마르코 폴로의 여행

[dhleepaul]

"The Travels"는 여기로 리디렉션됩니다. 이븐 바투타(Ibn Battuta)의 작품은 리흘라(Rihla)를 참조한다. 몰리 닐슨(Molly Nilsson)의 음반은 《The Travels》 (음반)를 참조한다.

마르코 폴로의 여행기저자원래 제목언어장르발행일게재 장소듀이 십진법

마르코 폴로의 여행기 한 페이지

루스티첼로 다 피사와 마르코 폴로

Livres des Merveilles du Monde

프랑코-베네치아

여행 문학

1300년경

베네치아 공화국

915.042

세계의 경이로움의 책 (이탈리아어 : Il Milione, lit. 'The Million', 아마도 Polo의 별명 "Emilione"에서 파생 됨) [1] 일반적으로 마르코 폴로의 여행이라고 불리는 영어로는 이탈리아 탐험가 마르코 폴로 (Marco Polo)가 들려주는 이야기에서 Rustichello da Pisa가 쓴 13 세기 여행기입니다. 이 책은 1271년에서 1295년 사이에 폴로가 아시아를 여행한 것과 쿠빌라이 칸의 궁정에서의 경험을 묘사하고 있다. [2][3]

이 책은 로맨스 작가 루스티첼로 다 피사(Rustichello da Pisa)가 썼는데, 그는 마르코 폴로(Marco Polo)가 제노바에서 함께 수감되었을 때 들었던 이야기를 바탕으로 썼다. [4] 루스티첼로는 프랑코-베네치아어로 썼는데,[5][6][7] 13세기와 15세기 사이에 북부 이탈리아에서 아고산 지대와 포 하부 사이에 널리 퍼진 문학 언어였다. [8] 원래는 Livre des Merveilles du Monde 또는 Devisement du Monde ( "세계에 대한 설명")로 알려졌습니다. 이 책은 마르코 폴로가 살아 있을 때 많은 유럽 언어로 번역되었지만, 원본 사본은 현재 분실되었으며 재구성은 텍스트 비평의 문제입니다. 고대 프랑스어,[9] 토스카나, 베네치아어로 된 두 가지 버전, 라틴어로 된 두 개의 다른 버전을 포함하여 다양한 언어로 된 총 약 150개의 사본이 존재하는 것으로 알려져 있습니다.

처음부터 Polo의 때때로 멋진 이야기에 대한 불신이 있었고 최근에는 학술적 논쟁이 있었습니다. [10] 어떤 사람들은 마르코가 실제로 중국을 여행한 것인지, 아니면 다른 여행자들로부터 들은 이야기를 반복하고 있는 것인지에 대해 의문을 제기했다. [11] 경제사학자 마크 엘빈(Mark Elvin)은 최근의 연구가 "폴로의 설명이 광범위한 신빙성을 지닐 확률이 궁극적으로 압도적일 가능성을 구체적인 사례를 통해 입증"하고 있으며, 이 책은 "본질적으로 진실하며, 주의를 기울여 사용한다면 항상 최종적이지는 않지만 진지한 증인으로 신뢰할 수 있는 넓은 의미"라고 결론지었다. [12]

역사[편집]

Polo가 설명하는 경로입니다.

마르코 폴로 (Marco Polo)의 지리학에 대한 가능성있는 견해 (Henry Yule, 1871).

추가 정보: 니콜로 & 마페오 폴로

Il Milione이라는 제목의 출처는 논쟁의 여지가 있습니다. 한 가지 견해는 폴로 가족이 폴로라는 이름을 가진 수많은 다른 베네치아 가족과 구별하기 위해 에밀리오네라는 이름을 사용한 것에서 비롯되었다는 것입니다. [13] 더 일반적인 견해는 그 이름이 기행기에 대한 중세의 수용, 즉 "백만"거짓말로 가득 차 있었다는 것을 가리킨다는 것입니다. [14]

본문에 대한 현대의 평가는 일반적으로 상상력이 풍부하거나 분석적인 여행자라기보다는 관찰력있는 여행자의 기록으로 간주합니다. 마르코 폴로는 호기심이 많고 관대하며 쿠빌라이 칸과 그가 20년 동안 섬겼던 왕조에 헌신하는 것으로 나타났습니다. 이 책은 폴로가 캐세이(Cathay, 중국 북부)와 만지(Manji, 중국 남부)라고 부르는 중국을 여행한 기록이다. 폴로 일행은 1271년 베네치아를 떠났다. 그 후 3년이 걸렸고, 그들은 당시 캐세이라고 불렸던 캐세이에 도착하여 칭기즈칸의 손자인 쿠빌라이 칸을 만났습니다. 그들은 1290년 말이나 1291년 초에 중국을 떠났고[15] 1295년에 베네치아로 돌아왔다. 전통에 따르면 폴로는 1298년에서 1299년 사이에 제노바의 감옥에 있을 때 로맨스 작가인 루스티첼로 다 피사에게 이 책을 구술했습니다. 루스티첼로는 마르코의 노트에서 첫 번째 프랑코-이탈리아어 버전을 만들었을 수 있습니다. 그 후 이 책은 프랑스어로 Devisement du Monde and Livres des Merveilles du Monde, 라틴어로는 De Mirabilibus Mundi로 명명되었습니다. [16]

루스티첼로의 역할[편집]

영국의 학자 로널드 레이텀(Ronald Latham)은 《경이의 책》이 사실 1298년에서 1299년 사이에 폴로와 로맨스 전문 작가인 피사의 루스티첼로가 공동으로 쓴 것이라고 지적했다. [17] 폴로는 자신의 회고록을 루스티첼로 다 피사(Rustichello da Pisa)에게 구두로 이야기한 것으로 믿어지며, 둘 다 제노바 공화국의 포로였습니다. 루스티첼로는 프랑코-베네치아 언어로 몽드 제도(Devisement du Monde)를 썼다. [18]

Latham은 또한 Rustichello가 Polo의 기록을 미화하고 환상적이고 낭만적 인 요소를 추가하여 책을 베스트셀러로 만들었을 수 있다고 주장했습니다. [17] 이탈리아 학자 루이지 포스콜로 베네데토(Luigi Foscolo Benedetto)는 이전에 이 책이 루스티첼로의 다른 작품들을 특징짓는 것과 동일한 "여유롭고 대화적인 스타일"로 쓰여졌으며, 책의 일부 구절은 루스티첼로의 다른 저술에서 그대로 또는 최소한의 수정으로 이루어졌다고 입증했습니다. 예를 들어, 경이의 책에서 "황제와 왕, 공작과 후작"에 대한 도입부는 루스티첼로가 몇 년 전에 썼던 아서왕의 로맨스에서 그대로 발췌한 것이며, 폴로와 쿠빌라이 칸이 쿠빌라이 칸의 궁정에서 두 번째로 만났다는 기록은 같은 책에서 트리스탄이 카멜롯에 있는 아서 왕의 궁정에 도착한 것과 거의 동일합니다. [19] 라담은 중동의 전설과 이국적인 경이로움에 대한 언급과 같은 책의 많은 요소들이 중세 유럽 독자들이 여행 책에서 찾을 수 있을 것으로 기대했던 것을 제공한 루스티첼로의 작품일 수 있다고 믿었다. [20]

Role of the Dominican Order[edit]

Apparently, from the very beginning Marco's story aroused contrasting reactions, as it was received by some with a certain disbelief. The Dominican father Francesco Pipino [it] was the author of a translation into Latin, Iter Marci Pauli Veneti in 1302, just a few years after Marco's return to Venice.[21] Francesco Pipino solemnly affirmed the truthfulness of the book and defined Marco as a "prudent, honoured and faithful man".[22] In his writings, the Dominican brother Jacopo d'Acqui explains why his contemporaries were skeptical about the content of the book. He also relates that before dying, Marco Polo insisted that "he had told only a half of the things he had seen".[22]

According to some recent research of the Italian scholar Antonio Montefusco, the very close relationship that Marco Polo cultivated with members of the Dominican Order in Venice suggests that local fathers collaborated with him for a Latin version of the book, which means that Rustichello's text was translated into Latin for a precise will of the Order.[23]

Since Dominican fathers had among their missions that of evangelizing foreign peoples (cf. the role of Dominican missionaries in China[24] and in the Indies[25]), it is reasonable to think that they considered Marco's book as a trustworthy piece of information for missions in the East. The diplomatic communications between Pope Innocent IV and Pope Gregory X with the Mongols[26] were probably another reason for this endorsement. At the time, there was open discussion of a possible Christian-Mongol alliance with an anti-Islamic function.[27] In fact, a Mongol delegate was solemnly baptised at the Second Council of Lyon. At the council, Pope Gregory X promulgated a new Crusade to start in 1278 in liaison with the Mongols.[28]

Contents[edit]

The Travels is divided into four books. Book One describes the lands of the Middle East and Central Asia that Marco encountered on his way to China. Book Two describes China and the court of Kublai Khan. Book Three describes some of the coastal regions of the East: Japan, India, Sri Lanka, South-East Asia, and the east coast of Africa. Book Four describes some of the then-recent wars among the Mongols and some of the regions of the far north, like Russia. Polo's writings included descriptions of cannibals and spice-growers.

Legacy[edit]

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The Travels was a rare popular success in an era before printing.

The impact of Polo's book on cartography was delayed: the first map in which some names mentioned by Polo appear was in the Catalan Atlas of Charles V (1375), which included thirty names in China and a number of other Asian toponyms.[29] In the mid-fifteenth century the cartographer of Murano, Fra Mauro, meticulously included all of Polo's toponyms in his 1450 map of the world.

A heavily annotated copy of Polo's book was among the belongings of Columbus.[30]

Subsequent versions[edit]

French "Livre des merveilles" front page[31]

Handwritten notes by Christopher Columbus on the Latin edition of Marco Polo's Le livre des merveilles.

Marco Polo was accompanied on his trips by his father and uncle (both of whom had been to China previously), though neither of them published any known works about their journeys. The book was translated into many European languages in Marco Polo's own lifetime, but the original manuscripts are now lost. A total of about 150 copies in various languages are known to exist. During copying and translating many errors were made, so there are many differences between the various copies.[32]

According to the French philologist Philippe Ménard,[33] there are six main versions of the book: the version closest to the original, in Franco-Venetian; a version in Old French; a version in Tuscan; two versions in Venetian; two different versions in Latin.

Version in Franco-Venetian[edit]

The oldest surviving Polo manuscript is in Franco-Venetian, which was a literary language which mixed Old French with the Venetian language, spread in Northern Italy in the 13th century;[6][7][34] for Luigi Foscolo Benedetto, this "F" text is the basic original text, which he corrected by comparing it with the somewhat more detailed Italian of Ramusio, together with a Latin manuscript in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.

Version in Old French[edit]

A version written in Old French, titled Le Livre des merveilles (The Book of Marvels).

This version counts 18 manuscripts, whose most famous is the Code Fr. 2810.[35] Famous for its miniatures, the Code 2810 is in the French National Library. Another Old French Polo manuscript, dating to around 1350, is held by the National Library of Sweden.[36] A critical edition of this version was edited in the 2000s by Philippe Ménard.[33]

Version in Tuscan[edit]

A version in Tuscan (Italian language) titled Navigazione di messer Marco Polo was written in Florence by Michele Ormanni. It is found in the Italian National Library in Florence. Other early important sources are the manuscript "R" (Ramusio's Italian translation first printed in 1559).

Version in Venetian[edit]

The version in Venetian dialect is full of mistakes and is not considered trustworthy.[33]

Versions in Latin[edit]

• One of the early manuscripts, Iter Marci Pauli Veneti, was a translation into Latin made by the Dominican brother Francesco Pipino in 1302, only three years after Marco's return to Venice.[21][37] This testifies the deep interest the Dominican Order had in the book. According to recent research by the Italian scholar Antonio Montefusco, the very close relationship Marco Polo cultivated with members of the Dominican Order in Venice suggests that Rustichello's text was translated into Latin for a precise will of the Order,[23] which had among its missions that of evangelizing foreign peoples (cf. the role of Dominican missionaries in China[24] and in the Indies[38]). This Latin version is conserved by 70 manuscripts.[33]
• Another Latin version called "Z" is conserved only by one manuscript, which is to be found in Toledo, Spain. This version contains about 300 small curious additional facts about religion and ethnography in the Far East. Experts wondered whether these additions were from Marco Polo himself.[33]

Critical editions[edit]

The first attempt to collate manuscripts and provide a critical edition was in a volume of collected travel narratives printed at Venice in 1559.[39]

The editor, Giovan Battista Ramusio, collated manuscripts from the first part of the fourteenth century,[40] which he considered to be "perfettamente corretto" ("perfectly correct"). The edition of Benedetto, Marco Polo, Il Milione, under the patronage of the Comitato Geografico Nazionale Italiano (Florence: Olschki, 1928), collated sixty additional manuscript sources, in addition to some eighty that had been collected by Henry Yule, for his 1871 edition. It was Benedetto who identified Rustichello da Pisa,[41] as the original compiler or amanuensis, and his established text has provided the basis for many modern translations: his own in Italian (1932), and Aldo Ricci's The Travels of Marco Polo (London, 1931).

The first English translation is the Elizabethan version by John Frampton published in 1579, The most noble and famous travels of Marco Polo, based on Santaella's Castilian translation of 1503 (the first version in that language).[42]

A. C. Moule and Paul Pelliot published a translation under the title Description of the World that uses manuscript F as its base and attempts to combine the several versions of the text into one continuous narrative while at the same time indicating the source for each section (London, 1938). ISBN 4-87187-308-0

An introduction to Marco Polo is Leonard Olschki, Marco Polo's Asia: An Introduction to His "Description of the World" Called "Il Milione", translated by John A. Scott (Berkeley: University of California) 1960; it had its origins in the celebrations of the seven hundredth anniversary of Marco Polo's birth.

Authenticity and veracity[edit]

Le livre des merveilles, Bibliothèque nationale de France, fr. 2810, Tav. 84r "Qui hae sì gran caldo che a pena vi si puote sofferire (...). Questa gente sono tutti neri, maschi e femmine, e vanno tutti ignudi, se non se tanto ch'egliono ricuoprono loro natura con un panno molto bianco. Costoro non hanno per peccato veruna lussuria"[43](Translation: "People in a land of extreme heat, barely bearable. They are all dark-skinned, both men and women, and go about nearly naked, covering only their private parts with a white cloth. They see no sin in what might be considered lust.")

Since its publication, many have viewed the book with skepticism. Some in the Middle Ages viewed the book simply as a romance or fable, largely because of the sharp difference of its descriptions of a sophisticated civilisation in China to other early accounts by Giovanni da Pian del Carpine and William of Rubruck who portrayed the Mongols as "barbarians" who appeared to belong to "some other world".[44] Doubts have also been raised in later centuries about Marco Polo's narrative of his travels in China, for example for his failure to mention a number of things and practices commonly associated with China, such as Chinese characters, tea, chopsticks, and footbinding.[45] In particular, his failure to mention the Great Wall of China had been noted as early as the middle of the seventeenth century.[46] In addition, the difficulties in identifying many of the place names he used also raised suspicion about Polo's accounts.[46] Many have questioned whether or not he had visited the places he mentioned in his itinerary, or he had appropriated the accounts of his father and uncle or other travelers, or doubted that he even reached China and that, if he did, perhaps never went beyond Khanbaliq (Beijing).[46][47]

Historian Stephen G. Haw however argued that many of the "omissions" could be explained. For example, none of the other Western travelers to Yuan dynasty China at that time, such as Giovanni de' Marignolli and Odoric of Pordenone, mentioned the Great Wall, and that while remnants of the Wall would have existed at that time, it would not have been significant or noteworthy as it had not been maintained for a long time. The Great Walls were built to keep out northern invaders, whereas the ruling dynasty during Marco Polo's visit were those very northern invaders. The Mongol rulers whom Polo served also controlled territories both north and south of today's wall, and would have no reasons to maintain any fortifications that may have remained there from the earlier dynasties. He noted the Great Wall familiar to us today is a Ming structure built some two centuries after Marco Polo's travels.[48] The Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta did mention the Great Wall, but when he asked about the wall while in China during the Yuan dynasty, he could find no one who had either seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it.[48] Haw also argued that practices such as footbinding were not common even among Chinese during Polo's time and almost unknown among the Mongols. While the Italian missionary Odoric of Pordenone who visited Yuan China mentioned footbinding (it is however unclear whether he was only relaying something he heard as his description is inaccurate),[49] no other foreign visitors to Yuan China mentioned the practice, perhaps an indication that the footbinding was not widespread or was not practiced in an extreme form at that time.[50] Marco Polo himself noted (in the Toledo manuscript) the dainty walk of Chinese women who took very short steps.[48]

It has also been pointed out that Polo's accounts are more accurate and detailed than other accounts of the periods. Polo had at times denied the "marvelous" fables and legends given in other European accounts, and also omitted descriptions of strange races of people then believed to inhabit eastern Asia and given in such accounts. For example, Odoric of Pordenone said that the Yangtze river flows through the land of pygmies only three spans high and gave other fanciful tales, while Giovanni da Pian del Carpine spoke of "wild men, who do not speak at all and have no joints in their legs", monsters who looked like women but whose menfolk were dogs, and other equally fantastic accounts. Despite a few exaggerations and errors, Polo's accounts are relatively free of the descriptions of irrational marvels, and in many cases where present (mostly given in the first part before he reached China), he made a clear distinction that they are what he had heard rather than what he had seen. It is also largely free of the gross errors in other accounts such as those given by the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta who had confused the Yellow River with the Grand Canal and other waterways, and believed that porcelain was made from coal.[51]

Many of the details in Polo's accounts have been verified. For example, when visiting Zhenjiang in Jiangsu, China, Marco Polo noted that a large number of Christian churches had been built there. His claim is confirmed by a Chinese text of the 14th century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar-Sargis from Samarkand founded six Nestorian Christian churches there in addition to one in Hangzhou during the second half of the 13th century.[52] Nestorian Christianity had existed in China since the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) when a Persian monk named Alopen came to the capital Chang'an in 635 to proselytize, as described in a dual Chinese and Syriac language inscription from Chang'an (modern Xi'an) dated to the year 781.[53]

In 2012, the University of Tübingen sinologist and historian Hans Ulrich Vogel released a detailed analysis of Polo's description of currencies, salt production and revenues, and argued that the evidence supports his presence in China because he included details which he could not have otherwise known.[54][55] Vogel noted that no other Western, Arab, or Persian sources have given such accurate and unique details about the currencies of China, for example, the shape and size of the paper, the use of seals, the various denominations of paper money as well as variations in currency usage in different regions of China, such as the use of cowry shells in Yunnan, details supported by archaeological evidence and Chinese sources compiled long after Polo's had left China.[56] His accounts of salt production and revenues from the salt monopoly are also accurate, and accord with Chinese documents of the Yuan era.[57] Economic historian Mark Elvin, in his preface to Vogel's 2013 monograph, concludes that Vogel "demonstrates by specific example after specific example the ultimately overwhelming probability of the broad authenticity" of Polo's account. Many problems were caused by the oral transmission of the original text and the proliferation of significantly different hand-copied manuscripts. For instance, did Polo exert "political authority" (seignora) in Yangzhou or merely "sojourn" (sejourna) there? Elvin concludes that "those who doubted, although mistaken, were not always being casual or foolish", but "the case as a whole had now been closed": the book is, "in essence, authentic, and, when used with care, in broad terms to be trusted as a serious though obviously not always final, witness".[12]

Other travelers[edit]

Further information: Europeans in Medieval China and John of Montecorvino

City of Ayas visited by Marco Polo in 1271, from Le Livre des Merveilles

Although Marco Polo was certainly the most famous, he was not the only nor the first European traveler to the Mongol Empire who subsequently wrote an account of his experiences. Earlier thirteenth-century European travelers who journeyed to the court of the Great Khan were André de Longjumeau, William of Rubruck and Giovanni da Pian del Carpine with Benedykt Polak. None of them however reached China itself. Later travelers such as Odoric of Pordenone and Giovanni de' Marignolli reached China during the Yuan dynasty and wrote accounts of their travels.[49][48]

The Moroccan merchant Ibn Battuta traveled through the Golden Horde and China subsequently in the early-to-mid-14th century. The 14th-century author John Mandeville wrote an account of journeys in the East, but this was probably based on second-hand information and contains much apocryphal information.

Footnotes[edit]

1. ^ ... volendosi ravvisare nella parola "Milione" la forma ridotta di un diminutivo arcaico "Emilione" che pare sia servito a meglio identificare il nostro Marco distinguendolo per tal modo da tutti i numerosi Marchi della sua famiglia. (Ranieri Allulli, MARCO POLO E IL LIBRO DELLE MERAVIGLIE – Dialogo in tre tempi del giornalista Qualunquelli Junior e dell'astrologo Barbaverde, Milano, Mondadori, 1954, p.26)
2. ^ Polo 1958, p. 15.
3. ^ Boulnois 2005.
4. ^ Jackson 1998.
5. ^ Congress, Library of (1993). "Library of Congress Subject Headings, Volume 2". Archived from the original on 28 September 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Maria Bellonci, "Nota introduttiva", Il Milione di Marco Polo, Milano, Oscar Mondadori, 2003, p. XI [ITALIAN]
7. ^ Jump up to:a b "Repertorio informatizzato dell'antica letteratura franco-italiana". Archived from the original on 21 October 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
8. ^ "Fragment of Marco Polo's Il Milione in Franco-Venetian language, University of Padua RIAlFrI Project". Archived from the original on 8 April 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
9. ^ ^ Marco Polo, Il Milione, Adelphi 2001, ISBN 88-459-1032-6, Prefazione di Bertolucci Pizzorusso Valeria, pp. x–xxi.
10. ^ Taylor 2013, pp. 595–596.
11. ^ Wood 1996.
12. ^ Jump up to:a b Vogel 2013, p. xix.
13. ^ Sofri (2001) "Il secondo fu che Marco e i suoi usassero, pare, per distinguersi da altri Polo veneziani, il nome di Emilione, che è l' origine prosaica del titolo che si è imposto: Il Milione."
14. ^ Carl R. Lindahl; John McNamara; John Lindow, eds. (2000). Medieval Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Myths, Legends, Tales, Beliefs, and Customs. Vol. I. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 368. ABC-CLIO
15. ^ The date usually given as 1292 was emended in a note by Chih-chiu & Yung-chi (1945, p. 51), reporting that Polo's Chinese companions were recorded as preparing to leave in September 1290.
16. ^ Sofri 2001.
17. ^ Jump up to:a b Latham, Ronald "Introduction" pp. 7–20 from The Travels of Marco Polo, London: Folio Society, 1958 p. 11.
18. ^ Maria Bellonci, "Nota introduttiva", Il Milione di Marco Polo, Milano, Oscar Mondadori, 2003, p. XI
19. ^ Latham, Ronald "Introduction" pp. 7–20 from The Travels of Marco Polo, London: Folio Society, 1958 pp. 11–12.
20. ^ Latham, Ronald "Introduction" pp. 7–20 from The Travels of Marco Polo, London: Folio Society, 1958 p. 12.
21. ^ Jump up to:a b Dutschke, Consuelo Wager (1993). Francesco Pipino and the manuscripts of Marco Polo's 'Travels'. University of California, Los Angeles. OCLC 494165759 – via ProQuest.
22. ^ Jump up to:a b [Rinaldo Fulin, Archivio Veneto, 1924, p. 255]
23. ^ Jump up to:a b "UniVenews, 18.11.2019, "Un nuovo tassello della vita di Marco Polo: inedito ritrovato all'Archivio"". Archived from the original on 13 July 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b Alexandre, Natalis; Alexandre, Noël (1699). "Natalis Alexandre, 1699, Apologia de'padri domenicani missionarii della China". Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
25. ^ Giovanni Michele, 1696 Galleria de'Sommi Pontefici, patriarchi, arcivescovi, e vescovi dell'ordine de'Predicatori, vol.2, p. 5
26. ^ Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410 (New York: Routledge 2014), especially pp. 167-196. B. Roberg, "Die Tartaren auf dem 2. Konzil von Lyon 1274", Annuarium historiae conciliarum 5 (1973), 241-302.
27. ^ Jean Richard, Histoire des Croisades (Paris: Fayard 1996), p.465
28. ^ "1274: Promulgation of a Crusade, in liaison with the Mongols", Jean Richard, "Histoire des Croisades", p.502/French, p. 487/English
29. ^ The exhibition in Venice celebrating the seven hundredth anniversary of Polo's birth L'Asia nella Cartographia dell'Occidente, Tullia Leporini Gasparace, curator, Venice 1955. (unverifiable)
30. ^ Curtis, William Eleroy (1895). The Authentic Letters of Columbus. Chicago, USA: Field Columbian Museum. p. 115. Retrieved 8 May 2018 – via Internet Archive.
31. ^ "Marco Polo, Le Livre des merveilles p. 9". Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
32. ^ Kellogg 2001.
33. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Philippe Menard Marco Polo 15 11 07, retrieved 13 October 2021
34. ^ Bibliothèque Nationale MS. français 1116. For details, see, A. C. Moule and Paul Pelliot, Marco Polo: The Description of the World (London, 1938), p.41.
35. ^ Scansione Fr. 2810 Archived 11 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine, in expositions.bnf.fr.
36. ^ Polo, Marco (1350). "The Travels of Marco Polo". World Digital Library (in Old French). Retrieved 25 November 2014.
37. ^ "Iter Marci Pauli Veneti ex Italico Latine versum, von Franciscus Pippinus OP". Archived from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
38. ^ Giovanni Michele, 1696 Galleria de'Sommi Pontefici, patriarchi, arcivescovi, e vescovi dell'ordine de'Predicatori, vol.2, p. 5
39. ^ Its title was Secondo volume delle Navigationi et Viaggi nel quale si contengono l'Historia delle cose de' Tartari, et diuversi fatti de loro Imperatori, descritta da M. Marco Polo, Gentilhuomo di Venezia.... Herriott (1937) reports the recovery of a 1795 copy of the Ghisi manuscript, clarifying many obscure passages in Ramusio's printed text.
40. ^ "scritti gia piu di dugento anni (a mio giudico)."
41. ^ "Rusticien" in the French manuscripts.
42. ^ "The most noble and famous travels of Marco Polo, together with the travels of Nicoláo de' Conti". archive.org. Translated by John Frampton (Second ed.). 1937.
43. ^ "Marco Polo, Le Livre des merveilles p. 173". Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
44. ^ Na Chang. "Marco Polo Was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues". Reviews in History.
45. ^ Frances Wood, Did Marco Polo Go to China? (London: Secker & Warburg; Boulder, Colorado: Westview, 1995).
46. ^ Jump up to:a b c Haw 2006, p. 1.
47. ^ Haeger, John W. (1978). "Marco Polo in China? Problems with Internal Evidence". Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies. 14 (14): 22–30. JSTOR 23497510.
48. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Haw 2006, pp. 52–57.
49. ^ Jump up to:a b Ebrey, Patricia (2 September 2003). Women and the Family in Chinese History. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN 978-1-134-44293-5.
50. ^ Haw 2006, pp. 53–56.
51. ^ Haw 2006, pp. 66–67.
52. ^ Emmerick 2003, p. 275.
53. ^ Emmerick 2003, p. 274..
54. ^ "Marco Polo was not a swindler – he really did go to China". University of Tübingen. Alpha Galileo. 16 April 2012. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012.
55. ^ Vogel 2013.
56. ^ "Marco Polo Did Go to China, New Research Shows (and the History of Paper)". The New Observer. 31 July 2013. Archived from the original on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2016.
57. ^ "Marco Polo was not a swindler: He really did go to China". Science Daily.

Further reading[edit]

Delle meravigliose cose del mondo, 1496

Translations

• The description of the world (Moule-Pelliot translation) at the Internet Archive
• —; Marsden, William (1818). The Travels of Marco Polo, a Venetian. William Marsden. OCLC 56484937.
  
• — (1845). The Travels of Marco Polo. Translated by Hugh Murray. Harper & Brothers.
• — (1871), The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian, translated by Henry Yule, London: John Murray. volume 1, volume 2, index
• — (1903), The Travels of Marco Polo. (Yule-Cordier translation) Volume 1 at Project Gutenberg
• — (1903), The Travels of Marco Polo. (Yule-Cordier translation) Volume 2 at Project Gutenberg
• — (1903), The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian, Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East, vol. 1, translated by Henry Yule (3rd ed.), London: John Murray. volume 1, volume 2, index
• — (1958). The Travels. Translated by Ronald Latham. London: Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-044057-7.
• — (2005). The Travels of Marco Polo. Translated by Paul Smethurst. Barnes & Noble, Inc. ISBN 0-7607-6589-8.
• - (2016) Marco Polo, The Description of the World. Translated by Sharon Kinoshita. Indianapolis: Hackett Press, 2016.
• — (2019). Blanchard, Joël; Quereuil, Michel (eds.). Le devisement du monde: version franco-italienne. Genève: Librairie Droz. ISBN 978-2-6000-5900-8.
• The Travels of Marco Polo. — Engineering Historical Memory (critical English translation, images, videos)

General studies

• Boulnois, Luce (2005). Silk Road: Monks, Warriors & Merchants. Hong Kong: Odyssey Books & Guides. pp. 311–335. ISBN 962-217-721-2.
• Gaunt, Simon (2013), Marco Polo's 'Le Devisement du Monde'. Narrative Voice, Language and Diversity, Gallica, Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, ISBN 978-1-8438-4352-8.
• Haw, Stephen G. (2006), Marco Polo's China: A Venetian in the Realm of Khubilai Khan, Routledge Studies in the Early History of Asia, London; New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-34850-1.
• Larner, John (1999), Marco Polo and the Discovery of the World, New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-07971-0.
• Olschki, Leonardo (1960), Marco Polo's Asia: An Introduction to His "Description of the World" Called "Il Milione", translated by John A. Scott, Berkeley: University of California Press, OCLC 397577.
• Taylor, Scott L. (2013), "Merveilles du Monde: Marco Millioni, Mirabilia, and the Medieval Imagination, or the Impact of Genre on European Curiositas", in Classen, Albrecht (ed.), East Meets West in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times: Transcultural Experiences in the Premodern World, Fundamentals of Medieval and Early Modern Culture, vol. 14, Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 595–610, doi:10.1515/9783110321517.595, ISBN 978-3-11-032878-3, ISSN 1864-3396.
• Vogel, Hans Ulrich (2013), Marco Polo Was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues, Leiden; Boston: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-23193-1.
• Wood, Francis (1996). Did Marco Polo Go to China?. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-8998-1.
• Yule, Henry; Beazley, Charles Raymond (1911). "Polo, Marco" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). pp. 7–11.

Dissertations

• Dutschke, Consuelo Wager (1993). Francesco Pipino and the manuscripts of Marco Polo's 'Travels'. University of California, Los Angeles. OCLC 494165759 – via ProQuest.

Journal articles

• Chih-chiu, Yang; Yung-chi, Ho (September 1945). "Marco Polo Quits China". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 9 (1): 51. doi:10.2307/2717993. JSTOR 2717993.
• Emmerick, R. E. (2003), "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521200929.009.
• Herriott, Homer (October 1937). "The 'Lost' Toledo Manuscript of Marco Polo". Speculum. 12 (1): 456–463. doi:10.2307/2849300. JSTOR 2849300. S2CID 164177617.
• Jackson, Peter (1998). "Marco Polo and his 'Travels'" (PDF). Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 61 (1): 82–101. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00015779. S2CID 159991305.
• Cruse, Mark (2015). "Marco Polo in Manuscript: The Travels of the Devisement du monde". Narrative Culture. 2 (2): 171–189. doi:10.13110/narrcult.2.2.0171. ISSN 2169-0235. JSTOR 10.13110/narrcult.2.2.0171.

Newspaper and web articles

• Kellogg, Patricia B. (2001). "Did you Know?". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 5 February 2008.
• ↑ Sofri, Adriano (2001년 12월 28일). "Finalmente Torna Il favoloso milione". 라 레푸블리카 (이탈리아어). 2019 년 2 월 27 일에 확인 함 .

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• Polo's Travels Mapped out이 있는 Google 지도 링크(원작의 Yule 버전을 따름)
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