부적) — attributed with supernatural powers — housed on the palace grounds. To appease the sampy who had restored her health, she issued a royal edict(칙령) prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar, expelled British missionaries from the island, and persecuted Christian converts who would not renounce their religion. 150,000 Christians died during the reign of Ranavalona the Cruel. The island grew more isolated, and commerce with other nations came to a standstill(답보).
Unbeknownst(알려지지 않게) to the queen, her son and heir, the crown-prince (the future Radama II), attended Roman Catholic masses in secret. The young man grew up under the influence of French nationals in Antananarivo. In 1854, he wrote a letter to Napoléon III inviting France to invade Madagascar. On June 28, 1855 he signed the Lambert Charter. This document gave Joseph-François Lambert, an enterprising French businessman who had arrived in Madagascar only three weeks before, the exclusive right to exploit all minerals, forests, and unoccupied land in Madagascar in exchange for a 10-percent royalty payable to the Merina monarchy. In years to come, the French would use the Lambert Charter and the prince’s letter to Napoléon III to justify the Franco-Hova Wars and the annexation of Madagascar as a colony. In 1857, the queen uncovered a plot by her son (the future Radama II) and French nationals in the capital to remove her from power. She immediately expelled all foreigners from Madagascar. Ranavalona the Cruel died in 1861.
5.4. King Radama II (1861 - 1863)
In his brief two years on the throne, King Radama II re-opened trade with Mauritius and Réunion, invited Christian missionaries and foreigners to return to Madagascar, and re-instated most of Radama I’s reforms. His liberal policies angered the aristocracy, however, and Rainivoninahitriniony, the prime minister, engineered a coup d’état which resulted in the King's strangling(목졸라 죽이기). The cunning Rainivoninahitriniony or his equally cunning brother, Rainilaiarivory, would rule Madagascar from behind the scenes for the remaining 32 years of the Merina monarchy. First Rainivoninahitriniony and then his brother married Queen Rasoaherina, Radama II’s widow. Rainilaiarivory also married the last two queens of Madagascar, Ranavalona II and Ranavalona III.
5.5. Queen Rasoaherina (1863 - 1868)
A council of princes headed by Rainilaiarivony approached Rabodo, the widow of Radama II, the day after the death of her husband. They gave her the conditions under which she could succeed to the throne. These conditions included the suppression of trial by ordeal as well as the monarchy's defense of freedom of religion. Rabodo, crowned queen on May 13, 1863 under the throne name of Rasoaherina, reigned until her death on April 1, 1868.
The Malagasy people remember Queen Rasoaherina for sending ambassadors to London and Paris and for prohibiting Sunday markets. On June 30, 1865, she signed a treaty with the United Kingdom giving British citizens the right to rent land and property on the island and to have a resident ambassador. With the United States of America she signed a trade agreement that also limited the import!!ation of weapons and the export of cattle. Finally, with France the queen signed a peace between her descendants and the descendants of the Emperor of France.
5.6. Queen Ranavalona II (1868 - 1883)
In 1869 Queen Ranavalona II, previously educated by the London Missionary Society, underwent baptism into the Church of England and subsequently made the Anglican faith the official state religion of Madagascar. The queen had all the sampy burned in a public display. Catholic and Protestant missionaries arrived in numbers to build churches and schools. The reign of Queen Ranavalona II proved the heyday of British influence in Madagascar. In parts of the island, English replaced French as the second language. Cup, carpet, and other English words entered the Malagasy language. British arms and troops arrived on the island by way of South Africa.
5.7. Queen Ranavalona III (1883 - 1897)
Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony selected Razafindrahety to succeed Ranavalona II. Her public coronation as queen took place on November 22, 1883 and she took the name Ranavalona III. As her first order of business she confirm!!ed the nomination of Rainilaiarivony and his entourage in their positions. She also promised to do away with the French threat.
5.8. The end of the monarchy
Angry at the cancellation of the Lambert Charter and seeking to restore property confiscated from French citizens, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War (Hova as a name referring to the Merina aristocrats). At the war’s end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana (Diégo Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000 gold francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. In Europe, meanwhile, diplomats partitioning the African continent worked out an agreement whereby Britain, in order to obtain the Sultanate of Zanzibar(탄자니아), ceded its rights over Heligoland to Germany and renounced all claims to Madagascar in favor of France. The agreement spelled doom for the independence of Madagascar. Prime Minister Rainilaiarivory had succeeded in playing Great Britain and France against one another, but now France could meddle(간섭) without fear of reprisals from Britain.
Landing of the 40th Battaillon de Chasseur à Pieds in Majunga, between 5 May and 24 May 1895.In 1895, a French flying-column(유격대) landed in Mahajanga (Majunga) and marched by way of the Betsiboka River to the capital, Antananarivo, taking the city’s defenders by surprise. (They had expected an attack from the much closer east coast.) Twenty French soldiers died fighting and 6,000 died of malaria and other diseases before the second Franco-Hova War ended. In 1896 the French Parliament voted to annex9합병) Madagascar. The 103-year-old Merina monarchy ended with the royal family sent into exile in Algeria.
6. French control
The British accepted the imposition of a French protectorate over Madagascar in 1890 in return for eventual British control over Zanzibar (subsequently part of Tanzania) and as part of an overall definition of spheres-of-influence in the area. The French established control over Madagascar by military force between 1895 and 1896, and abolished the Merina monarchy.
Malagasy troops fought in France, Morocco, and Syria during World War II. After France fell to the Germans in 1940, the Vichy government administered Madagascar until 1942, when British Empire troops occupied the strategic island in the Battle of Madagascar in order to preclude its seizure by the Japanese. The United Kingdom handed over control of the island to Free French Forces in 1943.
7. The independent Malagasy Republic
In 1947, with French prestige at a low ebb(썰물, 쇠퇴기), the French government, headed by Prime Minister Paul Ramadier of the Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière SFIO party, suppressed the Madagascar revolt, a nationalist uprising. From 80 to 90.000 deaths occurred among the Malagasy during a year of bitter fighting. The French subsequently established reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully toward independence. The Malagasy Republic, proclaimed on October 14, 1958, became an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on June 26, 1960, with Philibert Tsiranana as President.
Tsiranana's rule represented continuation, with French settlers (or colons) still in positions of power. Unlike many of France's former colonies, the Malagasy Republic strongly resisted movements towards communism. In 1972 protests against these policies came to a head and Tsiranana had to step down. He handed power to General Gabriel Ramanantsoa of the army and his provisional government. This régime reversed previous policy in favour of closer ties with the Soviet Union.
On 5 February 1975, Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava became the President of Madagascar. After six days as head of the country, he died in an assassination while driving from the presidential palace to his home. Political power passed to Gilles Andriamahazo.
On 15 June1975 Lieutenant-Commander Didier Ratsiraka (who had previously served as foreign minister) came to power in a coup. Elected president for a seven-year term, Ratsiraka moved further towards socialism, nationalising much of the economy and cutting all ties with France. These policies hastened the decline in the Madagascan economy that had begun after independence as French immigrants left the country, leaving a shortage of skills and technology behind.
Ratsiraka's original seven-year term as President continued after his party (Avant-garde de la Révolution Malgache or AREMA) became the only legal party in the 1977 elections. In the 1980s Madagascar moved back towards France, abandoning many of its communist-inspired policies in favour of a market economy, though Ratsiraka still kept hold of power. Eventually opposition — both in Madagascar and internationally — forced him to reconsider his position, and in 1992 the country adopted a new and democratic constitution.
The first multi-party elections came in 1993, with Albert Zafy defeating Ratsiraka. Zafy failed to re-unite the country and suffered impeachment in 1996. The ensuing elections saw a turnout of less than 50% and unexpectedly resulted in the re-election of Didier Ratsiraka. He moved further towards capitalism. The influence of the IMF and World Bank led to widespread privatisation.
Opposition to Ratsiraka began to grow again. Opposition parties boycotted provincial elections in 2000, and the 2001 presidential election produced more controversy. The opposition candidate Marc Ravalomanana claimed victory after the first round (in December) but the incumbent rejected this position. In early 2002 supporters of the two sides took to the streets and violent clashes took place. Ravalomanana claimed that fraud had occurred in the polls. After an April recount the High Constitutional Court declared Ravalomanana president. Ratsiraka continued to dispute the result but his opponent gained international recognition, and Ratsiraka had to go into exile in France, though forces loyal to him continued activities in Madagascar.
Ravlomanana's I Love Madagascar party achieved overwhelming electoral success in December 2002 and he survived an attempted coup in January 2003. He used his mandate(임무) to work closely with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank to reform the economy, to end corruption and to realise the country's potential. Ratsiraka went on trial (in absentia) for embezzlement (the authorities charged him with taking $8m of public money with him into exile) and the court sentenced him to ten years hard labour.
The president reelected 2006.
2006년 12월 11일(월) 오전 04:03 안타나나리보(마다가스카르)=로이터
라발로마나나 마다가스카르 대통령, 재선 성공