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Chapter 1 성인간호학 총론
<면역반응과 간호(1)>
성인의 이해
수분·전해질 균형
염증간호
통증간호
종양간호
수술간호 |
shock간호
응급간호
노인간호
재활간호
호스피스
면역반응과 간호 |
Anatomy and Physiology
The Immune System |
Innate
(non-specific) |
Adaptive
(specific) |
First line of defense |
Second line of defense |
Third line of defense |
skin
mucous membrane
secretions of skin and mucose membrane |
phagocytic cells
antimicrobial proteins
the inflammatory response |
lymphocytes
antibodies
macrophages
|
선천성 면역(Innate Body Defense Mechanism) |
Surface Membrane Barriers: first line of defense |
Intact skin(epidermis)
acid mantle
keratin |
Forms mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens and other harmful substances into body
Skin secretions make epidermal surface acidic, which inhibits bacterial growth; sebum also contains bacteria-killing chemicals.
Provides resistance against acids, alkalis, and bacterial enzymes. |
Intact mucous membrane
mucus
nasal hairs
cilia
gastric juice
acid mantle of vagina
lacrimal secretion (tear); salvia |
Form mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens.
Traps microorganisms in respiratory and digestive tracts.
Filter and trap microorganisms in nasal passages.
Propel debris-laden mucus away from lower respiratory passages.
Contains concentrated hydrocloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes that destroy pathogens in stomach.
Inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi in female reproductive tract.
Continuously lubricate and cleanse eyes (tears) and oral cavity (saliva);
contain lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys microorganisms. |
Cellular and Chemical Defenses: second line of defense |
Phagocytes |
Engulf and destroy pathogens that breach surface membrane barriers;
macrophages(monocyte 일종) also contribute to immune response. |
Natural killer cells(NK cells) |
Promote cell lysis by direct cell attack against virus-infected or cancerous body cells; do not depend on specific antigen recognition. |
Inflammatory response |
Prevents spread of injurious agents to adjacent tissues, disposes of pathogens and dead tissue cells, and promotes tissue repair; releases chemical mediators that attract phagocytes (and immunocompetent cells) to the area. |
Antimicrobial chemicals
complement
cytokines
interferons
urine
|
Group of plasma proteins that lyses microorganisms, enhances phagocytosis by opsonization, and intensifies inflammatory response.
Chemicals released sensitized T cell, macrophages, and certain other cells; including MIF(migration inhibiting factor), interleukin 2, helper factors, suppress factors, chemotactic factors), γ interferon, perforin & granzymes
Proteins released by virus-infected cells that protect uninfected tissue cells from viral takeover; mobilize immune system.
Normally acid pH inhibits bacterial growth; cleanses the lower urinary tract as it flushes from the body. |
Fever |
Systemic response triggered by pyrogens; high body temperature inhibits multiplication of bacteria and enhances body repair processes. |
<참고>
Natural killer cells(NK cells): a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte critical to the innate immune system. The role NK cells play is analogous to that of cytotoxic T cells in the vertebrate adaptive immune response.
Killer T cells(Cytotoxic T cell): a T lymphocyte (a type of white blood cell) that kills cancer cells, cells that are infected (particularly with viruses), or cells that are damaged in other ways. M ost cytotoxic T cells express T-cell receptors (TCRs) that can recognize a specific antigen.
Opsonization: 옵소닌(백혈구의 식균작용을 돕는 혈청 속의 물질) 작용
Pyrogen: 발열 유발 물질
|
[Internal Defenses(second line of defense)]
① Phagocytes
② Natural Killer Cells
③ Inflammation
④ Antimicrobial Proteins
⑤ Fever
① Phagocytes(식균세포)
예: a macrophage, a neutrophile
a macrophage
When a monocyte(a type of WBC) enters damaged tissue through the endothelium of a blood vessel, a process known as the leukocyte extravasation, it undergoes a series of changes to become a macrophage.
Unlike short-lived neutrophils, macrophages survive longer in the body up to a maximum of several months.
Macrophages are highly specialized in removal of dying or dead cells and cellular debris. This role is important in chronic inflammation, as the early stages of inflammation are dominated by neutrophil granulocytes.
※ 백혈구의 수와 종류
과립구
granulocyte
-lysosomes으로 식균작용 |
Neutrophils |
백혈구 중 가장 흔함
phagocytosis: bacteria
shock troops(특공대!!!)- pus형성 |
Eosinophils |
백혈구의 2-4%
핵: bi-lobed
phagocytosis: 항원항체복합체-parasites
Histaminase: histamine level을 낮춤 |
Basophils |
과립구 중 가장 흔하지 않음
histamine, heparin 생성 자극?
아직 역할 잘 모름 |
무과립구
agranulocyte |
Lymphocytes |
무과립구 중 가장 많음
T-cell: 세포매개면역
B-cell: 체액성면역
(두 림프구가 motphologically 구분되지 않음) |
Monocytes |
백혈구의 4-8%
핵: varise in form
감염 8-12시간 후 도착, 두 가지로 분화
①Dendrite cell: 항원을 T cell에 보여줌
②Macrophages: 균, virus 등 식균(innate 및 adaptive immune system에서 중요한 역할) |
② Natural Killer Cells
a unique group of lymphocytes
Lyse and kill cancer cells and virus-infected body cells.
before the adaptive arm of the immune system is enlisted.
Attack the target cell’s membrane and release a lytic chemical called perforins.
③ Inflammatory Response
The four common indicators of inflammation:
Pain
Redness
Swelling
Heat
(+ Loss of function)
Within an hour: diapedesis
The neutrophils are squeezing through the capillary walls and engulfing damaged or dead cells and pathogens.
Within 8 to 12 hours after the monocytes enter the tissues
They become macrophages and replace the short-lived neutrophils.
Inflammatory response helps
prevent the spread of damaging agents to nearby tissues
dispose of cell debris and pathogens
set the stage for repair
※ Pus
a mixture of dead or dying neutrophils, broken-down tissue cells, and living and dead pathogens.
※ Abscess
a collection of pus that is walled off and forms a sac. It is formed when the inflammatory mechanism fails to fully clear the area of debris. Surgical drainage is often necessary before healing can occur. |
④ Antimicrobial Proteins
complement proteins, interferone, etc.
[Complement]
Refers to a group of at least 20 plasma proteins
When it becomes attached to foreign cells, it is activated and forms a complement fixation.
(⇒ antibody의 function 참고)
A complement fixation
causes the formation of membrane attack complexes(MAC) that produces lesion, complete with holes, in the foreign cell’s surface causing it to burst.
amplifies the inflammatory response by releasing vasodilators and chemotaxis chemicals.
causes the cell membrane of the foreign cells to become sticky so they are easier to phagocytize, which is called opsonization.
[Interferon]
Proteins released by virus-infected cells that protect uninfected tissue cells from viral takeover.
⑤ Fever
Trigged by pyrogens, which are chemicals secreted by WBCs and macrophages exposed to foreign cells.
During a fever, the liver and spleen gather up iron and zinc, making them less available which are required for vacteria to multiply.
Fever also increases the metabolic rate of tissue cells in general, speeding up repair processes.
후천성 면역(Adaptive Body Defense Mechanism) |
Summary: The adaptive immune system is a two-armed defensive system- a humoral arm and a cellular arm-that uses lymphocytes, macrophages, and specific molecules to identify and destroy all substances that are not recognized as being self.
특징:
It is antigen specific- It recognizes and acts against particular pathogens or foreign substances.
It is systemic- Immunity is not restricted to the initial infection site.
It has “memory”- It recognizes and mounts even stronger attacks on previously encountered pathogens.
용어정리
Antgen(Ag): 우리 몸의 면역반응을 일으키는 물질 모두를 가리킴(foreign proteins, nucleic acids 등으로, bacteria, fungi, virus particles과 이들로부터 유리되는 독소 포함)
Antibody(=immunoglobulin, Ig): 혈청 단백질의 γ-globulin으로 알려져 있는 부분이 담당하는 역할로서 Ag과 결합할 수 있는 능력이 있음. 5가지 분류로 나뉨(뒤에서 정리)
[Cells of the Adaptive Defense System]
: Lymphocytes, macrophages
Lymphocytes(B cells, T cells)
Hemocytoblast
(in red bone marrow)
▼ |
Lymphocyte
▼ |
(become immunocompetent in...) |
T lymphocyte
(Thymus) |
B lymphocyte
(bone marrow) |
Macrophages(from monocyte)
역할:
To engulf foreign particles and rid them from the area(innate immune system)
To act as antigen presenters to T cell, by presenting fragments of Ag on their surfaces(adaptive immune system)
Activated T cells release chemicals that cause macrophages to become phagocytes, or killer macrophages
[Humoral(Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response]
Regulated primarily by B lymphocytes
첫 번째 Ag 침입 ▶ Primary Response 시작
① As the Ags bind to the surface receptors of immature B lymphocytes, immature B cells develop itself into a fully mature B cell and undergo clonal selection(to multiply themselves bearing Ag-specific receptors)
② Most of the B cell clone members become plasma cells that produce antibody molecules, whereas the rest becomes memory B cells which mediate the secondary response
두 번째 같은 Ag 침입 ▶ Secondary Response
① Because of long-lived memory B cells, subsequent challenge by same antigen can cause much faster, more prolonged, more effective immune response(more plasma cells produced in shorter time)
|
① Active and Passive Humoral Immunity(능동·수동면역)
Active: B cell이 Ag에 대항하는 Ab를 생산할 때
Passive : Ab가 immune human, animal donor의 serum으로부터 얻어질 때
② Antibodies
immunoglobulins, Igs, expecially γ-globulin
Secreted by activated B cells(plasma-cell)
Structure:
Variable(V) region: antigen마다 다르며, 각 Ab마다 2개의 antigen binding site를 형성하고 있음
Constant(C) region: antigen 상관없이 Ab마다 비슷
종류: 5가지로 나뉨(Ig MADGE-구조, 역할, 위치 다름)
Ig G: 가장 많은 portion 차지. 태반을 통과하는 유일한 Ig으로, natural passive immunity와 관련(태아의 선천수동면역)
Ig M: Ig G와 함께 complement fixation(밑에서 설명) 할 수 있는 immunoglobulin
Ig A: mucus 등의 secretion에서 발견되며, pathogen이 mucosal surface에 부착하는 것을 막음
Ig E: allergy를 일으킴
|
혈청농도 |
특성 |
IgG |
76 |
태반통과
이차 체액성 면역반응의 주 항체 |
IgA |
15 |
점막에 분포 |
IgM |
8 |
일차 체액성 면역반응의 주 항체
ABO항원에 대한 항체 생성 |
IgD |
1 |
림프구의 표면에서만 발견
B림프구의 분화 보조 |
IgE |
0.002 |
알러지 반응 일으킴
비만세포(mast cell), 호염기구를 활성화
기생충 감염에 대한 방어 |
(다음 장의 Table 참고)
Five Ig classes
Function:
To inactivate Ags by the methods in the below
Activates complement fixation(activation)★
Neutralization★
Agglutination
Precipitation
① Complement fixation(위의 ‘complement’ 설명 참고)
② Neutralization: to block the harmful effects of the viruses and the exotoxin secreted by viruses
③ Agglutination: soluble Ab가 insoluble Ag에 반응하면, Ab는 bacterial cells에 부착되어 agglutinate(응집)를 형성함.
Cross-linking이 가능하기 때문에, 여러 Ag과 Ab가 함께 붙어 응괴가 일어나는 것으로, 적절한 양의 Ag과 Ab가 있어야 일어날 수 있음
Measle과 같은 virus는 RBC의 표면 구조에 반응하여 hemagglutination을 만들어 내는데, measle에 대항하는 Ab가 있는 경우 Ab가 measle virus과 agglutination을 형성, RBC에 작용하지 못하도록 함
부적절한 수혈 시 혈액응괴가 발생하는 기전
Agglutination test: to measure Ab titer(Ab 역가)
A specific amount of antigen is added to a series of tubes.
Serial dilutions of serum-containing Ab are then added to each tube.
(각 tube의 Ag의 양은 같이 고정, Ab의 양을 다르게 하여 서로 비교)
The greatest dilution of serum showing agglutination is determined and the reciprocal of this dilution is termed the Ab titer.
(양성을 보이는 최고희석배수를 항체 역가로 함) |
④ Precipitation: soluble Ab가 soluble Ag에 작용하면 precipitate를 형성하여 solution(혈액, 혈장)과 섞이지 않도록 함
Ab가 Ag에 붙어 precipitate를 형성하여 solution과 섞이지 않기 위해서는 Ag과 Ab의 ratio가 적절해야 함. 이 optimum ratio를 equivalence zone이라고 함(최대의 precipitate가 형성되는 ration)
[Cellular(Cell-Mediated) Immune Response]
Regulated by T lymphocytes
Antigen presentation이 반드시 필요
T cell의 activation, clonal selection을 위해 반드시 필요함
Macrophage 및 dendrite cell, B cell가 T cell에게 Ag을 보여줌으로써 cellular immune response가 시작됨
Mactophage에서 분비되는 cytotoxic chemical(특히 interleukin 1 등) 또한 중요한 역할
여러 종류의 T cell clone이 형성됨
Cytotoxic
(killer) T cells
= CD8 cells |
Virus-infected, cancer, foreign graft cell을 죽임
perforin, granzyme과 같은 toxic chemical을 target cell에 release함 |
Helper
T cells
=CD4 cells, T-helper cells or T4 cells |
directors, managers of the immune system
Interact directly with B cells, prodding them into more rapid division, and signaling for Ab formation to begin.
Release different cytokine chemicals
HIV 및 AIDS와 관련이 있음 |
Regulatory
T cells
(suppressor
T cells) |
Suppress the activity of boyh B and T cells
Prevent uncontrolled or unnecessary immune system activity. |
Memory cells |
Remain behind to provide the immunological memory for each Ag encountered
Enable the body to respond quickly to subsequent invasions |
※ Cytokine
감작된 T cell, macrophage 등에 의해 분비되는 chemicals
종류
MIF(migration inhibiting factor)
Interleukin 2
Helper factors
Suppress factors
Chemotactic factors
γ interferon
Perforin & granzymes
※ 체액성 면역과 세포성 면역의 비교
|
체액성 면역 |
세포성 면역 |
관련 세포 |
B cells |
T cells |
생성물 |
Antibodies |
감작된 T cell(특정 항원에 민감해진 상태)
cytokines |
기억세포 |
존재 |
존재 |
방어 |
세균, 바이러스
호흡기와 위장관 병원체 |
곰팡이, 바이러스(세포 내)
만성 감염인자, 종양세포 |
면역 반응의 예 |
아나필락시스
아토피
수혈반응
세균 감염 |
결핵
곰팡이 감염
접촉성 피부염
이식 거부반응
종양 세포의 파괴 |