Starlink

[박대선]

Starlink

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This article is about the SpaceX satellite internet service. For other uses, see Starlink (disambiguation).

StarlinkManufacturerCountry of originOperatorApplicationsWebsiteSpecificationsSpacecraft typeLaunch massEquipmentRegimeProductionStatus

60 Starlink satellites stacked together before deployment on 24 May 2019

SpaceX

United States

SpaceX

Internet service

starlink.com

Small satellite

• v 0.9: 227 kg (500 lb)
• v 1.0: 260 kg (570 lb)
• v 1.5: ~295 kg (650 lb)[1]
• v 2.0: ~1,250 kg (2,760 lb)[2]

• Ku-, Ka-, and E-band phased array antennas
• Laser transponders (some units)
• Hall-effect thrusters

• Low Earth orbit
• Sun-synchronous orbit

Active

Starlink is a satellite internet constellation operated by SpaceX,[3] providing satellite Internet access coverage to 40 countries. It also aims for global mobile phone service after 2023.[4] SpaceX started launching Starlink satellites in 2019. As of September 2022, Starlink consists of over 3,000 mass-produced small satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO),[5] which communicate with designated ground transceivers. In total, nearly 12,000 satellites are planned to be deployed, with a possible later extension to 42,000. Starlink provides internet access to over 500,000 subscribers as of June 2022.[6]

The SpaceX satellite development facility in Redmond, Washington houses the Starlink research, development, manufacturing, and orbit control teams. The cost of the decade-long project to design, build, and deploy the constellation was estimated by SpaceX in May 2018 to be at least US$10 billion.[7] SpaceX expects more than $30 billion in revenue by 2025 from its satellite constellation, while revenues from its launch business were expected to reach $5 billion in the same year.[8][9]

Astronomers have raised concerns about the effect the constellation can have on ground-based astronomy and how the satellites will add to an already congested orbital environment.[10][11] SpaceX has attempted to mitigate astronomy concerns by implementing several upgrades to Starlink satellites aimed at reducing their brightness during operation.[12] The satellites are equipped with krypton-fueled Hall thrusters which allow them to de-orbit at the end of their life. Additionally, the satellites are designed to autonomously avoid collisions based on uplinked tracking data.[13]

Contents

• 1History
  • 1.1Background
  • 1.2Development phase (2015–2020)
  • 1.3Commercial service (2021–)
• 2Services
  • 2.1Satellite internet
  • 2.2Satellite cellular service
  • 2.3Military satellites
  • 2.4Military communications
    • 2.4.1Use in Ukraine
• 3Availability and regulatory approval by country
• 4Technology
  • 4.1Satellite hardware
  • 4.2User terminals
  • 4.3Ground stations
  • 4.4Satellite revisions
• 5Launches
  • 5.1Constellation design and status
• 6Impact on astronomy
• 7Increased risk of satellite collision
• 8Competition and market effects
• 9Similar or competitive systems
• 10See also
• 11References
• 12External links

History[edit]Background[edit]

Constellations of low Earth orbit satellites were first conceptualized in the mid-1980s as part of the Strategic Defense Initiative, where weapons were to be staged in orbit to intercept ballistic missiles on short notice. The potential for low-latency communication was also recognized and development offshoots in the 1990s led to numerous commercial megaconstellations using around 100 satellites such as Celestri, Teledesic, Iridium, and Globalstar. However all entities entered bankruptcy by the dot-com bubble burst, due in part to excessive launch costs at the time.[14][15]

In June 2004, the newly formed company SpaceX acquired a stake in Surrey Satellite Technology (SSTL) as part of a “shared strategic vision”.[16] SSTL was at that time working to extend the Internet into space.[17] However, SpaceX's stake was eventually sold back to EADS Astrium in 2008 after the company became more focused on navigation and Earth observation.[18]

In early 2014, Elon Musk and Greg Wyler were reportedly working together planning a constellation of around 700 satellites called WorldVu, which would be over 10 times the size of the then largest Iridium satellite constellation.[19] However, these discussions broke down by June 2014, and SpaceX instead filed an ITU application via the Norway telecom regulator under the name STEAM.[20] SpaceX confirmed the connection in the 2016 application to license Starlink with the FCC.[21] SpaceX trademarked the name Starlink for their satellite broadband network;[22] the name was inspired by the book The Fault in Our Stars.[23]

Development phase (2015–2020)[edit]

The SpaceX satellite development facility, Redmond, Washington, in use from 2015 to mid-2018

Starlink was publicly announced in January 2015 with the opening of the SpaceX satellite development facility in Redmond, WA. During the opening, Elon Musk stated there is still significant unmet demand worldwide for low-cost broadband capabilities.[24][25] and that Starlink would target bandwidth to carry up to 50% of all backhaul communications traffic, and up to 10% of local Internet traffic, in high-density cities.[26][27]

Starting with 60 engineers, the company operated in 2,800 m2 (30,000 sq ft) of leased space, and by January 2017 had taken on a 2,800 m2 (30,000 sq ft) second facility, both in Redmond.[28] In August 2018, SpaceX consolidated all their Seattle-area operations with a move to a larger three-building facility at Redmond Ridge Corporate Center to support satellite manufacturing in addition to R&D.[29] In July 2016, SpaceX acquired an additional 740 m2 (8,000 sq ft) creative space in Irvine, California (Orange County).[30] The Irvine office would include signal processing, RFIC, and ASIC development for the satellite program.[31]

By October 2016, the satellite division was focusing on a significant business challenge of achieving a sufficiently low-cost design for the user equipment. SpaceX President Gwynne Shotwell said then that the project remained in the "design phase as the company seeks to tackle issues related to user-terminal cost".[32]

In November 2016, SpaceX filed an application with the FCC for a "non-geostationary orbit (NGSO) satellite system in the Fixed-Satellite Service using the Ku- and Ka- frequency bands".[33] In March 2017, SpaceX filed plans with the FCC to field a second orbital shell of more than 7,500 "V-band satellites in non-geosynchronous orbits to provide communications services" in an electromagnetic spectrum that has not previously been heavily employed for commercial communications services. Called the "Very-Low Earth Orbit (VLEO) constellation",[34] it would comprise 7,518 satellites and would orbit at just 340 km (210 mi) altitude,[35] while the smaller, originally planned group of 4,425 satellites would operate in the Ka- and Ku-bands and orbit at 1,200 km (750 mi) altitude.[34][35]

In September 2017, the FCC ruled that half of the constellation must be in orbit within six years to comply with licensing terms, while the full system should be in orbit within nine years from the date of the license.[36]

SpaceX filed documents in late 2017 with the FCC to clarify their space debris mitigation plan, under which the company was to:

"...implement an operations plan for the orderly de-orbit of satellites nearing the end of their useful lives (roughly five to seven years) at a rate far faster than is required under international standards. [Satellites] will de-orbit by propulsively moving to a disposal orbit from which they will re-enter the Earth's atmosphere within approximately one year after completion of their mission."[37]

Falcon 9 lifts off from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS), Florida, delivering 60 Starlink satellites to orbit on 11 November 2019.

In March 2018, the FCC granted SpaceX approval for the initial 4,425 satellites, with some conditions. SpaceX would need to obtain a separate approval from the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).[38][39] The FCC supported a NASA request to ask SpaceX to achieve an even higher level of de-orbiting reliability than the standard that NASA had previously used for itself: reliably de-orbiting 90% of the satellites after their missions are complete.[40]

In May 2018, SpaceX expected the total cost of development and buildout of the constellation to approach $10 billion.[7] In mid-2018, SpaceX reorganized the satellite development division in Redmond, and terminated several members of senior management.[29]

In November 2018, SpaceX received U.S. regulatory approval to deploy 7,518 broadband satellites, in addition to the 4,425 approved earlier.[41][42] SpaceX also made new regulatory filings with the U.S. FCC to request the ability to alter its previously granted license in order to operate approximately 1,600 of the 4,425 Ka-/Ku-band satellites approved for operation at 1,150 km (710 mi) in a "new lower shell of the constellation" at only 550 km (340 mi)[43] orbital altitude.[44][45] These satellites would effectively operate in a third orbital shell, a 550 km (340 mi) orbit, while the higher and lower orbits at approximately 1,200 km (750 mi) and approximately 340 km (210 mi) would be used only later, once a considerably larger deployment of satellites becomes possible in the later years of the deployment process. The FCC approved the request in April 2019, giving approval to place nearly 12,000 satellites in three orbital shells: initially approximately 1,600 in a 550 km (340 mi) – altitude shell, and subsequently placing approximately 2,800 Ku- and Ka-band spectrum satellites at 1,150 km (710 mi) and approximately 7,500 V-band satellites at 340 km (210 mi).[46] In total, nearly 12,000 satellites were planned to be deployed, with (as of 2019) a possible later extension to 42,000.[47]

In February 2019, a sister company of SpaceX, SpaceX Services Inc., filed a request with the FCC to receive a license for the operation of up to a million fixed satellite Earth stations that would communicate with its non-geostationary orbit (NGSO) satellite Starlink system.[48]

In June 2019, SpaceX applied to the FCC for a license to test up to 270 ground terminals – 70 nationwide across the United States and 200 in Washington state at SpaceX employee homes[49][50] – and aircraft-borne antenna operation from four distributed United States airfields; as well as five ground-to-ground test locations.[51][52]

By late 2019, SpaceX was transitioning their satellite efforts from research and development to manufacturing, with the planned first launch of a large group of satellites to orbit, and the clear need to achieve an average launch rate of "44 high-performance, low-cost spacecraft built and launched every month for the next 60 months" to get the 2,200 satellites launched to support their FCC spectrum allocation license assignment.[53] SpaceX said they will meet the deadline of having half the constellation "in orbit within six years of authorization... and the full system in nine years".[46]

On 15 October 2019, the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) submitted filings to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) on SpaceX's behalf to arrange spectrum for 30,000 additional Starlink satellites to supplement the 12,000 Starlink satellites already approved by the FCC.[54] That month, Elon Musk publicly tested the Starlink network by using an Internet connection routed through the network to post a first tweet to social media site Twitter.[55]

In November 2020, Starlink beta internet service was opened to the public.[56] Starlink beta testers reported speeds over 150 megabits per second, above the range announced for the public beta test.[57]

Commercial service (2021–)[edit]

Starlink user terminal with dish, as shipped in early 2021

Starlink antenna dish, assembled, 2021

Starlink Router

In February 2021, SpaceX opened up pre-orders to the public.[58] SpaceX completed raising an additional $3.5 billion in equity financing over the previous six months,[59][60] to support the capital-intensive phase of the operational fielding of Starlink, plus the development of the Starship launch system.[59] In April 2021, SpaceX clarified that they have already tested two generations of Starlink technology, with the second one having been less expensive than the first. The third generation, with laser inter-satellite links, is expected to begin launching "in the next few months [and will be] much less expensive than earlier versions".[59]

As of September 2022, SpaceX has over 2,300 functioning Starlink satellites in orbit,[61] and over 500,000 active subscribers.[62] They continue to launch up to 53 more satellites per Falcon 9 flight.

MonthApprox. number of subscribers

February 2021	10,000 [63]
June 2021	100,000 [64]
February 2022	250,000
May 2022	400,000
June 2022	500,000 [62]
September 2022	700,000 [65]

On 6 November 2020, Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada announced regulatory approval for the Starlink low Earth orbit satellite constellation.[66]

The FCC initially awarded SpaceX with $885.5 million worth of federal subsidies to support rural broadband customers through the company's Starlink satellite Internet network. SpaceX won subsidies to bring service to customers in 35 U.S. states.[67] The $885.5 million aid package was revoked in August 2022, with the FCC stating that Starlink "failed to demonstrate" its ability to deliver the promised service.[68] SpaceX later appealed the decision saying they met or surpassed all RDOF deployment requirements that existed during bidding and that the FCC created "new standards that no bidder could meet today".[69]

In March 2021, SpaceX put an application into FCC for mobile variations of their terminal for vehicles, vessels and aircraft.[70][71]

In May 2021, SpaceX announced agreements with Google Cloud Platform and Microsoft Azure to provide on-ground compute and networking services for Starlink.[72] Viasat made a legal attempt to temporarily halt Starlink launches.[73] In June 2021, SpaceX applied to the FCC to use mobile Starlink transceivers on launch vehicles flying to Earth orbit, after having previously tested high-altitude low-velocity mobile use on a rocket prototype in May 2021.[74]

By 1 October 2021, SpaceX had sold 5000 Starlink preorders in India,[75] and announced that Sanjay Bhargava, who had worked with Elon Musk as part of a team that founded electronic payment firm, PayPal, would head the tech billionaire entrepreneur's Starlink satellite broadband venture in India.[76] Three months later, Bhargava resigned "for personal reasons" following the Indian government ordering SpaceX to halt selling preorders for Starlink service until SpaceX gains regulatory approval for providing satellite internet services in the country.[75]

In 2022 SpaceX announced the Starlink Business service tier.[77] The FCC also approved the licensing of Starlink services to boats, aircraft, and moving vehicles.[78]

In May 2022, Starlink entered the Philippine market, and is the company's first Asian deployment, due to a landmark legislative change (RA 11659, Public Services Act) about all-foreign allowance of company ownership in regards to utility entities such as internet and telco companies. Starlink was able to obtain a provisional permission from the country's Department of Information and Communication Technologies (DICT), National Telecommunications Commission (NTC) and Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and will soon start commercial services, aimed at regions with lower internet connectivity.[79]

In May 2022, Chinese military researchers published an article in a peer-reviewed journal describing a strategy for destroying the Starlink constellation if they threaten national security.[80][81][82] The researchers specifically highlight concerns with reported Starlink military capabilities. Musk later announced "Starlink is meant for peaceful use. The head of Russia's space agency, Dmitry Rogozin, had earlier warned Musk that "you will have to answer in an adult way, Elon, no matter how you play the fool."[83]

In August 2022, SpaceX secured its first contract for services in the passenger shipping industry. Royal Caribbean Group has added Starlink internet to Freedom of the Seas and plans to offer the service on 50 ships under its Royal Caribbean International, Celebrity Cruises, and Silversea Cruises brands by March 2023.[78] Starlink services on private jet charter flights in the US by JSX are expected to begin in late 2022, and Hawaiian Airlines has contracted to provide "Starlink services on transpacific flights to and from Hawaii in 2023."[78]

According to Ookla, between Q1 and Q2 2022, Starlink speeds decreased worldwide as more people signed up for Starlink, although SpaceX has said that Starlink speeds will improve once more satellites are operational.[84]

Services[edit]Satellite internet[edit]

Starlink provides satellite internet connectivity to underserved areas of the planet, as well as competitively priced service in more urbanized areas. The company has stated that the positive cash flow from selling satellite internet services would be necessary to fund their Mars plans.[85] Furthermore, SpaceX has long-term plans to develop and deploy a version of the satellite communication system to serve Mars.[86]

In October 2020, SpaceX launched a paid-for beta service in the U.S. called "Better Than Nothing Beta", charging $499 for a user terminal, with an expected service of "50 Mbps to 150 Mbps and latency from 20 ms to 40 ms over the next several months".[87] From January 2021, the paid-for beta service was extended to other countries, starting with the United Kingdom.[88]

The initial version of Starlink was limited to working within a few miles of the customers' registered address. In April 2021, Musk tweeted that users would be able to move the Starlink unit anywhere by the end of the year after more satellite launches and software updates.[89]

In February 2022, SpaceX announced Starlink Business, a higher performance edition of the service. It provides a larger high-performance antenna and listed speeds of between 150 and 500Mbit/s, with a cost of $2500 for the antenna and a $500 monthly service fee.[77] The service includes 24/7, prioritized support.[77] Deliveries are advertised to begin in the second quarter of 2022.[90]

On 23 May 2022, SpaceX rolled out Starlink For RVs, a new edition of the service that lets customers pay more to skip waitlists to connect to its broadband satellites without a fixed address, although connection speeds for other users will be prioritized.[91]

On 7 July 2022 SpaceX announced Starlink Maritime, a new addition to help support users, and companies, on the ocean. Only working on the water, unable to work on land, the advertised speed for the service is set up to 350 Mbps. However it comes at the one time price of $10,000 for the two user terminals, and $5,000 monthly price.[92][93]

In September 2022, SpaceX sent out an email to users with pre-orders about a service called Best Effort. It allows those still waiting in a full capacity cell to receive the unused bandwidth of their cell, while still being on the waiting list for more prioritized service. The price and equipment are the same as the residential service coming in at $110 per month.[94][95]

Satellite cellular service[edit]

In August 2022, T-Mobile US and SpaceX announced a partnership to add satellite cellular service to Starlink Gen2 satellites, and provide dead-zone cell phone coverage across the US using existing midband PCS spectrum that T-Mobile owns.[96][97] Cell coverage will begin with messaging and expand to include voice and limited data services later, with testing to begin in 2023. With Starlink Gen2 sats in low-Earth orbit using existing PCS spectrum, T-Mobile plans to be able to connect by satellite to ordinary mobile devices, unlike previous generations of satellite phones which used specialized Earth-bound radios to connect to geosynchronous satellites with characteristic long communications lag time.[4] T-Mobile has offered to extend the offering globally if cellular carriers in other countries wish to exchange roaming services via the T-Mobile partnership with SpaceX, with other carriers responsible for working with their regulators to enable midband data communication landing rights on a country-by-country basis. Bandwidth will be limited to approximately 2 to 4 megabits per second spread across a very large cell coverage area; so limited to approximately 1000 to 2000 voice calls, or millions of text messages, across an entire cell. The size of a single coverage cell has not yet been publicly released, but the satellites are 7 meters long, and the antenna would fold out to be "roughly 25 square meters".[96]

Elon Musk and four-star general Terrence J. O'Shaughnessy in April 2019.

Under Secretary of Defense Research and Engineering Michael D. Griffin meets with Elon Musk.

Military satellites[edit]

In March 2018, the Space Development Agency (SDA) was formed by Under Secretary of Defense Michael D. Griffin as part of a Trump Administration initiative to resurrect the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI).[98] The new organization intends to accelerate the development of new military space capabilities with a focus on industry-procured low-cost Low Earth orbit satellite platforms.[99]

In October 2020, the Space Development Agency awarded SpaceX an initial $150 million dual-use contract to develop a deluxe military version of the Starlink satellite bus.[100] The first tranche of satellites were originally scheduled to launch September 2022 to form part of the Tracking Layer of the Space Force's National Defense Space Architecture (NDSA).[101] However, the launch schedule slipped to mid-December 2022 after supply-chain difficulties arose procuring "radio microelectronics".[102]

The NDSA will be composed of seven layers with specific functions: data transport, battle management, missile tracking, custody/weapons targeting, navigation/PNT, deterrence, and ground support.[103][104] Historically, space-based missile defense concepts (e.g., Brilliant Pebbles) were expensive, but reusable launch systems have mitigated costs according to a 2019 Congressional Budget Office analysis.[105] NSDA leverages existing commercial satellite bus development such as Starlink to reduce costs, including free-space optical laser terminals for a secure command and control mesh network.[106] The 2019 Missile Defense Review notes space-based sensing enables "improved tracking and potentially targeting of advanced threats, including HGVs and hypersonic cruise missiles".[107] " However, the Union of Concerned Scientists warns developments could escalate tensions with Russia and China and called the project "fundamentally destabilizing".[108]

Starlink's military satellite development is overseen internally at SpaceX by retired four-star general Terrence J. O'Shaughnessy.[109][failed verification]

Military communications[edit]

In 2019, tests by the United States Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) demonstrated a 610 Mbit/s data link through Starlink to a Beechcraft C-12 Huron aircraft in flight.[110] Additionally, in late 2019, the United States Air Force successfully tested a connection with Starlink on an AC-130 Gunship.[111]

In 2020, United States Air Force utilized Starlink in support of its Advanced Battlefield management system during a live-fire exercise. They demonstrated Starlink connected to a "variety of air and terrestrial assets" including the Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker.[112]

Use in Ukraine[edit]

Vitali Klitschko, Mayor of Kyiv, and his brother Wladimir Klitschko with Starlink terminals shipped to Kyiv during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

Main article: Providing of Starlink satellites to Ukraine

On 26 February 2022, Elon Musk announced that the Starlink satellites had become active over Ukraine after a request from the Ukrainian government[113] to replace internet services destroyed during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[114] By 6 April 2022, SpaceX had sent over 5000 Starlink terminals to Ukraine to allow Ukrainians access to the Starlink network;[115] SpaceX had donated 3667 or 73% of the 5000 terminals and removed the monthly service fees, and USAID had purchased the balance of the terminals.[116] According to The Washington Post, The Starlink equipment sent to Ukraine was funded by SpaceX including partial funding by the U.S. Agency for International Development, as well as the governments of France and Poland.[117][118] By mid August, Ukraine internet service was being provided by more than 20,000 Starlink terminals, some from foreign partners and volunteers, in addition to many provided directly by SpaceX. During the war, Ukrainians can use Starlink terminals without paying the normal monthly subscription fee;[119] by year-end, Musk estimated the cost of Starlink's donation at $20 million per month.[120]

In May 2022 a Starlink-enabled Ukrainian Internet App was the key component of a successful new artillery fire coordination system.[121] While military and government use of the Starlink has been the most important aspect of opening Ukraine to low-altitude satellite internet services in early 2022, civilians are also heavily using the technology "to keep in touch with the outside world and tell loved ones that they are alive."[119]

On September 30, Ukrainian forces reported major Starlink outages across the frontline, resulting in "catastrophic" losses of communication.[122] CNN reported Starlink services had to be requested by Ukrainian forces as new areas were liberated.[123]

Availability and regulatory approval by country[edit]

In order to offer satellite services in any nation-state, International Telecommunication Union (ITU) regulations and long-standing international treaties require that landing rights be granted by each country jurisdiction, and within a country, by the national communications regulators. As a result, even though the Starlink network has near-global reach at latitudes below approximately 60°, broadband services can only be provided in 40 countries as of September 2022.[124] SpaceX can also have business operation and economic considerations that may make a difference in which countries Starlink service is offered, in which order, and how soon. For example, SpaceX formally requested authorization for Canada only in June 2020,[125] the Canadian regulatory authority approved it in November 2020,[66] and SpaceX rolled out service two months later, in January 2021.[126] As of September 2022, Starlink services were on offer in 40 countries,[124] with applications pending regulatory approval in many more.[127]

Japan's major mobile provider, KDDI, announced a partnership with SpaceX to begin offering in 2022 expanded connectivity for its rural mobile customers via 1,200 remote mobile towers.[128]

On 25 April 2022, Hawaiian Airlines announced an agreement with Starlink to provide free internet access on its aircraft, becoming the first airline to use Starlink.[129] By July 2022, Starlink internet service was available in 36 countries and 41 markets.[130]

In May 2022, it was announced that regulatory approval had been granted for Nigeria, Mozambique, and the Philippines.[131][132][133][clarification needed]