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Summarized by Duk-Ki Kim
ACQUISITION of ENGLISH as a SECOND LANGUAGE 1. Goal: Learning to use English as a means of communication A synthesis of grammar, discourse, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence (Canale and Swain 83; Bachman 90)
CALP and BICS (Cummins 79)...p. 246; Ability to use language in different functions: instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic, imaginative (Halliday 73); Also in different styles: oratorical, deliberative, consultative, casual, intimate (Joos 67). Non-verbal communication: body language, eye contact, proxemics, artifacts, kinesthetics, olfactory dimensions 2. How? 2.1 Synthetic approach: learning the fragments (sounds, word forms, syntactic rules, vocabulary) at different times and synthesizing them into language ability; the learner is responsible for learning to use language (grammar translation, audio-lingual method, silent way, TPR, etc.) 2.2 Analytic approach: experiencing language use and constructing the rules inductively with or without teacher's help; the learner is responsible to learn rules (CLT, TBLT, CLL, Immersion, Content-Based) 2.3 Focus on Form Noticing, consciousness-raising, recasting/reformulating: without this 'fossilization' may occur in the learner (CLT, Immersion, CBLT led by untrained instructors may produce fossilization) !!!Options 2.2. and 2.3 require proficient English teachers, ACTFL SUPERIOR or ILR 3 or higher. The synthetic approach leaves learning responsibility to the learner: swim or sink. !!! 3. Human learning and language learning (Chapters 1, 2 & 4) 3.1 Human learning (Ch.4) a. classical behaviorism and operant learning (p.80-81) respondent conditioning(Pavlov) and operant conditioning Skinner)--> absence or presence of reinforcement -->learning b. rote and meaningful learning (Ausubel, p.83) new knowledge fit old knowledge structure, schema e.g., language forms learned best when contained in meaningful communication; rotely memorized items easily lost c. systematic forgetting e.g., language loss, subtractive bilingualism; applies to lexical, phonological, and syntactic features; reversal of acquisition d. humanistic learning: learning taking place where emotional support is stable (Rogers, Curran, Vygotsky) e. types of learning (Gagne), p.92-94 signal learning, stimulus-response learning, chaining, verbal association, multiple discrimination, concept learning, principle learning, problem solving 3/10 f. transfer, interference, overgeneralization 3.2 Language learning (p.21 -30, Ch. 2) a. behaviorism plus structural linguistics-->audiolingualism b. nativism plus synthetic approach -->direct method, TPR, silent way or analytic approach -->natural approach, communicative language teaching, task-based language teaching c. functionalism plus analytic approach (also constructivism, connectivism)-->CLL
4. The role of first language (Ch.8, p.207) 4.1 Comparing L1 and L2 acquisition a. the contrastive analysis hypothesis: (strong version) difference-->difficulty hierarchy of difficulty: ① transfer, ② coalescence, ③ underdifferentiation, ④ reinterpretation, ⑤ overdifferentiation, ⑥ split (p.209-210) (weak version) difference-->source of error b. learner language (also Interlanguage) c. error analysis (p.221) and sources of error (p.223) 4.2 Some concepts a. markedness ① marked for linguistic marks e.g. p : b ( /b/ has an additional distinctive feature, 'voicing') ② lower frequency in use e.g., long : short ( 'short' is less frequently used, thus more marked ③ found in fewer languages e.g., among the following relativizations, the relative clause with a nominative case precedent is the least marked. So, NOMINATIVE > ACCUSATIVE > Obj. of Prep. > GENITIVE > Objective of Comparative ④ In transformational syntax, complex structures and those learned with difficulty are more 'marked' than simpler, easy-to-learn structures e.g., 'Who is responsible?' > "Who do you think is responsible? (wh-movement from the subordinate clause to the main clause.) 3/11 b. variability: heterogeneous competence; interlanguage developmental variability sociolinguists argue that one has different linguistic competence usable for different situations, whereas innatists like Chomsky hold that differences are caused by performance variables; in language acquisition, especially in interlanguage development, the learner's linguistic competence at timen is different from the same person's competence at timen+1. c. fossilization -> no attention to errors for various reasons Learner language does not grow, nor regress. Example: zoo/Jew, Vt -> adverb - obj. d. form-focused instruction -->See TBLT e. error treatment (p.235) global errors vs local errors treat or not treat? how? 5. Methods in use 5.1 Grammar translation (p.15-16) a. No proposed theoretical basis, no advocate, used for teaching classical literature b. Little or no reference to spoken language; does not require professional training c. Loud reading of a discrete sentence, translation phrase by phrase or word by word, followed by grammatical analysis 5.2 The audiolingual method (p.73) a. Based on behaviorism, that language is a set of habits b. Listen-repeat-memorize paradigm (also known as mim-mem) c. Accuracy of structure before meaningful communication d. Little or no suggestion for reading and writing 5.3 The series method (p.43) a. Based on the claim that utterances in connected series are maintained well (Francois Gouin) b. Utterances based on structural progression c. Accuracy of language stressed d. Limited to oral communication skills 5.4 The direct method (p.43) a. Based on the theory that foreign language learning is best achieved through direct association of language with ideas and things; No use of L1 b. Structural progression, from concrete to abstract words, phrases, and utterances c. Mechanical and meaningful sentences, but few communicative utterances occur d. Reading and writing from the beginning e. Accuracy emphasized 5.5 Community Language Learning (p.103) a. Learner/client and knower/facilitator/counselor b. The five stages of becoming a whole person: the whole-person learning view ① totally dependent ② self-assertive ③ resentful and indignant ④ tolerant ⑤ independent c. Teaching-learning activities ① 5-7 learners in a circle, chat aided by knower's translation (stage 1) ② partial self-assertion, using memorized chunks (2) ③ knower's aid refused; creative and erratic language; knower exert patience and non-intervention (3) ④ learners occasionally seek/tolerate knower's help(4) ⑤ learner & knower chat (5) d. Teacher needs to be a full bilingual and trained counselor 5.6 The Silent Way (p.106) a. Code learning via the fidel chart and the word chart b. From sounds to words, to sentences, and discourse c. Accuracy of language stressed from the beginning d. Reading and writing follow; constant use of the charts e. "Inner criteria" rather than teacher feedback important Also SUGGESTOPEDIA, and TPR (So far, 3/24) 5.7 Communicative Language Teaching (p.245) a. Theoretical background: communicative competence Hymes (1972): What is possible, appropriate, done Canale & Swain (1980): linguistic, discourse, sociolinguistic, strategic Bachman (1990): organizational & pragmatic (p.249) b. Language functions (Halliday 1973): purpose of language use instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic, imaginative
c. Syllabus to be designed around (Wilkins 1976): ① notions such as duration, location, time, events, topics ② the semantico-grammatical category: structure and lexis ③ communicative functions: what we do with words, such as requesting, inviting, etc. (See p.253) d. Teaching-learning activities ⑴ Weak version (language segment practice & communicative activities) ① Observe a communication scene with lexical chunks ② Practice on lexical chunks Excuse me, but could you direct me to the National Museum? Sure. Go straight for two blocks, turn left, walk one block, and you'll see on your right. You can't miss it. ③ Pair/group practice with a map ④ Demonstration before class ⑵ Strong version ① listening to authentic recording or reading text on a given topic ② meaning negotiation ③ communication activity: information-, opinion- and reasoning gap game ④ language form to be acquired inductively, or focused instruction occasionally at the end of each communicative activity
For reading and writing, do authentic reading and writing activities such as identifying the main idea, writing the summary, e-mails, etc. Grammar is expected to be acquired inductively. 5.8 Task-based language teaching (not in textbook) a. language tasks as the unit of analysis (units larger than communicative functions)-->needs analysis (Long) or a lexical syllabus(Willis), exposure to authentic language use (listening to recording or reading texts), omprehension -->Pre-task e.g. asking directions, shopping in traditional markets, etc. b. observing & experimenting pedagogic tasks in the classroom, focus on form by means of recasting/ reformulating-->Pair work, group work, reporting to class -->While-task or pedagogic task c. Struictural focus (Willis) or occasional "time-out" (Long) for structure learning -->hypothesizing language structures
!!!SLA Evaluation: Learner motivation, Exposure to authentic language, Language use!!! Little or no SLA will take place without full satisfaction of those variables. 6. Variables of Second Language Acquisition
Chapters to cover: 3, 5, 6, 7 6.1 Learner variables: a. Age (p.49, Ch. 3) The Critical Period Hypothesis =A period beyond which language acquisition is increasingly difficult: The younger, the better? Neurological considerations lateralization (Lenneberg 1967; Scovel 1969) starting around age 2 and completing around puberty (Krashen and Gerschwind ages 2-5) Walsh and Diller(1988) Lower-order processes such as pronunciation depend on early maturing; higher-order functions such as semantic relations grammar develop and mature late Socio-biological Critical Period (Scovel 1988; Neapolitan et al 1988) : ⒜ to form an identity with own community ⒝ to attract own kind to maintain species Right-Hemisphere participation (Obler 1981) Active during the early stages (ages 11-14), used for guessing at meanings, and using formulaic utterances Counter-evidence: Antropological studies (Hill 1970) Tribal groups from an exogamous unit learn another language of their spouse perfectly in adulthood. The significance of accent Neuromuscular plasticity, cerebral development, sociobiological programs, and socio-cultural influences Cognitive considerations Intellectual Development Stages in a child ① Birth to 2: Sensorimotor stage ② 2-7 : Preoperational stage ③ 7-16 : Operational stage ⓐ 7-11: Concrete operational stage ⓑ 11-16: Formal operational stge -->grammatical explanations and deductive teaching helpful only after ③ⓑ and in adulthood; children learn meaningfully abstract rules good for post-puberty learners Affective considerations (To be dealt with in more detail in Ch. 6)
Includes empathy (ability to think in other's positions), self-esteem (respect for self) extroversion (tendency to judge self from other's perspective) imitation, anxiety, attitudes, etc. defensive mechanism, inhibitions, and language ego developed around puberty by adults -->second identity, difficult for adults to form, needed when learning L2 Peer pressure to be"like the rest" stronger for children (if L2 is learned in the host environment) Linguistic considerations Linguistic and cognitive processes in SLA Similar to those of first language acquisition in children Different in adults: they base SLA construction on L1 --> L1 interference working more in adults ??? So, the younger the better? With accent only, when early exposure to authentic input is provided. In other areas (syntax, vocabulary, pragmatics), adults are superior learners. (Scovel 1999) coordinate bilinguals :learning two languages separately; two meaning systems compound bilinguals: learning two first languages; one meaning system
b. Personality (p.142, Ch. 6) Relatively stable affect of individuals including self-esteem, inhibition, risk taking, anxiety, empathy, extroversion, etc. The affective domain (Bloom et al. 1964) ① receiving (the environment):feeling ② responding: interact with the stimulus ③ valuing: good or bad? ④ organizing (of values, put them in a certain hierarchy) ⑤ form a value system Self-esteem: Global assessment of self, relatively stable Situational or specific, variable Task self-esteem, variable Scores of self-esteem favorably influence SLA? Bidirectional! Inhibition: Related to language ego. Decreases risk-taking. Anxiety, if facilitative, not debilitative, helps accuracy. Empathy(the ability to put oneself in other's shoes): Key to successful communication through overcoming misunderstanding and negotiating meaning with other interlocutors.
Myers-Brigs' Character types (p.158-9)⇒different strategy uses Motivation Behavioristic explanation: anticipation of reward Cognitive explanation: underlying needs or drives to make choices; Ausubel identified six needs the need for exploration, for probing the unknown the need for manipulation, on the environment the need for activity, physical and mental the need for stimulation, by other people, ideas, thoughts, feelings the need for knowledge, of the results of exploration, manipulation, activity, stimulation, the need to resolve contradictions, to solve problems, straighten knowledge the need for ego enhancement, for the self to be known to and accepted and approved by others Constructivist explanation: A construct dependent on the satisfaction of a hierachy of needs including physical necessities (air, water, food) community (accepted by ...) security (feel secure) identity (be a member of...) self-esteem (proud to ...), and then finally to self-actualization (attained a goal) Instrumental, integrative, and assimilative: Which motivation influences language learning the strongest? No definite answer Intrinsic motivation: no apparent reward; feeling of competence and self-determination Exptrinsic motivation: expectation of extrinsic reward (or avoidance of punishment) APPROACH, METHOD, TECHNIQUE (Edward Anthony 1963) See p.171 Approach⇛theory of language+theory of learning For example, structural linguistics + behaviorism = Audio-lingual Approach; Oral Approach, Direct Method functional linguistics + connectivism = Communicative Language Teaching, Task-Based Language Teaching Method-->A set of classroom specifications based on a given approach, including teacher+learner behaviors
Technique-->Activities designed by the teacher to achieve objectives Curriculum/Syllabus-->Linguistic, functional, or task specifications arranged in a sequence, based on a given approach; linguistic syllabuses are a priori, but functional/task syllabuses are either a priori or a posteriori units of analysis are either a linguistic item such as the present perfect and the subjunctive mood, or a communicative function like "inviting" or a language task such as "asking directions" or "opening a bank account." Important!: The Grammar-Translation Method is not based on any linguistic or learning theory! But why is it so popular among language teachers? c. Styles and strategies (p.112, Ch.5) Learning styles: Rather enduring tendencies or preferences of intellectual functioning. They can be either
field dependent or independent (p114-8) left- or right-brain functioning (p.118-9) ambiguity tolerant or intolerant (119-20) reflective and impulsive (121-2) visual and auditory styles(122) Strategies: Battle plans and attacks that we make on a given problem; Includes learning strategies and communication strategies
Learning strategies include Meta-cognitive (planning, monitoring, evaluating learning)
Cognitive (activation of plans like repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note-taking, deduction, induction, key word contextualization, inferencing, etc.). p.125-6
Socio-affective (working with others, clarifying questions) Communication strategies: potentially conscious plans and attacks for solving a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal. (p.128-30.) avoidance :avoiding problematic structures and vocabulary compensatory : circumlocution,, approximation, literal translation, code switching, nonverbal behavior, all -purpose words, L1 words in L2 phonology, appeal for help, hesitation or use of fillers The Good Language Teacher & Learner: Ten Commandments for the good language teacher (p.137.), implementing good learning strategies. Concepts relevant to good language learning are <-- --> inhibitions, risk-taking (don't be afraid of making errors) self-confidence (be assured of your ability) intrinsic motivation (think of all the needs for L2) cooperative learning (work with other learners), right-brain processing (learn and use chunks, language use) ambiguity tolerance (be ready to learn and use new stuff) intuition practicing (use your "feel" as well as knowledge), error feedback (seek feedback from others) personal goals (set up your own goals) 6.2 Socio-cultural factors Definition of culture: the ideas, customs, skills, arts, and tools that characterize a given group of people in a given period of time. Culture is to a group of people as personality is to an individual. It should be understood, can be learned if one is immersed in a target culture, but cannot be learned and practised by means of learning the language in a foreign environment. Second culture acquisition is hard to come by. Second culture acquisition Necessary for long-term residents and immigrants. N/A to EFL learners. Four stages (Brown) of acculturation: ⑴ excitement and euphoria ⑵ culture shock ⑶ culture stress (partially acculturated) ⑷ full recovery through assimilation or adaptation Social distance Applies to foreigners living in a target language culture. (ESL learners, long-term residents or immigrants) Variables: dominance of visitor group; Visitor group's degree of enclosure; Visitor groups's cohesiveness among themselves; Congruence of the home and visitor groups; Intended length of stay of visitor group EFL/ESL, Politics (globalization, imperialism) and Policy (which English?) Language and Thought: the Whorfian hypothesis |
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