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Indications
Semaglutide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist, is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as 3 separate brand name medications—Ozempic®, Wegovy®, and Rybelsus®. Each brand name comes with its own associated indications, preparations, and dosages to consider. Due to the increased complexity involved, special attention is necessary for every FDA-approved indication and current off-label use.
FDA-Approved Indications
Rybelsus® tablets: This brand has received FDA approval as an adjunct to diet and exercise for enhancing glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).
Ozempic® injection: This brand is FDA-approved as an adjunct to diet and exercise to improve glycemic control in adults with T2DM. This injection also provides an additional indication of reducing the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events, such as cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or nonfatal stroke, in patients with and without T2DM and established cardiovascular disease.
Wegovy® injection: In a recent development, semaglutide received FDA approval as an adjunct under the brand name Wegovy® for promoting weight loss in individuals dealing with obesity and overweight. Wegovy® injection is used in combination with a reduced-calorie diet and increased physical activity for long-term weight management in adults with obesity., defined by an initial body mass index (BMI) of 30 kg/m² or higher. This injection is also approved for those who are overweight, with a BMI of 27 kg/m² or higher, in the presence of at least a weight-related comorbid condition such as hypertension, T2DM, or dyslipidemia. The FDA has also approved its use for pediatric patients aged 12 and older with an initial BMI at or above the 95th percentile for their age and sex.
적응증
세마글루타이드(Semaglutide)는 글루카곤 유사 펩티드-1(GLP-1) 수용체 작용제로, 미국 식품의약국(FDA)에서 3개의 별도 브랜드 이름 약물—Ozempic®, Wegovy®, 및 Rybelsus®—로 승인되었습니다. 각 브랜드명은 각각의 적응증, 제형, 용량을 고려해야 합니다. 복잡성이 증가함에 따라 FDA 승인 적응증 및 현재의 비승인 용도에 대한 특별한 주의가 필요합니다.
FDA 승인 적응증
Rybelsus® 정제: 이 브랜드는 제2형 당뇨병(T2DM)을 가진 성인의 혈당 조절을 개선하기 위해 식이요법 및 운동과 병용하는 보조제로 FDA 승인을 받았습니다.
Ozempic® 주사제: 이 브랜드는 T2DM을 가진 성인의 혈당 조절을 개선하기 위해 식이요법과 운동의 보조제로 FDA 승인을 받았습니다. 이 주사제는 또한 T2DM이 있거나 없는 환자 및 확립된 심혈관 질환을 가진 환자에서 심혈관 사망, 비치명적 심근경색, 또는 비치명적 뇌졸중과 같은 주요 심혈관 사건의 위험을 감소시키는 추가 적응증을 제공합니다.
Wegovy® 주사제:
최근 개발된 세마글루타이드(semaglutide)는 Wegovy®라는 브랜드명으로
비만 및 과체중 환자의 체중 감소를 촉진하기 위한 보조 치료제로 FDA 승인을 받았습니다.
Wegovy® 주사제는
비만으로 정의된 성인(초기 체질량 지수(BMI) 30 kg/m² 이상)의 장기적인 체중 관리 위해
저칼로리 식이요법과 증가된 신체 활동과 병용하여 사용됩니다.
이 주사는
또한 BMI가 27 kg/m² 이상이며 고혈압, T2DM, 또는 이상지질혈증과 같은
체중 관련 동반 질환이 있는 과체중 환자에게도 승인되었습니다.
FDA는 또한 연령과 성별에 따른 BMI 95백분위수 이상인
12세 이상 소아 환자에게도 사용을 승인했습니다.
T2DM and reduction of major cardiovascular events: The SUSTAIN clinical trials have exhibited favorable outcomes in reducing hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) in patients with T2DM through the weekly subcutaneous semaglutide brand name Ozempic®. These trials compared semaglutide injection to placebo (SUSTAIN 1), sitagliptin (SUSTAIN 2), exenatide extended-release (SUSTAIN 3), daily insulin glargine with metformin and/or a sulfonylurea (SUSTAIN 4), and basal insulin with or without metformin (SUSTAIN 5).[1][2][3][4][5] Each trial demonstrated statistically significant reductions in HbA1c with semaglutide.
Upon further examination of signals indicating cardiovascular benefits identified in the first 5 SUSTAIN trials, the SUSTAIN 6 trial examined the effects of semaglutide (Ozempic®) versus placebo over 2 years on a composite outcome comprising cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, and nonfatal stroke. [6] The estimated hazard ratio for the time-to-first event of the composite outcome was 0.74 (95% CI; 0.58-0.95), indicating the superiority of semaglutide (Ozempic®) over placebo.
Following the positive findings from the SUSTAIN clinical trial program, the FDA approved weekly subcutaneous semaglutide (Ozempic®) as an adjunct to diet and exercise for managing T2DM in adults. In addition, Ozempic® is approved for reducing the risk of major cardiovascular events, including cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, and nonfatal stroke, in adults with T2DM and established cardiovascular disease.
The PIONEER clinical trials program has demonstrated the effectiveness of oral semaglutide (Rybelsus®) in managing T2DM compared to placebo (PIONEER 1), empagliflozin (PIONEER 2), sitagliptin with or without metformin and/or a sulfonylurea (PIONEER 3 and PIONEER 7), liraglutide (PIONEER 4), and basal insulin with or without metformin (PIONEER 8).[7][8][9][10][11][12][13] The PIONEER 6 trial examined the benefits of oral semaglutide (Rybelsus®) on the risk of major cardiovascular events similar to the aforementioned SUSTAIN 6 trial. In this trial, noninferiority with placebo was demonstrated in the composite outcome of cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, and nonfatal stroke.[14]
Based on the favorable results observed in the T2DM trials, the FDA has approved oral semaglutide (Rybelsus®) as an adjunct to diet and exercise for managing T2DM. This marks the first approval of an oral GLP-1 receptor agonist for T2DM management. Unlike injectable semaglutide (Ozempic®), oral semaglutide (Rybelsus®) does not decrease major cardiovascular events.
제2형 당뇨병(T2DM) 및 주요 심혈관 사건 감소: SUSTAIN 임상 시험은 제2형 당뇨병 환자에게 주 1회 피하 주사하는 세마글루타이드 브랜드명 오젬픽®을 통해 헤모글로빈 A1C(HbA1c)를 감소시키는 데 유리한 결과를 보여주었습니다. 이 임상 시험은 세마글루타이드 주사제를 위약(SUSTAIN 1), 시타글립틴(SUSTAIN 2), 엑세나티드 서방형(SUSTAIN 3), 메트포르민과/또는 설포닐우레아와 함께 투여된 일일 인슐린 글라진(SUSTAIN 4), 메트포르민 유무에 관계없이 기초 인슐린(SUSTAIN 5)과 비교했습니다.[1][2][3][4][5] 각 임상시험에서 세마글루타이드 투여 시 HbA1c 수치가 통계적으로 유의미하게 감소했습니다.
첫 5개 SUSTAIN 임상시험에서 심혈관 혜택 신호가 확인됨에 따라, SUSTAIN 6 임상시험은 세마글루타이드(Ozempic®)와 위약을 2년간 비교하여 심혈관 사망, 비치명적 심근경색, 비치명적 뇌졸중으로 구성된 복합 결과에 대한 효과를 평가했습니다. [6] 복합 결과의 첫 번째 사건 발생까지의 시간에 대한 추정 위험비는 0.74(95% 신뢰 구간; 0.58-0.95)로, 세마글루타이드(Ozempic®)가 위약보다 우월함을 나타냈습니다.
SUSTAIN 임상 시험 프로그램의 긍정적인 결과에 따라 FDA는 식이요법 및 운동과 병용하여 성인 제2형 당뇨병(T2DM) 관리에 사용되는 주 1회 피하 투여 세마글루타이드(Ozempic®)를 승인했습니다. 또한 Ozempic®은 제2형 당뇨병과 확립된 심혈관 질환을 가진 성인에서 심혈관 사망, 비치명적 심근경색, 비치명적 뇌졸중을 포함한 주요 심혈관 사건의 위험을 감소시키는 데 승인되었습니다.
PIONEER 임상 시험 프로그램은 경구용 세마글루타이드(Rybelsus®)가 위약(PIONEER 1), 에파글리플로진 (PIONEER 2), 시타글리플틴 단독 또는 메트포르민 및/또는 설포닐우레아와 병용(PIONEER 3 및 PIONEER 7), 리라글루티드(PIONEER 4), 및 기초 인슐린 단독 또는 메트포르민과 병용(PIONEER 8)과 비교하여 T2DM 관리에 대한 유효성을 입증했습니다.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13] PIONEER 6 임상시험은 앞서 언급된 SUSTAIN 6 임상시험과 유사한 주요 심혈관 사건 위험에 대한 경구용 세마글루타이드(Rybelsus®)의 효과를 평가했습니다. 이 임상시험에서 위약 대비 복합 결과(심혈관 사망, 비치명적 심근경색, 비치명적 뇌졸중)에서 비열등성이 입증되었습니다.[14]
T2DM 임상시험에서 관찰된 긍정적인 결과에 따라 FDA는 식이요법 및 운동과 병용하여 T2DM 관리에 사용되는 경구용 세마글루타이드(Rybelsus®)를 승인했습니다. 이는 T2DM 관리에 사용되는 첫 번째 경구용 GLP-1 수용체 작용제입니다. 주사제 세마글루타이드(Ozempic®)와 달리 경구용 세마글루타이드(Rybelsus®)는 주요 심혈관 사건을 감소시키지 않습니다.
Chronic weight management: The Semaglutide Treatment Effect in People with Obesity (STEP) clinical trial program meticulously investigated the effects of weekly subcutaneous Semaglutide under the brand name Wegovy® on weight loss in adult patients with obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m2) or in patients who are overweight (BMI ≥27 kg/m2) with comorbidities.[15][16][17][18][19] Following the positive outcomes observed in the 4 STEP trials (STEPs 1, 2, 3, and 4), the FDA has approved the use of 2.4 mg weekly subcutaneous semaglutide for chronic weight management in adult patients with obesity and in patients who are overweight with at least 1 weight-related condition, such as hypertension, T2DM, or dyslipidemia.
The recommended approach for weight management includes the integration of semaglutide with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Another active comparator trial, the STEP 8 trial, compared subcutaneous weekly semaglutide (Wegovy®) to subcutaneous daily liraglutide, revealing semaglutide's superiority in the primary outcome of mean percentage change in body weight.[20]
The STEP TEENS trial examined the efficacy and safety of semaglutide (Wegovy®) compared to placebo in adolescents aged 12 to less than 18 with obesity. This trial revealed that subcutaneous semaglutide (Wegovy®) at a dosage of 2.4 mg weekly, along with lifestyle interventions, provided superior reductions in BMI in adolescents than placebo and lifestyle interventions.[21]
만성 체중 관리: Semaglutide 치료 효과 연구(STEP) 임상 시험 프로그램은 비만 환자(BMI ≥30 kg/m2) 또는 동반 질환을 가진 과체중 환자(BMI ≥27 kg/m2)에서 주 1회 피하 투여 Semaglutide(상표명 Wegovy®)의 체중 감소 효과를 세밀히 조사했습니다.[15][16][17][18][19] 4개의 STEP 임상 시험(STEP 1, 2, 3, 4)에서 관찰된 긍정적인 결과에 따라, FDA는 비만 성인 환자 및 고혈압, 제2형 당뇨병(T2DM), 이상지질혈증 등 체중 관련 질환을 동반한 과체중 환자에서 만성 체중 관리 목적으로 주 1회 피하 투여 세마글루타이드 2.4mg의 사용을 승인했습니다.
체중 관리 위한 권장 접근법은 세마글루타이드와 균형 잡힌 식사, 규칙적인 운동의 결합을 포함합니다. 또 다른 활성 대조군 임상시험인 STEP 8 임상시험은 주 1회 피하 투여 세마글루타이드(Wegovy®)와 매일 피하 투여 리라글루타이드를 비교했으며, 주요 평가 항목인 체중의 평균 백분율 변화에서 세마글루타이드의 우월성을 보여주었습니다.
[20] [21] STEP TEENS 연구는 12세에서 18세 미만의 비만 청소년에서 세마글루타이드(Wegovy®)와 위약의 효능 및 안전성을 비교했습니다. 이 연구는 주 1회 피하 투여 세마글루타이드(Wegovy®) 2.4mg과 생활 습관 개입이 위약과 생활 습관 개입보다 청소년의 체질량 지수(BMI) 감소에서 우월함을 보여주었습니다.
Off-Label Uses
The FDA has approved using semaglutide for weight loss, marketed under the brand name Wegovy®. The recommended standard maintenance dosage for weight management is 2.4 mg, administered through weekly subcutaneous self-injections. With growing interest in semaglutide for weight control, healthcare professionals are responding to the demand by occasionally prescribing alternative brands of semaglutide, such as Ozempic® and Rybelsus®, for off-label use (using a drug approved by the FDA for a different purpose). Differences in insurance coverage between Wegovy® versus Ozempic® and Rybelsus® may also fuel this off-label use.
The FDA issued a postmarket drug safety alert regarding the prevalence of compounded and counterfeit preparations of semaglutide. The increasing popularity of semaglutide for weight loss is a driving force behind compounded and counterfeit preparations. The healthcare team should advise patients that they "should only obtain drugs containing semaglutide with a prescription from a licensed health care provider, and obtain medicines only from state-licensed pharmacies or outsourcing facilities registered with FDA."
적응증 외 사용
FDA는 체중 감소를 위해 세마글루타이드를 Wegovy®라는 상표명으로 승인했습니다. 체중 관리 위한 권장 표준 유지 용량은 주 1회 피하 자기 주사로 투여하는 2.4mg입니다. 세마글루타이드의 체중 조절에 대한 관심이 증가함에 따라 의료진은 오즈엠픽® 및 라이벨러스®와 같은 세마글루타이드의 대체 브랜드를 비승인 용도로 처방하는 경우가 간혹 발생하고 있습니다(FDA가 다른 용도로 승인된 약물을 다른 용도로 사용하는 것). 웨고비®와 오즈엠픽® 및 라이벨러스® 간의 보험 적용 범위 차이는 이러한 비승인 용도를 촉진할 수 있습니다.
FDA는 세마글루타이드의 복합제 및 위조 제품의 유행에 대한 사후 시장 약물 안전 경고를 발령했습니다. 세마글루타이드의 체중 감량 용도로의 인기 상승이 복합제 및 위조 제품의 주요 원인으로 작용하고 있습니다. 의료진은 환자에게 “세마글루타이드를 함유한 약물은 면허를 소지한 의료진으로부터 처방전을 받아야 하며, 약물은 주정부 라이선스를 소지한 약국 또는 FDA에 등록된 아웃소싱 시설에서만 구매해야 한다”고 안내해야 합니다.
Mechanism of Action
Semaglutide operates as a GLP-1 receptor agonist, sharing a remarkable 94% structural homology with human GLP.[22]. The mechanisms through which semaglutide delivers its benefits in lowering blood glucose levels and promoting weight loss involve the activation of GLP-1 receptors primarily located in the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and brain.
Upon activation of the GLP-1 receptor, semaglutide enhances glucose-dependent insulin secretion, providing a physiological response to elevated blood glucose levels after a meal.[23] Simultaneously, it slows gastric emptying, increases pancreatic β-cell proliferation, and reduces glucagon release, contributing to an overall reduction in appetite.[23][24]
Furthermore, semaglutide's interaction with GLP-1 receptors in the hypothalamus may mitigate sensations of hunger, alleviate food cravings, and enhance the feelings of satiety.[25][26] These multifaceted actions contribute to the comprehensive metabolic effects of semaglutide in managing blood glucose levels and facilitating weight loss.
Semaglutide is also considered a "long-acting" GLP-1 receptor agonist, alongside extended-release exenatide and dulaglutide.[27] The extended half-life of semaglutide may be attributed to 2 structural modifications—one modification promotes albumin binding, leading to prolonged renal clearance, whereas the other shields it from metabolic degradation by the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) enzyme.[27]
작용 메커니즘
세마글루타이드(Semaglutide)는
GLP-1 수용체 작용제로,
인간 GLP와 94%의 구조적 유사성을 공유합니다.[22].
세마글루타이드가
혈당 수치를 낮추고 체중 감소를 촉진하는 메커니즘은
주로 위장관, 췌장, 뇌에 위치한 GLP-1 수용체의 활성화에 기반합니다.
GLP-1 수용체가 활성화되면
세마글루타이드가 식사 후 혈당 수치 상승에 대한 생리적 반응으로
포도당 의존성 인슐린 분비를 증가시킵니다.[23]
동시에 위 배출을 지연시키고
췌장 β-세포 증식을 촉진하며
글루카곤 분비를 감소시켜 전반적인 식욕 감소를 유발합니다.[23][24]
또한
세마글루타이드가
시상하부의 GLP-1 수용체와 상호작용함으로써
배고픔을 완화하고 음식에 대한 갈망을 줄이며 포만감을 증진시킬 수 있습니다.[25][26]
이러한 다각적인 작용은
세마글루타이드가 혈당 수치를 관리하고
체중 감소를 촉진하는 데 기여하는 포괄적인 대사 효과를 설명합니다.
세마글루타이드(Semaglutide)는 연장 방출형 엑세나티드(exenatide)와 두라글루타이드(dulaglutide)와 함께 “장시간 작용형” GLP-1 수용체 작용제로 분류됩니다.[27] 세마글루타이드의 연장된 반감기는 두 가지 구조적 변형에 기인할 수 있습니다. 한 변형은 알부민 결합을 촉진하여 신장 배설을 지연시키며, 다른 변형은 디펩티딜펩티다제-4(DPP-4) 효소에 의한 대사 분해를 차단합니다.[27]
Pharmacokinetics
Absorption: Subcutaneous semaglutide has high bioavailability (89%), with peak concentration achieved within 1 to 3 days of initiation.[28] Achieving steady-state exposure typically occurs after 4 to 5 weeks of weekly administration, demonstrating a proportional increase with escalating doses up to 2.4 mg.
Due to the high homology to human GLP-1 peptide, oral semaglutide possesses properties inherent to peptide-like compounds. These include high molecular weight, susceptibility to enzymatic degradation, hydrophilicity, and low permeability, resulting in minimal bioavailability of approximately 0.01%.[29][30][31][32][31] To address this limitation, an absorption enhancer called sodium N-(8-[2-hydroxybenzoyl]amino) caprylate (SNAC) is incorporated, enhancing the transcellular absorption of oral semaglutide across the gastric mucosa.[29] The commercially available oral semaglutide exhibits an improved, although still minimal, bioavailability range of 0.4% to 1%.[33] Gastric fluid composition, influenced by food and increased water volumes, significantly affects oral semaglutide absorption.[29][34]
After oral administration, the maximum concentration of semaglutide is typically reached within 1 hour post-dose. Steady-state exposure is typically achieved after 4 to 5 weeks of daily administration.[35]
Distribution: Following subcutaneous administration, the mean apparent volume of distribution for semaglutide is approximately 12.5 L.[36] In healthy subjects, the volume of distribution is approximately 8 L following oral administration.[35]
Metabolism: Semaglutide undergoes metabolism through the proteolytic cleavage of the peptide backbone, followed by sequential β-oxidation of the fatty acid sidechain.[37]
Elimination: Both oral and subcutaneous semaglutide have an elimination half-life of approximately 1 week, remaining in circulation for about 5 weeks after the last dose. The clearance of subcutaneous semaglutide in individuals with T2DM or obesity or those who are overweight is approximately 0.05 L/h. In comparison, the clearance of oral semaglutide in healthy subjects is approximately 0.04 L/h.[35][36] Semaglutide is primarily eliminated in the urine (3% as an unchanged drug) and feces.[35][38]
약동학
흡수:
피하 투여된 세마글루타이드의 생체 이용률은 높으며(89%),
투여 후 1~3일 내에 최고 농도에 도달합니다.[28]
안정 상태 노출은
주 1회 투여 후 4~5주 후에 달성되며,
용량을 2.4mg까지 증가시킬 때 용량에 비례하여 증가합니다.
인간 GLP-1 펩타이드와의 높은 동질성으로 인해 경구용 세마글루타이드에는
펩타이드 유사 화합물의 특성이 내재되어 있습니다.
이는 높은 분자량, 효소 분해에 대한 취약성, 친수성, 낮은 투과성 등을 포함하며,
약 0.01%의 낮은 생체 이용률을 초래합니다.[29][30][31][32][31]
이 한계를 극복하기 위해 흡수 증진제인
나트륨 N-(8-[2-하이드록시벤조일]아미노) 카프릴레이트(SNAC)가 포함되어
경구용 세마글루타이드의 위 점막을 통한 세포 간 흡수를 향상시킵니다.[29]
상업용 경구용 세마글루타이드의 생체 이용률은 0.4%에서 1%로 개선되었지만 여전히 낮습니다.[33]
위액의 성분은 음식과 증가된 수분량에 의해 영향을 받아 경구용 세마글루타이드의 흡수에 크게 영향을 미칩니다.[29][34]
경구 투여 후 세마글루타이드의 최대 농도는
투여 후 1시간 이내에 도달합니다.
안정 상태 노출은 일반적으로 매일 투여 후
4~5주 후에 달성됩니다.[35]
분포: 피하 투여 후 세마글루타이드의 평균apparent 분포 용적은 약 12.5 L입니다.[36]
건강한 대상에서 경구 투여 후 분포 용적은 약 8 L입니다.[35]
대사: 세마글루타이드은 펩타이드 골격의 프로테아제 분해 후 지방산 측쇄의 순차적 β-산화 과정을 통해 대사됩니다.[37]
배출:
경구 및 피하 투여된
세마글루타이드의 배출 반감기는 약 1주이며,
마지막 투여 후 약 5주간 혈액 내 잔류합니다.
제2형 당뇨병 또는 비만 환자 또는 과체중 환자의 피하 투여 세마글루타이드의 청소율은
약 0.05 L/h입니다.
반면, 건강한 대상자의 경구 투여 세마글루타이드의 청소율은
약 0.04 L/h입니다.[35][36]
세마글루타이드의 배설은 주로
소변(3%는 변하지 않은 약물 형태)과 대변을 통해 이루어집니다.[35][38]
Administration
The injection formulations should be administered subcutaneously into the abdomen, thigh, or upper arm. Patients should be advised to rotate injection sites within the same body region (eg, upper arm) to avoid injecting in the same spot each week. Although insulin and semaglutide injections may be administered in the same body region, patients should be cautioned against using the same injection site. Mixing semaglutide injection and insulin directly is not recommended, and it is essential to follow dose escalation instructions diligently to reduce the risk of gastrointestinal adverse events.
Available Dosage Forms
The available dosage forms for semaglutide include subcutaneous injections, such as Ozempic® and Wegovy®, and oral tablets, such as Rybelsus®.
Available Strengths
Adult Dosage
Subcutaneous semaglutide for T2DM or reduction of cardiovascular mortality Ozempic®
Special considerations for subcutaneous semaglutide Ozempic®
Oral semaglutide for T2DM Rybelsus®
Special considerations for oral semaglutide Rybelsus®
Subcutaneous semaglutide for chronic weight management Wegovy®
For chronic weight management with subcutaneous semaglutide (Wegovy®), it is necessary to follow the following steps:
Special considerations for subcutaneous semaglutide (Wegovy®)
Specific Patient Populations
Hepatic impairment: No dosage adjustment is needed for subcutaneous or oral semaglutide in patients with hepatic impairment.[39][40]
Renal impairment: No dosage adjustment is necessary for subcutaneous or oral semaglutide in mild-to-severe impairment.[37][41] Caution should be exercised when initiating or escalating doses.
The manufacturer advises against adjusting the dosage of subcutaneous and oral Semaglutide for patients undergoing three or more weekly hemodialysis sessions. However, due to limited clinical evidence, caution is advised. Furthermore, the manufacturer recommends against adjusting the subcutaneous and oral semaglutide dosage for patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis. Again, caution is advised due to limited clinical evidence.
Pregnancy considerations: Current clinical trial data and pharmacovigilance reports on semaglutide use in pregnant women are insufficient to ascertain its association with significant congenital defects, miscarriage, or adverse outcomes for both the mother and the fetus. However, findings from animal reproduction studies indicate potential risks to the fetus with semaglutide exposure during pregnancy. In addition, the weight loss effects of semaglutide are not deemed beneficial for pregnant individuals and may pose a risk of harm to the fetus. As a result, the manufacturer recommends against the use of semaglutide during pregnancy due to the potential fetal risks.
For the management of diabetes mellitus or weight loss, discontinuation of semaglutide is advised for a minimum of 2 months before attempting to conceive. According to the 2021 guidelines from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), weight loss medications are not recommended at conception.[42]
Breastfeeding considerations: Insufficient data exist regarding semaglutide or its metabolites in human milk and the potential effects on breastfed infants and milk production. Semaglutide was identified in milk at levels 3 to 12 times lower than in maternal plasma in lactating rats. Although information on the impact of semaglutide in human milk is unavailable, it may be present in human milk if present in animal milk. The decision to use injectable semaglutide while breastfeeding should carefully consider the potential risk of infant exposure versus the benefits of breastfeeding.
Regarding the oral formulation containing SNAC, it is unclear whether SNAC is excreted in breast milk. Due to this uncertainty, oral semaglutide is not recommended during breastfeeding, as the unknown risk of SNAC accumulation in infants is a concern.
Pediatric patients: The safety and efficacy of subcutaneous semaglutide (Ozempic®) and oral semaglutide (Rybelsus®) have not been established in individuals aged 18 or younger. However, Wegovy®, specifically indicated for weight loss, is approved for use in pediatric patients aged 12 and older with a BMI corresponding to ≥95th percentile standardized for age and sex. This approval is based on a 68-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial (STEP TEENS) involving 201 pediatric patients aged 12 and older with a BMI corresponding to ≥95th percentile for age and sex.[21]
The approved dosage for chronic weight management in the pediatric and adolescent age groups of ≥12 and ≤18 is similar to the adult dosing outlined earlier, with the following exceptions:
Notably, cholelithiasis, cholecystitis, hypotension, rash, and urticaria were more prevalent in this younger age group than in adults treated with Wegovy®. Meticulous attention to the dose escalation strategy may help mitigate the incidence of adverse events.
Older patients: No overall differences in safety and efficacy have been observed in patients aged 65 and older.
Adverse Effects
Adverse Drug Reactions
Adverse drug reactions caused by semaglutide are listed below.
Hypoglycemia: GLP-1 agonists lower blood glucose and may cause hypoglycemia. The risk of hypoglycemia significantly increases with escalating doses and when semaglutide is administered with other anti-hyperglycemic medications such as sulfonylureas, metformin, or insulin.
Gastrointestinal: The adverse effects most frequently reported and most associated with discontinuation of semaglutide include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, constipation, and diarrhea.[43] Nearly one-fifth of all patients in clinical trials with Ozempic® and Rybelsus® experienced nausea, which is the most prevalent adverse effect, whereas 44% of patients treated with Wegovy® reported the same adverse effects. In addition, decreased appetite, dysgeusia, and dyspepsia have been documented. Although the precise mechanism behind these effects is not entirely elucidated, it may stem from delayed gastric emptying or the activation of brain centers implicated in appetite regulation, satiety, and nausea.[44] Higher doses and dose escalations are associated with the risk of these adverse effects.
Renal: Semaglutide can result in acute kidney injury. Patients who experienced nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or dehydration during the treatment were at the highest risk of acute kidney injury, with volume depletion being the suspected link. Discontinuation or dose reduction of semaglutide is recommended rather than relying solely on symptomatic treatment of volume depletion.
Gallbladder disorders: Semaglutide has been associated with gallbladder and biliary tract issues, including cholelithiasis and cholecystitis.[45] The exact mechanism behind this adverse effect is not entirely understood. Animal studies and in vitro data suggest that GLP-1 enhances cholangiocyte proliferation and functional activity, which could contribute to gallbladder diseases.[46] Some authors have proposed that semaglutide can potentially suppress cholecystokinin secretion, reduce gallbladder emptying, and prolong gallbladder refilling, or a combination of these factors contributing to gallbladder disease.[47]
Anaphylaxis and angioedema: GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs) can induce severe type 1 hypersensitivity reactions, such as anaphylaxis and angioedema.[48][49] A possibility of cross-reactivity among different GLP-1 receptor agonists exists. Therefore, caution is advised when prescribing semaglutide to patients with a history of anaphylaxis or angioedema in response to other GLP-1 receptor agonists, pending further studies.
Pancreatitis: Although cases of acute pancreatitis have been associated with semaglutide use, findings from the SUSTAIN 6 trial indicate a similar incidence rate of pancreatitis with semaglutide compared to the placebo group.[6] The causal relationship between semaglutide and acute pancreatitis has not been definitively established. GLP-1 receptor agonists directly stimulate GLP-1 receptors in pancreatic islet beta cells and exocrine duct cells. Researchers suggest that this stimulation may lead to the overgrowth of cells covering smaller ducts, causing hyperplasia, increased pancreatic weight, duct occlusion, back pressure, and subsequent acute or chronic inflammation.[50]
Diabetic retinopathy: Semaglutide use may potentially elevate the risk of diabetic retinopathy, particularly in patients with retinopathy at baseline. The exact relationship between semaglutide and the development or exacerbation of diabetic retinopathy remains incompletely understood. However, it may be associated with rapid improvements in glucose control, as identified in other studies.[51]
Risk of thyroid C-cell tumors: During the initial phases of drug development, animal studies involving semaglutide revealed the development of thyroid C-cell tumors. However, the potential association between semaglutide and thyroid cancers in humans remains unclear. Individuals with a personal or family history of medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) or those diagnosed with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN 2) syndrome may face an elevated risk. The manufacturer acknowledges reported cases of MTC associated with liraglutide, which is another GLP-1 receptor agonist.
Additional adverse reactions: Other reported adverse reactions associated with semaglutide include fatigue, headache, rash, alopecia, vitreous hemorrhage in patients with diabetic retinopathy, anxiety, dizziness, discomfort at the injection site, and erythema at the injection site.
부작용
약물 부작용
세마글루타이드로 인한 약물 부작용은 아래에 열거되어 있습니다.
저혈당증: GLP-1 작용제는 혈당을 낮추며 저혈당증을 유발할 수 있습니다. 저혈당증의 위험은 용량이 증가할수록 크게 증가하며, 세마글루타이드를 설포닐우레아, 메트포르민, 인슐린 등 다른 항고혈당제와 함께 투여할 경우 위험이 증가합니다.
위장관: 세마글루타이드 투여 중단과 가장 밀접하게 연관된 가장 흔히 보고된 부작용에는 메스꺼움, 구토, 복통, 변비, 설사가 포함됩니다.[43] 오젬픽® 및 리벨수스® 임상 시험 참가자의 약 20%가 메스꺼움을 경험했으며, 이는 가장 흔한 부작용입니다. 반면 웨고비® 투여 환자의 44%가 동일한 부작용을 보고했습니다. 또한 식욕 감소, 미각 장애, 소화불량이 보고되었습니다. 이러한 부작용의 정확한 메커니즘은 완전히 규명되지 않았지만, 위 배출 지연이나 식욕 조절, 포만감, 메스꺼움과 관련된 뇌 중심부의 활성화에서 기인할 수 있습니다.[44] 고용량 또는 용량 증가와 이러한 부작용의 위험이 연관되어 있습니다.
신장: 세마글루타이드(semaglutide)는 급성 신장 손상을 유발할 수 있습니다. 치료 중 메스꺼움, 구토, 설사, 탈수 증상을 경험한 환자는 급성 신장 손상 위험이 가장 높았으며, 체액 부족이 의심되는 연관 요인으로 지적되었습니다. 세마글루타이드의 투여 중단 또는 용량 감량이 체액 부족의 증상 치료에만 의존하는 것보다 권장됩니다.
담낭 장애: 세마글루타이드와 담낭 및 담도계 문제(담석증 및 담낭염 포함)가 연관되었습니다.[45] 이 부작용의 정확한 메커니즘은 완전히 이해되지 않았습니다. 동물 연구 및 체외 데이터는 GLP-1이 담관 상피 세포의 증식 및 기능 활성을 증가시켜 담낭 질환에 기여할 수 있음을 시사합니다. [46] 일부 연구자들은 세마글루타이드가 담낭 수축 호르몬 분비를 억제하거나 담낭 배출을 감소시키거나 담낭 재충전을 지연시키거나, 이 요인들의 조합이 담낭 질환에 기여할 수 있다고 제안했습니다.[47]
아나필락시스 및 혈관부종: GLP-1 수용체 작용제(GLP-1 RAs)는 아나필락시스 및 혈관부종과 같은 심각한 1형 과민반응을 유발할 수 있습니다.[48][49] 서로 다른 GLP-1 수용체 작용제 간 교차 반응 가능성이 존재합니다. 따라서, 다른 GLP-1 수용체 작용제에 대한 아나필락시스 또는 혈관부종 병력이 있는 환자에게 세마글루타이드를 처방할 때는 추가 연구 결과가 나올 때까지 주의가 필요합니다.
췌장염: 세마글루타이드 사용과 급성 췌장염 사례가 연관되었지만, SUSTAIN 6 임상시험 결과 세마글루타이드와 위약 그룹 간의 췌장염 발생률은 유사했습니다.[6] 세마글루타이드와 급성 췌장염 사이의 인과 관계는 아직 명확히 확립되지 않았습니다. GLP-1 수용체 작용제는 췌장 섬 베타 세포와 외분비 관 세포의 GLP-1 수용체를 직접 자극합니다. 연구자들은 이 자극이 작은 관을 덮는 세포의 과도한 증식으로 이어져 과증식, 췌장 무게 증가, 관 폐쇄, 역압, 그리고 이후 급성 또는 만성 염증을 유발할 수 있다고 제안합니다.[50]
당뇨병성 망막병증: 세마글루타이드 사용은 특히 기저 망막병증이 있는 환자에서 당뇨병성 망막병증 위험을 증가시킬 수 있습니다. 세마글루타이드와 당뇨병성 망막병증의 발생 또는 악화 사이의 정확한 관계는 아직 완전히 이해되지 않았습니다. 그러나 다른 연구에서 확인된 것처럼 혈당 조절의 급격한 개선과 관련될 수 있습니다.[51]
갑상선 C세포 종양 위험: 약물 개발 초기 단계에서 세마글루타이드를 투여한 동물 연구에서 갑상선 C세포 종양이 발생했습니다. 그러나 세마글루타이드와 인간에서의 갑상선 암 사이의 잠재적 연관성은 명확하지 않습니다. 갑상선 수질 암(MTC)의 개인적 또는 가족력이나 다발성 내분비 종양 증후군 2형(MEN 2) 진단을 받은 환자는 위험이 증가할 수 있습니다. 제조사는 다른 GLP-1 수용체 작용제인 리라글루티드와 관련된 MTC 사례가 보고되었다고 인정합니다.
추가 부작용: 세마글루타이드와 관련된 기타 보고된 부작용에는 피로, 두통, 발진, 탈모, 당뇨병성 망막병증이 있는 환자의 유리체 출혈, 불안, 현기증, 주사 부위 불편감, 주사 부위 발적 등이 포함됩니다.
Drug-Drug Interactions
Contraindications
Box Warning
Semaglutide has been shown to induce dose-dependent and treatment-duration–dependent thyroid C-cell tumors in rodents. However, it remains uncertain whether semaglutide poses a similar risk of cancer in humans. This aspect may become more apparent as more data on this medication become available over the next few years. Given this potential risk, semaglutide is contraindicated in patients with a personal or family history of MTC or MEN 2 syndrome. Patients prescribed semaglutide should receive counseling regarding the potential risk of thyroid cancers.
Precautions
Monitoring
Before initiating and periodically during treatment with either oral or subcutaneously administered semaglutide, patients should receive counseling regarding potential adverse effects or complications. They should also be instructed to report any concerns to their healthcare providers promptly.
Monitoring for complications should be conducted collaboratively by the patient and their clinician, focusing on the following aspects:
Toxicity
Signs and Symptoms of Overdose
Overdose with oral or subcutaneous semaglutide can cause severe nausea, vomiting, and hypoglycemia.
Oral semaglutide is often co-administered with SNAC to increase gastric absorbability. Animal studies have indicated that higher SNAC exposure can result in lethargy, abnormal respiration, ataxia, and reduced activity.
Management of Overdose
In case of an overdose with oral or subcutaneous semaglutide, management involves implementing suitable supportive measures according to observed signs and symptoms. Consultation with poison control or a toxicologist is recommended. Due to the long half-life of semaglutide, an extended period of observation and treatment may be necessary.
Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes
The collaborative efforts of the healthcare team, including the physician or advanced practice clinician, pharmacist, dietitian, and nurse, are essential for achieving optimal outcomes in managing T2DM, reducing cardiovascular death, or facilitating weight loss with semaglutide treatment. Effective communication and collaboration among team members are fundamental for reaching treatment goals. As the comprehensive benefits of semaglutide are intricately linked to lifestyle modifications, dietitians are crucial in providing tailored recommendations for glucose-lowering, cardiovascular protection, and weight loss.
The gradual dose escalation of semaglutide and the potential for increased adverse effects at higher doses emphasize the importance of proactive counseling by the healthcare team, including the patient's pharmacist. Close monitoring of the patient ensures adherence to the appropriate dose and facilitates early detection of adverse effects. Pharmacists and nurses, in particular, play crucial roles in promptly reporting any observed adverse effects to the physician, who can then consider necessary interventions such as dosage adjustments or discontinuation of the drug based on the severity of the adverse effects. Pharmacists can also identify potential drug-drug interactions and collaborate with the treating physician. This collective approach, involving each team member's expertise, enhances patient outcomes in semaglutide treatment.
Review Questions
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