나폴레옹 기술 장문 번역 부탁드립니다. 1번 부터 19번

[초호기]

할게 산더미처럼 있는데 기술장문은 36개만 하면 됩니다.

1. 공교육
\n\nEducation is usually the preserve of wealthy and ambitious families: the aristocracy have little need for it, because it adds no lustre to their titles; the poor have little use for it, because it rarely puts bread in their bellies. Education must be bought, and schools are generally run as privately-owned businesses. Public schooling introduces the idea of the state paying for the education of its people, sometimes regardless of their backgrounds: a radical notion in many ways. Public schooling provides a bonus to research, and increases the spawning rate of agents.\n\nGeneral state-funded public education was fiercely resisted in many influential quarters across Europe, as it was feared that teaching the poor to read would only encourage them in seditious thoughts. Britain is an oddity in that its “public” schools are nothing of the sort. They are private business establishments, where money rather than ability secures a place. The name came about because “public” schools would accept anyone who could pay, as opposed to “private” schools that accepted pupils by invitation only.

2. 인구 조사
\n\nBy counting everyone in the population, a government can tax everyone; possibly taxation will be unfair, but it will be unfair to all. It also becomes possible for a government to monitor the movement of people from the countryside to towns, calculate how fast the population is growing, and even know if there will be enough men for an army. However, the most immediate impact is on tax: a census increases the tax yield.\n\nCounting people and taxation have been linked since at least Biblical times. The Directory, under Napoleon’s Consulate, carried out very successful censuses in post-revolutionary France, allowing them to collect taxes effectively and, just as vitally for Napoleon’s ambitions, know how many men were available for conscription. In Britain, the National Census was the result of work by Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) on population growth. He was convinced that a crisis was looming as the number of people outstripped the available food supply. The 1800 Census Act resulted in the British government knowing that there were nine million people in the country; this probably wasn’t all that satisfactory, as it was just over a third of the number of Frenchmen in France.

3. 나폴레옹 법전
\n\nThe Code is a set of laws designed to protect the ideals of the Revolution, but also to protect the rights of people and property in France. Some measures are surprisingly liberal, while others give almost draconian powers to family heads over wives and children. The intention, however, is to create a legal system that everyone can understand, and one that can control the population. The Code Napoleon increases repression, but improves happiness among the lower and middle classes.\n\nNapoleon claimed to prize his Civil Code above all his other works. In 1800 he ordered distinguished lawyers to remake French law in just five months. Although they did not meet the deadline, the code is still the basis of French law today. The clarity of the system has appealed to many other, non-French nations since, and some 70 nations now use a similar, proscriptive system of law. The Anglophone world continues to rely largely on a common law system, where precedent is used to determine legality, for much of its everyday law.

4. 미터법
\n\nMany measuring systems are age-old, and based on some aspect of human physiognomy: hands for measuring horses and the like. There are quirky relationships within measuring systems: who would set out to design a weight scale that has 16 ounces in a pound, yet 112 pounds in a hundredweight?\n\nA metric system creates arbitrary, but scientifically derived, units for length, volume, area, weight, and so on. One unified system can measure everything, and there is no complicated mathematics required, as only multiples of ten are used. Adopting such a scheme increases research rates and allows further research in a number of areas.\n\nHistorically, the French were not the first people to attempt a codified measuring system, but the work done by the French Academy of Sciences in the 1790s was certainly the most organised approach up to that time. Although officially adopted quite quickly, the public were not required by law to use metric measures until 1840. The metric system is now the de facto standard for all national armies, although many navies still use old “imperial” units like the fathom for depth and knot for speed.

5. 노동조합
\n\nOnce the ideas of revolution, liberty, and equality are mooted, the poor and downtrodden will want to know why these concepts do not apply equally to them. The growth of combinations and workers’ organisations is inevitable in societies where poverty can mean more than just low pay, but starvation. Trade unions give workers the ability to negotiate with employers from a position of strength: the individual can be dismissed, but not the whole workforce. Trade unions improve the happiness of the lower classes, and enable the construction of higher level law courts.\n\nHistorically, trade unions were declared illegal and widely feared by the landed and moneyed classes in most societies. The idea that the poor would dare to ask for more of anything, except a good horsewhipping, was only one step away from armed insurrection. The British reaction of passing the 1799 and 1825 Combination Acts was typical, as was the deportation to Australia of the “Tolpuddle Martyrs”, a group of agricultural labourers who had dared to form a society with the aim of obtaining better pay and conditions for themselves.

6. 변증법
\n\nDialectics attempts to resolve the conflict between two opposing arguments without proving, or disproving, either argument. As a method of debate it teaches careful and considered reasoning; the idea can be applied equally to natural philosophy, politics, law, and life generally. Dialectics provide a bonus to diplomatic relations and a bonus to research rates; scientists are armed with a new intellectual tool. It also allows the building of the best available courts and universities.\n\nThe concept, in the West, can be traced back to the Greek scholars of antiquity. However, it was during the explosion of free-thinking during the Enlightenment that the technique of thinking was revisited. Thanks to the enquiring mind of Georg Hegel (1770-1831), dialectics and many other advances in the practice of philosophy were promulgated. He built a comprehensive frame work around philosophical thought that would help others to understand the complexities of the human mind and its connection with nature.

7. 완목통신 시스템
\n\nNews can travel along a semaphore system far faster than any postal system. Chains of towers are built across the countryside, so that each is visible to its neighbours. Operators use telescopes to watch their neighbouring towers, and messages are passed by setting the position of the tower’s arms or large moveable boards. Each combination of positions carries a meaning; once copied from a tower, the semaphore operator can repeat the message, sending it further down the line. In this fashion, news, even from distant frontiers, can be sent across a country in a matter of moments. The effect is to increase the line of sight around the borders of a nation’s territory.\n\nThe bonfire or beacon is, possibly, the simplest of message systems. It can carry one pre-arranged message when fired, usually something along the lines of “The enemy are coming!” By having a system that can send multiple messages, semaphore lines reduce the response time in any situation. Napoleon saw the worth of a semaphore system for keeping in touch; the British Admiralty invested much time and effort in constructing a system between all its major operational ports.

8. 선전 선동
\n\nNewspapers, broadsheets, pamphlets, flyers, and posters can all be used to tell people about the glory won on the battlefield and the evil schemes of other nations. Such carefully crafted messages can also aid agents. A gentleman who is working for a noble, worthwhile cause will find it easier to persuade others to support it if he has a plausible version of the truth on his side. The morale of an army may also be increased in battle if soldiers believe in the righteousness of the national cause.\n\nIn reality, Napoleon was a master of using the press to burnish his own reputation, and to prepare the nation for changes in policy.  The “Moniteur” newspaper, and other Parisian journals, harped on the perfidious intentions of Britain at every opportunity. Oddly, however, Napoleon was incensed when British newspapers returned the favour and traduced his reputation, and was considered by some to be angry enough over the matter to declare war. He didn’t seem to notice that the British press were horrid about everyone, and were as rude about “Prinny”, their own lardy, indolent, pie-guzzling, womanizing, booze-sodden, and debauched Prince Regent, as they were about a short Corsican in a funny hat. Some things never change.

9. 여권
\n\nThose without the correct documentation cannot proceed on their way, and governments are not above changing the required documents without notice as a way of controlling their people. Passports and adequate record keeping also allow governments to monitor exactly how many suspicious foreigners may be lurking on their soil at any one time. Such knowledge can be of great use in making life much harder for spies and foreign provocateurs to carry out their foul and nefarious schemes of sabotage and spreading discontent!\n\nA “pass port” was the right to enter or leave by a gate. The invention of the modern idea of a passport is credited to the English king Henry V (1386–1422) and was called a “safe conduct”. This guaranteed that the person carrying it could travel safely to and in foreign lands. Passports have since changed to become a proof of identity and a guarantee that a person will be aided and defended from threats to his well being by his country. Many embassies spend much of their time and resources helping citizens in distress in foreign parts, and the guarantee of support to a passport holder continues to include the use of military force.

10. 병조림과 통조림
\n\nDiet-related ailments at sea can be reduced or eliminated by eating fresh food. Sealing food in airtight containers keeps it fresh; dried biscuits and bread may last longer than fruit or meat, but on their own they are not sufficient to sustain crew health or morale. Instead, bottled and canned foods can be taken aboard at the start of a journey, providing good meals for all. This technique not only preserves the food, but its goodness as well: the crew are better for eating good food, and naval upkeep costs are reduced.\n\nIn 1800 the French government, recognising the truth of “an army marches on its stomach”, offered a reward to anyone who could come up with a way of providing armies with safe food. After years of experimenting, French confectioner Nicolas Appert (1749-1841) noticed that food boiled in sealed containers only went off once air was admitted. He won the prize and put his foods into production in 1810 at the world’s first cannery.

11. 농지 배수법
\n\nLand drainage can provide new land that can be cultivated, and protect existing farmland from flooding. Marshy landscapes can be tamed, and rivers diverted to make way for productive and profitable farmland. This land reclamation and improvement gives a higher output from all farms, and provides more food.\n\nHistorically, the Dutch were experts on drainage using windmills to distribute water into high channels where it could flow away; this is hardly surprising given their country’s low-lying landscape. Of course, drainage was at the mercy of the wind, and developments in steam power in the late eighteenth century led to the technology being applied to drainage. The steam engine would pump as long as it had water and fuel. Indeed, stationary steam engines were first used to pump water out of mines in Britain, allowing miners to excavate deeper than before, but the principles of raising water were exactly the same for a land drainage scheme.

12. 빈민 구제법
\n\nIn order to properly aid and control the poor, a distinction must be made between the genuinely needy and the merely bone-idle and feckless. These vagrants prey on hand-outs meant for deserving locals, but suitable persuasion, such as a sound beating or prison, moves them on. Such strictures will also illustrate the advantages of honest work and act as a deterrent to anyone else looking to evade their duty of work. The feckless, being made to work, can add to the productivity of a region.\n\nHistorically, in many countries poor relief was closely regulated: the poor were “impotent”, ”able-bodied”, or ”idle”. Local government, being sensitive to local needs, distinguished between each type, and also decided on who needed moving on to another locale. Whereas the infirm and elderly could not earn a living wage, there were some who were happy to leech off the goodwill of charitable parishes. For the ”able-bodied” who couldn’t find work, there was also the workhouse. These institutions were made deliberately unpleasant to discourage the poor from viewing them as an easy alternative to finding work for themselves.

13. 주식회사
\n\nJoint stock companies allow a business to raise money quickly. The people who provide the money have shares in any subsequent profits and own the enterprise even if they do not manage it. They can sell their stake in the company as they see fit, for whatever price they can get, so creating a stock market. Shareholder investment reduces the construction cost of industrial and mining buildings, and boosts the growth of national wealth.\n\nHistorically, joint stock companies are the basis of a capitalist economic system, but have always had dire results for some investors. The easy profits to be made in trading stocks and shares encourage rampant speculation that may be entirely unconnected to the actual value of what is being traded. Stocks have also been “talked up” and sold unfairly by unscrupulous investors. The South Sea Bubble of 1711 in Britain and the Mississippi Company Bubble of 1721 in France both resulted from what would, today, be termed criminal insider dealing and insanely greedy speculation by too many eager “marks”. However, when used honestly, the stocks-and-shares system remains a fine way of raising capital to do business while compensating those whose money is at risk.

14. 주철 선로
\n\nWith industry comes the demand for materials and fuels to sustain it, and the need for improved transport to carry them. One answer lies in putting carts on cast iron channels called plateways, laid out as tracks that guide the vehicles. These sturdy plateways are laid on level routes as far as possible, allowing horses to pull heavy loads for great distances. Plateways make mining and industry more efficient by delivering bulk raw materials.\n\nHistorically, movement of iron ore and coal without using rivers or canals was costly and slow. Horse-drawn wagons ran along wooden rails, but these regularly broke under the strain. Cast iron provided the answer in the form of L-shaped iron rails; the upright guided the cart wheels. This system worked well enough, but the carts were easily derailed by stones. This was not an uncommon problem when iron ore and other stony products were being carried. The weight of carts could also crack the cast iron used. Both these problems were solved by the introduction of wrought iron rails, but the concept of a plateway is a direct ancestor of the modern rail network.

15. 증기기관
\n\nThe application of reliable and controllable sources of power allows industry to produce goods at a tremendous rate. Work is no longer tied to the force of a convenient river, reliant on the wind or limited by a man’s muscles. Progress and industry, simply, are no longer subject to Nature’s whims! The steam engine unleashes power wherever it is needed, leading to an accelerated growth of industrial production.\n\nExperiments with steam power can be traced all the way through history, as far back as the ancient Greeks and the Aeolipile. However, it was the atmospheric beam engine of Thomas Newcomen (1664-1729) that first used steam effectively and signalled a new age of industry. His design was later improved by James Watt (1736-1819). The more fuel-efficient, and thus cheaper to run, Watt Steam Engine provided power to run factories, pump water, and eventually propel all manner of vehicles.

16. 유한회사
\n\nTrade and enterprise are among the building blocks of any fledgling empire, and therefore any business is to be encouraged and aided. The shareholders in a limited liability company are not held personally accountable for any company debts. They are not expected to use any more of their own money, beyond what they paid for their shares, to honour the company’s commitments. Shareholders face less risk as a result, and this not only increases the wealth of a nation, but also its gross national product.\n\nWhen the Act of Limited Liability was passed in the United Kingdom in 1855 it was met with some scepticism. The public feared that companies would be free to act irresponsibly because their owner could walk away from the financial consequences. To prevent this, shares were only partly paid to begin with so that in the event of company bankruptcy shareholders would still have to pay the balance for shares in a worthless enterprise. However, as only the already wealthy could afford the risk, this approach was soon abandoned, and business boomed.

17. 스크류 프로펠러
\n\nUnlike a paddlewheel, a screw propeller is entirely underwater, and is largely invulnerable to enemy fire as a result. However, it does add to the draft of a ship, so a pilot must have his wits about him in shallow water. The mechanism is, however, far more efficient than any combination of paddlewheels (either stern or side), and can drive a ship at much higher speed for a given engine size.\n\nHistorically, the screw propeller had its origins in Archimedes’ Screw, an ancient method of lifting water to a higher level. The screw’s potential for propulsion was recognised early on, but not actually implemented. It required steam power, coupled with further refinements to the shape of the screw propeller, to finally see it adopted instead of paddle wheels. British engineer Francis Pettit Smith (1808-1874) accidentally discovered that smaller propellers work better than big ones. During one of his many tests, a piece of his screw propeller snapped off, and he noticed that, rather than grinding to a halt, the ship actually accelerated.

18. 증기기관차
\n\nA stationary steam engine can be used to haul loads along a track by means of ropes or chains, but it is much more convenient for the engine to move with the train. Plateways and railways are not new ideas, but the application of mobile steam power is a revolution. Railways linking mines, ports, and cities make the world smaller, but also give men of business unparalleled opportunities for trade, so allowing increased industrial expansion.\n\nHistorically, steam engines were a wonder of the age when they were introduced to public service, despite the fact that the first day of the first passenger railway in the world resulted in the death of an important local politician. In 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway held a grand celebration. William Huskisson, the Liverpool Member of Parliament, dithered when a train approached at speed, and was run down. His leg was severed, and it took the unfortunate fellow some time to die from shock and blood loss. Despite killing a well-loved worthy, the L&M was an engineering triumph and a financial success, ushering in the railway age.

19. 증기추진함
\n\nEngineering improvements to the steam engine have made it more efficient, and it is now suitable for use in ships. The only question is where to store the mountain of coal required to fuel the engine, a problem that limits the cruising range of ships and still requires them to have masts and sails. When the wind is right, it is more sensible to use it than burn coal.\n\nHistorically, the transition from wind-power to steam-powered vessels was slow and protracted. Apart from the need for a network of coaling ports, development of steam ship propulsion itself went through many increments and was beset by engine failures, sinking ships, bureaucracy, and false starts. Jouffroy d’Abbans (1751-1832) was one of many inventors who were almost official geniuses: in 1783, his paddle steamer, the Pyroscaphe, managed to sail for fifteen minutes down the Saône, but the French Academy of Sciences refused to acknowledge his achievement for political reasons. D’Abbans died unrecognised, bitter and impoverished.

[recal]

드뎌 6번 변증법을 제외한 4~19번까지 끝냈습니다. 중간에 일이 있어 늦었네여. 6번은 직역은 했으나 도저히 제 능력으로 매끄럽게 못만들겠네여 전혀 지식이 전무해서 단어선택부터 막혀서..ㅎㅎ 다른 고수분들께 넘겨드려야할듯하네여