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PMCID: PMC8621753 PMID: 34830375
Abstract
Melatonin is synthesized in the pineal gland at night. Since melatonin is produced in the mitochondria of all other cells in a non-circadian manner, the amount synthesized by the pineal gland is less than 5% of the total. Melatonin produced in mitochondria influences glucose metabolism in all cells. Many pathological cells adopt aerobic glycolysis (Warburg effect) in which pyruvate is excluded from the mitochondria and remains in the cytosol where it is metabolized to lactate. The entrance of pyruvate into the mitochondria of healthy cells allows it to be irreversibly decarboxylated by pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA). The exclusion of pyruvate from the mitochondria in pathological cells prevents the generation of acetyl-CoA from pyruvate. This is relevant to mitochondrial melatonin production, as acetyl-CoA is a required co-substrate/co-factor for melatonin synthesis. When PDH is inhibited during aerobic glycolysis or during intracellular hypoxia, the deficiency of acetyl-CoA likely prevents mitochondrial melatonin synthesis. When cells experiencing aerobic glycolysis or hypoxia with a diminished level of acetyl-CoA are supplemented with melatonin or receive it from another endogenous source (pineal-derived), pathological cells convert to a more normal phenotype and support the transport of pyruvate into the mitochondria, thereby re-establishing a healthier mitochondrial metabolic physiology.
멜라토닌은
밤에 송과체에서 합성됩니다.
멜라토닌은
다른 모든 세포의 미토콘드리아에서 비일주기적으로 생성되기 때문에,
송과체에서 합성되는 양은 전체의 5% 미만입니다.
미토콘드리아에서 생성된 멜라토닌은
병든 세포의 포도당 대사 과정에 영향을 미칩니다.
많은 병리적 세포는
피루부산이 미토콘드리아에서 배제되고
세포질에 남아 젖산으로 대사되는 호기성 당분해(워버그 효과)를 채택합니다.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4911819/
건강한 세포의 미토콘드리아로 피루vate가 들어갈 경우,
피루vate dehydrogenase(PDH)에 의해
아세틸 코엔자임 A(아세틸-CoA)로
불가역적으로 탈카복실화됩니다.
병리적 세포에서 피루vate가 미토콘드리아에서 배제되면
피루vate로부터 아세틸-CoA의 생성이 차단됩니다.
이는
미토콘드리아 멜라토닌 생성에 관련이 있으며,
아세틸-CoA는
멜라토닌 합성에 필요한 공질/공인자이기 때문입니다.
호기성 당분해 중 또는 세포 내 저산소 상태에서 PDH가 억제되면
아세틸-CoA의 부족이
미토콘드리아 멜라토닌 합성을 방해할 가능성이 있습니다.
아세틸-CoA 수준이 감소한 상태에서 호기성 당분해나 저산소증을 겪는 세포에
멜라토닌을 보충하거나 내인성 소스(송과체 유래)로부터 공급하면
병리적 세포가 더 정상적인 형질로 전환되며
피루vate의 미토콘드리아 내 운반을 지원하여
건강한 미토콘드리아 대사 생리학을 재확립합니다.
Keywords: melatonin, aerobic glycolysis, Warburg effect, mitochondrial metabolism, cancer, diseased cells
1. Introduction
Melatonin has long been known to be an endogenously produced anti-cancer agent [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]. This action has been confirmed for multiple tumor types [9,10,11,12,13,14] and in both in vitro [15,16,17,18] and in vivo [19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26] studies. Similarly, many different regulatory mechanisms have been proposed to explain the ability of melatonin to restrain cancer cell proliferation, invasion and metastasis. Studies within the last decade; however, have shed new light on circadian variations in cancer cell metabolism which were not taken into account when the initially described means of cancer inhibition by melatonin were examined.
The seminal reports of Blask et al. [27], Dauchy et al. [28] and Mao and co-workers [29] provide clear evidence that, at least in some, xenografted human cancers growing in immune-compromised rats display a different metabolic phenotype during the day than at night. These studies documented that the tumors exhibited Warburg-type metabolism, a feature common to many solid tumors [28,30,31], during the day but abandoned it, in toto or in part, at night in favor of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (miOXPHOS) [32,33]. Additionally, this circadian metabolic cycle is under control of the endogenous blood melatonin rhythm, which switches the cancer cells from a pathological Warburg-type metabolism during the day to a healthier metabolic phenotype at night [27,34,35]. This creates a condition where the cells primarily display a cancer phenotype during the day and are less cancerous cells at night, i.e., they are only part-time cancers [34,36].
The action of melatonin on the metabolic profile of cancer cells have far-reaching implications in terms of the mechanisms by which melatonin exhibits its oncostatic actions. Moreover, it provides essential information on the melatonin treatment strategy that could be more effectively utilized to capitalize on the anti-cancer actions of this endogenous molecule [36].
Cancer cells are by no means the only pathological cell type that adopt Warburg-type metabolism [30,37,38]. This is characteristic of many pathological cells and it is not always at the expense of abandoning miOXPHOS. The studies in question were performed using either cultured cells, which are not exposed to a circadian melatonin rhythm, or the researchers performed in vivo studies with the collection of tissue samples during the day only, when blood melatonin levels are at their nadir. Thus, the extent of cells switching from rapid ATP production during Warburg-type metabolism to miOXPHOS following exposure to melatonin on a nightly basis remains uninvestigated. This information would be important to help to define the optimal treatment time if melatonin is to be used as a medical treatment for a particular pathology [30].
Herein, the authors describe what is known about melatonin’s ability to reprogram pathological cell metabolism and the mechanism by which the circadian melatonin rhythm may interact with diseased cells to potentially alter their metabolism. We also summarize treatment paradigms of these diseases that may maximize the efficiency of melatonin in impacting these pathologies.
1. 서론
멜라토닌은
오랫동안 내인성 항암제로 알려져 왔습니다 [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8].
이 작용은
다양한 종양 유형[9,10,11,12,13,14] 및 체외[15,16,17,18]와 체내[19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26] 연구에서
확인되었습니다.
또한 멜라토닌이
암 세포의 증식, 침윤 및 전이를 억제하는 능력에 대한
다양한 조절 메커니즘이 제안되었습니다.
그러나
최근 10년간의 연구는 멜라토닌의 암 억제 메커니즘을 처음 설명할 때 고려되지 않았던
암 세포 대사에서의 생체리듬 변이를 새롭게 조명했습니다.
Blask 등 [27], Dauchy 등 [28] 및 Mao와 동료들 [29]의 선구적인 보고서는
면역 결핍 쥐에서
이식된 인간 암이
낮과 밤에 서로 다른 대사 표현형을 보인다는 명확한 증거를 제공했습니다.
이 연구들은
종양이 낮에는 많은 고형 종양에서 공통적으로 관찰되는
워버그형 대사(Warburg-type metabolism)를 나타내지만,
밤에는 이를 완전히 또는 부분적으로 포기하고 미토콘드리아 산화 인산화(miOXPHOS)로 전환한다는
사실을 기록했습니다
또한
이 생체 리듬에 따른 대사 사이클은
내인성 혈중 멜라토닌 리듬에 의해 조절되며,
이는 암 세포를 낮에는 병리적 워버그형 대사에서
밤에는 더 건강한 대사 형질로 전환시킵니다[27,34,35].
이로 인해 세포는
주로 낮에는 암 형질을 나타내지만
밤에는 암 세포로서의 특성이 덜한,
즉 부분적 암 세포로 존재하는 조건이 생성됩니다[34,36].
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S002432052100583X?via%3Dihub
이 간략한 검토는 내인성 송과체 멜라토닌 리듬과 대사 유동의 고형 종양, 특히 유방암 간의 연관성을 설명합니다. 또한 내인성으로 생성되거나 외인성으로 투여된 멜라토닌이 암 세포의 대사 형질에 미치는 잠재적 메커니즘에 대한 새로운 정보를 요약합니다. 증거는 고형 종양이 낮에는 병리적인 워버그형 대사에서 밤에는 더 건강한 미토콘드리아 산화 인산화로 대사 형질을 전환할 수 있음을 나타냅니다. 따라서 이들은 낮에는 암 세포로 기능하고 밤에는 건강한 세포로 기능하며, 즉 부분적으로 암성인 상태입니다. 밤에 산화적 인산화로 전환되는 것은 암 세포가 종양 표현형을 감소시키고 빠르게 증식하거나 침습적 또는 전이적 특성을 보일 가능성이 낮아지게 합니다. 또한 일부 고형 종양이 멜라토닌의 야간 증가로 인해 대사 상태가 결정되기 때문에 낮에는 특히 공격적이며 밤에는 훨씬 덜 공격적일 가능성이 논의되었습니다. 우리는 또한 멜라토닌이 임상 시험에서 사용되거나 테스트될 때, 종양 대사 변화의 시간적 패턴과 일치하는 특정 치료 패러다임을 적용해야 한다고 제안합니다. 마지막으로, 멜라토닌을 전통적인 화학 요법과 병용하는 것이 암 치료 결과를 개선할 가능성이 높다는 점이 제시되었습니다.
멜라토닌이
암 세포의 대사 프로파일에게 미치는 영향은
멜라토닌이 항암 작용을 발휘하는 메커니즘 측면에서 광범위한 의미를 갖습니다.
또한 이 내인성 분자의 항암 작용을
더 효과적으로 활용하기 위한 멜라토닌 치료 전략에 대한 필수적인 정보를 제공합니다 [36].
암 세포는
워버그형 대사(Warburg-type metabolism)를 채택하는
유일한 병리적 세포 유형이 아닙니다 [30,37,38].
이는 많은 병리적 세포의 특징이며,
항상 미토콘드리아 산화(miOXPHOS)를 포기하는 것을 의미하지는 않습니다.
해당 연구는 멜라토닌의 생체리듬에 노출되지 않은 배양 세포를 사용하거나,
혈중 멜라토닌 수치가 최저 수준인 낮에만 조직 샘플을 채취한 in vivo 연구를 수행했습니다.
따라서
멜라토닌에 밤마다 노출될 때 워버그형 대사 중
빠른 ATP 생산에서 miOXPHOS로 전환되는 세포의 정도는
아직 조사되지 않았습니다.
이 정보는
멜라토닌을 특정 질환의 의료적 치료제로 사용할 경우
최적의 치료 시점을 정의하는 데 중요할 것입니다 [
본 논문에서는
멜라토닌이 병리적 세포 대사를 재프로그래밍하는 능력과
생체 리듬 멜라토닌 리듬이 병변 세포와 상호작용하여 대사 변화를 유발할 수 있는 메커니즘에 대해
알려진 내용을 설명합니다.
또한
이러한 질환의 치료 패러다임을 요약하여
멜라토닌이 이러한 병리학적 상태에 미치는 효과를 극대화할 수 있는 방법을 제시합니다.
2. Melatonin: In the Right Place and at the Right Time in All Cells
For more than a decade after melatonin was discovered [39] in bovine pineal tissue, although now known to be a ubiquitously distributed molecule, it was considered unique to the vertebrate pineal gland. This image was dispelled, however, in the early 1970s, when the retina, which like the pineal gland is an ectodermal appendage of the brain, was found to produce melatonin [40,41] and as in the pineal gland, its synthesis exhibited a photoperiod-dependent rhythm [42,43]. During the same time frame, melatonin was identified in the extra-orbital Harderian gland [42], where its production also was found to be rhythmic [44]. Neither the retina nor the Harderian gland release melatonin into the systemic circulation of mammals, therefore they do not impact blood levels of the indoleamine.
The discovery of melatonin was extended to invertebrates when the compound eye of the locust (Locusta migratoria) was discovered to contain melatonin [45]. Melatonin was also identified in the neurosensory tissues of the gastropod mollusc (Helix aspersa marina) where it exhibits a diurnal rhythm [46]. Melatonin studies were taken to a more phylogenetically ancient species when melatonin was discovered in the unicellular dinoflagellate (Gonyaulax polyedra; now named Lingulodinium polyedra), where it is rhythmic, as in the vertebrate pineal gland [47,48]. An extension of these investigations to an even more primitive species was accomplished by Manchester et al. [49] when they observed immunoreactive melatonin in the photosynthetic bacterium, Rhodospirillum rubrum, in a photoperiod-dependent manner.
In 1995, investigations carried out by individuals associated with the same laboratory but working independently at different institutions reported the identification of melatonin in a variety of plants (both mono- and dicotyledons). Melatonin was expressed at much higher concentrations than typically measured in animals, likely due to the presence of two melatonin-producing organelles, i.e., mitochondria and chloroplasts [50,51,52,53]. Subsequently, melatonin has been identified in hundreds of plant species, in all plant organs and its synthesis, which is more complex than in animals, has been defined [54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61]. There is currently no evidence that melatonin production in plants exhibits a day-night rhythm.
Among all species, involving both animals and plants, the chemical structure of melatonin has remained constant and its actions have become progressively more widely diverse. The varied functionality of melatonin may be related to its two-to-three-billion-year evolutionary history during which it had ample time to develop complex interactions with other molecules [62]. These interchanges have allowed melatonin to express an extremely wide array of functions as exemplified in all species [61,63,64,65]. Seemingly, one of the most durable actions is its ability to suppress oxidative stress and maintain redox homeostasis in healthy cells [57,66,67,68,69,70]. In cancer cells, the actions of melatonin in terms of oxidative stress are significantly more complex, as it can function as either an antioxidant or as a pro-oxidant [71]. All aspects of oncogenesis, i.e., initiation, tumor cell survival and dissemination [72,73,74,75], are influenced by the degree of reactive oxygen species (ROS)/reactive nitrogen species (RNS) generation. Free radical-mediated oxidative stress, together with apoptosis, is often activated in tumor cells by melatonin [76].
Given that melatonin is present perhaps in all living organisms [77,78], only a small portion of which have a pineal gland (vertebrates), it is obvious that the indoleamine did not evolve as a pineal-related molecule nor is it solely derived from this organ even in vertebrates. It has been proposed, in fact, that in vertebrates, pineal melatonin represents only a small percentage (<5%) of the total melatonin generated [62]. This had already been alluded to when the total amount of melatonin in the gastrointestinal tract was calculated to be hundreds of times greater than that in the pineal gland [79].
There were several early observations that pointed to the high likelihood that, even in mammals, melatonin might be produced in greater amounts in non-pinealocytes than in pinealocytes [80]. First, melatonin was identified in many tissues, the amounts of which could not be attributed to its pineal origin. Some organs, in addition to the retina [40] and the gastrointestinal tract [79,81] that contain and were presumed to synthesize melatonin, include the cerebellum [82], thymus [83], cochlea [84], ciliary body [85], bone marrow [86], skin [87,88] and many other organs/cells [80]. Additionally, some body fluids contain concentrations that are equivalent to or higher than the maximal night time blood melatonin levels where they may or may not fluctuate in a circadian manner [89,90,91,92]. Particularly noteworthy are the exceptionally high levels of melatonin in bile [93] where it is believed to protect the cholangiocytes that line the biliary tree from toxic bile salts [94,95]. There is also evidence that melatonin in the bile reduces the incidence of gallstone formation and cholangiocarcinoma [96,97,98]. We have further reasoned that the highly elevated melatonin concentrations in the bile may in part be related to its possible enterohepatic circulation [94,98]. After its release into the duodenum, melatonin-rich bile may impact the gut microbiome [99].
Some highly inbred mouse strains are reported to be deficient in melatonin based on the inability to detect the indoleamine in the pineal [100,101]. Gomez-Corvera and colleagues [102], however, reported the presence of melatonin in immune cells obtained from two allegedly melatonin-deficient mouse strains, i.e., C57BL/6 and Swiss. The failure to detect measurable amounts of melatonin in the pineal gland as reported by Ebihara et al. [100] and Goto and colleagues [101] justifiably led to the conclusion that these mouse strains are melatonin deficient. The findings of Gomez-Corvera et al. [102], while requiring confirmation, suggest that those mouse strains may not be pan-deficient in melatonin and furthermore indicate that the genetic regulation of melatonin synthesis may differ in peripheral organs compared to the pineal gland.
In 2013, we proposed that melatonin is likely synthesized in the mitochondria (and chloroplasts) of all animal and plant cells [77]. Our rationale was based on several published findings indicating that melatonin (i) was present in almost all plant and animal species examined, (ii) exhibited multiple interactions at the mitochondrial level [88,103,104,105,106,107], (iii) was expressed at extraordinarily high concentrations in the mitochondria of hepatocytes and brain cells [108], and, (iv) acetylserotonin methyltransferase (the melatonin-forming enzyme) is localized to the mitochondrial intermembrane space in rat pinealocytes [109]. Based on the previously published studies, this speculation had credibility and was consistent with the reported existence of melatonin in a prokaryotic bacterium [49]. Bacteria are the presumed forerunners of mitochondria and chloroplasts, which evolved in early eukaryotes from α-proteobacteria and photosynthetic cyanobacteria, respectively, after they were initially phagocytized by early eukaryotes for their nutrient value [110,111]. Eventually, the engulfed proteobacteria/cyanobacteria developed a symbiotic association with the cells that engulfed them and proceeded to evolve into mitochondria and chloroplasts, respectively, which persist in all present-day eukaryotes. Considering the potential of melatonin as a free radical scavenger and its stimulation of antioxidant processes, its retention in these ROS-producing organelles was a highly fortuitous choice [105]. Whereas melatonin is a multifunctional antioxidant in healthy cells, it may also display pro-oxidant actions in pathological cells, thereby aiding in the killing of diseased cells [71,76].
2. 멜라토닌: 모든 세포에서 적절한 장소와 적절한 시간에
멜라토닌이 소의 송과체 조직에서 발견된 후 [39] 10년 이상 동안, 현재는 널리 분포된 분자로 알려져 있지만, 척추동물 송과체에 고유한 물질로 여겨졌습니다. 이 이미지는 1970년대 초반에 소뇌와 마찬가지로 뇌의 외배엽 부속기관인 망막에서 멜라토닌이 생성된다는 사실이 발견되면서 깨졌습니다 [40,41]. 또한 소뇌와 마찬가지로 그 합성은 광주기 의존적 리듬을 보였습니다 [42,43]. 동시기에 멜라토닌은 안구 외부의 하르데리안 선[42]에서도 발견되었으며, 이곳에서의 생산도 리듬적임을 확인했습니다[44]. 망막과 하르데리안 선은 모두 포유류의 체내 순환계에 멜라토닌을 방출하지 않기 때문에, 이 물질의 혈중 농도에 영향을 미치지 않습니다.
멜라토닌의 발견은 곤충의 복합 눈(Locusta migratoria)에서 멜라토닌이 발견되면서 무척추동물로 확장되었습니다[45]. 멜라토닌은 또한 연체동물(Helix aspersa marina)의 신경감각 조직에서 발견되었으며, 여기서 일일 리듬을 보입니다[46]. 멜라토닌 연구는 더 진화적으로 오래된 종으로 확장되었으며, 단세포 조류인 Gonyaulax polyedra(현재 Lingulodinium polyedra로 명명됨)에서 멜라토닌이 발견되었고, 이는 척추동물의 송과선과 마찬가지로 리듬을 보입니다[47,48]. 이 연구를 더 원시적인 종으로 확장한 것은 Manchester 등[49]이 광합성 세균 Rhodospirillum rubrum에서 광주기 의존적으로 면역반응성 멜라토닌을 관찰한 것입니다.
1995년, 동일한 연구실과 연관된 연구자들이 서로 다른 기관에서 독립적으로 진행한 연구에서 다양한 식물(단자엽과 쌍자엽 모두)에서 멜라토닌이 식별되었습니다. 멜라토닌은 동물에서 일반적으로 측정되는 농도보다 훨씬 높은 농도로 표현되었으며, 이는 멜라토닌을 생성하는 두 가지 세포 소기관인 미토콘드리아와 엽록체 때문일 가능성이 높습니다 [50,51,52,53]. 이후 멜라토닌은 수백 종의 식물 종에서 식물 모든 기관에서 발견되었으며, 동물보다 복잡한 합성 과정이 정의되었습니다 [54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61]. 현재까지 식물에서 멜라토닌 생산이 일일 리듬을 보인다는 증거는 없습니다.
모든 종(동물과 식물 포함)에서 멜라토닌의 화학 구조는 일관되게 유지되었으며, 그 작용은 점차적으로 다양해졌습니다. 멜라토닌의 다양한 기능은 20억~30억 년에 걸친 진화 과정에서 다른 분자와 복잡한 상호작용을 발달시킬 충분한 시간을 가졌기 때문일 수 있습니다 [62]. 이러한 상호작용은 모든 종에서 관찰되는 것처럼 멜라토닌이 극히 다양한 기능을 발휘할 수 있게 했습니다 [61,63,64,65]. 그 중 가장 지속 가능한 작용 중 하나는 건강한 세포에서 산화 스트레스를 억제하고 환원-산화 균형을 유지하는 능력입니다 [57,66,67,68,69,70]. 암 세포에서 멜라토닌의 산화 스트레스 관련 작용은 훨씬 더 복잡하며, 항산화제나 산화 촉진제로 기능할 수 있습니다 [71]. 암 발생의 모든 단계, 즉 발병, 암 세포 생존 및 확산 [72,73,74,75]은 활성 산소 종(ROS)/활성 질소 종(RNS)의 생성 정도에 의해 영향을 받습니다. 자유 라디칼에 의한 산화 스트레스와 아포토시스(세포 사멸)는 멜라토닌에 의해 종양 세포에서 자주 활성화됩니다 [76].
멜라토닌은 모든 생물체에 존재할 가능성이 있지만 [77,78], 그 중 소수만 송과선을 가지고 있는 척추동물에서만 발견됩니다. 따라서 인돌아민은 송과선과 관련된 분자로 진화하지 않았으며, 척추동물에서도 이 기관에서 단독으로 유래하지 않았다는 것이 명백합니다. 실제로 척추동물에서 송과체 멜라토닌은 전체 멜라토닌의 작은 비율(<5%)만을 차지한다는 제안이 있습니다[62]. 이는 소화관 내 멜라토닌 총량이 송과체보다 수백 배 더 많다는 계산 결과에서도 이미 암시되었습니다[79].
포유류에서도 멜라토닌이 송과체 세포보다 비송과체 세포에서 더 많이 생성될 가능성이 높다는 것을 시사하는 초기 관찰 결과가 여러 건 있었습니다 [80]. 첫째, 멜라토닌은 많은 조직에서 검출되었으며, 이 양은 송과체 기원이라고 설명할 수 없었습니다. 멜라토닌을 함유하고 합성한다고 추정된 망막[40]과 위장관[79,81] 외에도 소뇌[82], 흉선[83], 내이[84], 눈동자[85], 골수[86], 피부[87,88] 및 기타 많은 기관/세포[80]가 포함됩니다. 또한 일부 체액에는 최대 야간 혈중 멜라토닌 농도와 동일하거나 더 높은 농도가 존재하며, 이는 일주기 리듬에 따라 변동될 수 있습니다 [89,90,91,92]. 특히 주목할 만한 것은 담즙[93]에 존재하는 극히 높은 멜라토닌 농도로, 이는 담즙 나무를 둘러싼 담관 상피세포를 독성 담즙 염으로부터 보호하는 역할을 한다고 추정됩니다[94,95]. 또한 담즙 내 멜라토닌이 담석 형성 및 담관암 발생률을 감소시킨다는 증거도 있습니다[96,97,98]. 우리는 담즙 내 멜라토닌 농도가 높게 유지되는 것이 부분적으로 장-간 순환과 관련될 수 있다고 추론했습니다 [94,98]. 십이지장으로 방출된 멜라토닌이 풍부한 담즙은 장 미생물군집에 영향을 미칠 수 있습니다 [99].
일부 고도로 근친교배된 마우스 품종은 송과체에서 인돌아민을 검출할 수 없다는 이유로 멜라토닌 결핍으로 보고되었습니다 [100,101]. 그러나 Gomez-Corvera와 동료들 [102]은 멜라토닌 결핍으로 알려진 두 마우스 품종(C57BL/6 및 Swiss)에서 면역 세포에서 멜라토닌의 존재를 보고했습니다. Ebihara 등 [100]과 Goto 등 [101]이 보고한 송과체에서 측정 가능한 양의 멜라토닌을 검출하지 못한 것은 이 마우스 품종이 멜라토닌 결핍이라는 결론을 정당화합니다. Gomez-Corvera 등[102]의 연구 결과는 확인이 필요하지만, 해당 마우스 품종이 멜라토닌에 대한 완전 결핍이 아닐 수 있음을 시사하며, 또한 멜라토닌 합성의 유전적 조절이 송과체와 주변 장기에서 다를 수 있음을 나타냅니다.
2013년, 우리는 모든 동물 및 식물 세포의 미토콘드리아(및 클로로플라스)에서 멜라토닌이 합성될 가능성이 높다고 제안했습니다 [77]. 이 주장은 다음과 같은 발표된 연구 결과에 기반을 두고 있습니다: (i) 멜라토닌은 조사된 거의 모든 식물 및 동물 종에서 존재했으며, (ii) 미토콘드리아 수준에서 다중 상호작용을 나타냈습니다 [88,103,104,105,106,107], (iii) 간세포와 뇌 세포의 미토콘드리아에서 극히 높은 농도로 발현되었으며 [108], (iv) 멜라토닌 생성 효소인 아세틸세로토닌 메틸트랜스퍼레이즈가 쥐의 송과체 세포 미토콘드리아 간막 공간에 국한되어 있다는 점입니다 [109]. 이전 연구 결과에 기반해 이 가설은 신뢰성을 갖추었으며, 원핵생물 세균에서 멜라토닌의 존재가 보고된 점과 일치했습니다 [49]. 박테리아는 미토콘드리아와 클로로플라스의 전구체로 추정되며, 이들은 초기 진핵생물에 의해 영양분으로 섭취된 후 각각 α-프로테오박테리아와 광합성 시아노박테리아에서 진화했습니다 [110,111]. 결국, 포식된 프로테오박테리아/시아노박테리아는 포식한 세포와 공생 관계를 형성하고 각각 미토콘드리아와 클로로플라스트로 진화하여 현재 모든 진핵생물에 존재합니다. 멜라토닌의 자유 라디칼 제거제 잠재력과 항산화 과정 촉진 효과를 고려할 때, 이 물질이 ROS를 생성하는 기관에 유지된 것은 매우 운 좋은 선택이었습니다 [105]. 건강한 세포에서 멜라토닌은 다기능 항산화제로 작용하지만, 병리적 세포에서는 산화 촉진 작용을 보여 병든 세포의 사멸을 돕는 역할을 할 수 있습니다 [71,76].
3. Melatonin in Mitochondria: Some Assembly Required
The first experimental documentation of melatonin formation in mitochondria was reported by He et al. [112]. This group isolated and purified mitochondria from mouse oocytes, a cell in which melatonin is essential for its maturation and one in which oxidative damage must be held to a minimum to ensure a normal fetus [113,114]. Oocyte mitochondria were incubated in the presence or absence of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), a necessary substrate for the rate-limiting enzyme, arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT), in melatonin synthesis. Melatonin was formed only when mitochondria were incubated with culture medium supplemented with 5-HT. Melatonin levels, measured by HPLC, increased steadily in both the mitochondria and in the culture medium for one hour during which measurements were made.
The significance of these findings is highly relevant to the putative synthesis of melatonin in mitochondria of all cells in adult mammals. All mammalian mitochondria are essentially of maternal origin, i.e., contributed by the oocyte. It seems highly unlikely that a molecule that has been preserved over billions of years of evolution and one that is of such great importance to the oocyte and other tissues [115,116] would be discarded during fetal development and organismal maturation. We surmise that melatonin production, as occurs in the mitochondria of oocytes, was passed on to all other cells during embryological development and post-natal maturation [105].
A year after the report by He and colleagues [112], a more detailed and comprehensive publication provided even stronger evidence that mitochondria produce their own melatonin. Using mouse non-synaptosomal brain mitochondria, Suofu et al. [52] identified both enzymes, arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT) and acetylserotonin methyltransferase (ASMT), which are involved in the conversion of 5-HT to melatonin, in the mitochondrial matrix. They also observed that melatonin synthesis in neuronal mitochondria did not exhibit a circadian rhythm as in the pineal gland, consistent with the earlier findings of Venegas et al. [108]. By knocking out AANAT, they verified the essential nature of locally produced melatonin in restraining oxidative stress in these critical organelles, at least in part. There is no evidence that melatonin produced in cellular mitochondria outside the pineal gland is released into the systemic circulation; thus, there is a releasable pool (pineal-derived) and a non-releasable pool (mitochondria of other cells) of melatonin [35].
An additional novel finding was the identification of the melatonin receptor, MT1, on the outer mitochondrial membrane [52]. The interaction of melatonin with this receptor is involved in blocking cytochrome c release from the mitochondria, which normally leads to cellular apoptosis [117,118]. Since Suofu et al. [52] found neither the AANAT nor ASMT enzyme in the cell cytosol, the conclusion was that mitochondrial matrix-generated melatonin is released and acts on its own receptor. Under in vivo conditions, given that melatonin readily enters all cells, circulating blood melatonin may also influence the MT1 receptor on the mitochondrial membrane. The findings of Suofu et al. were quickly followed by a brief report showing the presence of immunocytochemically detected MT2 receptors on mitochondria as well [119].
Because of the direct receptor-independent ROS scavenging actions of melatonin as well as its interactions with intracellular receptors [56,120,121], it was speculated that melatonin readily passes through cellular and mitochondrial membranes, given its high lipophilicity. In addition to passive diffusion, melatonin reportedly enters cells via the GLUT1 glucose transporter and in doing so competes with glucose, at least in prostate cancer cells [122,123]. In addition, oligopeptide transporters, PEPT1/2, of human breast cancer cells actively transfer melatonin from outside the cell into the cytosol and from the cytosol into the mitochondria [124] (Figure 1). The active transport process allows for higher concentrations of melatonin in the mitochondria relative to the cytosol or nucleus [108,125].
3. 미토콘드리아 내 멜라토닌: 일부 조립이 필요
미토콘드리아 내 멜라토닌 형성에 대한 첫 번째 실험적 보고는 He 등[112]에 의해 이루어졌습니다. 이 연구진은 멜라토닌이 성숙에 필수적이며 산화 손상을 최소화해야 정상적인 태아 발달을 보장하는 마우스 난자 세포에서 미토콘드리아를 분리 및 정제했습니다[113,114]. 난자 미토콘드리아는 멜라토닌 합성의 속도 제한 효소인 아릴알킬아민 N-아세틸트랜스퍼레이스(AANAT)의 필수 기질인 세로토닌(5-하이드록시트립토판, 5-HT)의 유무에 따라 배양되었습니다. 멜라토닌은 5-HT가 보충된 배양액에서 미토콘드리아를 배양했을 때만 형성되었습니다. HPLC로 측정된 멜라토닌 농도는 측정 기간 동안 1시간 동안 미토콘드리아와 배양액 모두에서 점차 증가했습니다.
이 결과의 중요성은 성인 포유류의 모든 세포 미토콘드리아에서 멜라토닌 합성이 발생한다는 가설에 매우 관련이 있습니다. 모든 포유류 미토콘드리아는 본질적으로 모체 유래이며, 즉 난자에서 유래합니다. 수십억 년의 진화 과정에서 보존되어 왔고 난자와 다른 조직에 매우 중요한 분자가 태아 발달과 유기체 성숙 과정에서 버려졌을 가능성은 매우 낮습니다. 우리는 난자의 미토콘드리아에서 발생하는 멜라토닌 생산이 배아 발달 및 출생 후 성숙 과정에서 모든 다른 세포로 전달되었다고 추측합니다 [105].
He와 동료들의 보고서 [112] 이후 1년 후, 더 상세하고 포괄적인 연구가 미토콘드리아가 자체적으로 멜라토닌을 생산한다는 더 강력한 증거를 제공했습니다. Suofu 등[52]은 쥐의 비시냅소체 뇌 미토콘드리아에서 5-HT를 멜라토닌으로 전환하는 데 관여하는 두 가지 효소, 아릴알킬아민 N-아세틸트랜스퍼레이스(AANAT)와 아세틸세로토닌 메틸트랜스퍼레이스(ASMT)를 미토콘드리아 매트릭스에서 확인했습니다. 또한 신경 세포 미토콘드리아에서의 멜라토닌 합성이 송과체와 달리 일주기 리듬을 보이지 않는다는 점을 관찰했으며, 이는 Venegas 등[108]의 이전 연구 결과와 일치합니다. AANAT를 노크아웃함으로써, 이들은 이러한 중요한 세포 소기관에서 산화 스트레스를 억제하는 데 현지에서 생성된 멜라토닌의 필수적 역할을 부분적으로나마 확인했습니다. 송과체 외 세포 미토콘드리아에서 생성된 멜라토닌이 체내 순환계로 방출된다는 증거는 없습니다. 따라서 멜라토닌은 방출 가능한 풀(송과체 유래)과 방출 불가능한 풀(기타 세포의 미토콘드리아)로 구분됩니다 [35].
추가적인 새로운 발견은 미토콘드리아 외막에 멜라토닌 수용체 MT1이 존재한다는 것입니다 [52]. 멜라토닌과 이 수용체의 상호작용은 미토콘드리아에서 사이토크롬 c의 방출을 차단하는 데 관여하며, 이는 일반적으로 세포 사멸로 이어집니다 [117,118]. Suofu 등 [52]은 세포질에서 AANAT나 ASMT 효소를 발견하지 못했기 때문에, 미토콘드리아 매트릭스에서 생성된 멜라토닌이 방출되어 자체 수용체에 작용한다는 결론을 내렸습니다. 생체 내 조건에서 멜라토닌이 모든 세포에 쉽게 침투하기 때문에 순환 혈액 내 멜라토닌도 미토콘드리아 막상의 MT1 수용체에 영향을 미칠 수 있습니다. Suofu 등[52]의 연구 결과는 곧 미토콘드리아에 면역세포화학적으로 검출된 MT2 수용체의 존재를 보여주는 간결한 보고서로 이어졌습니다[119].
멜라토닌의 직접적인 수용체 독립적 ROS 제거 작용 및 세포 내 수용체와의 상호작용[56,120,121] 때문에, 높은 지용성으로 인해 멜라토닌이 세포 및 미토콘드리아 막을 쉽게 통과할 수 있다는 추측이 제기되었습니다. 수동 확산 외에도 멜라토닌은 GLUT1 포도당 운반체를 통해 세포 내로 들어갈 수 있으며, 이 과정에서 적어도 전립선 암 세포에서는 포도당과 경쟁합니다 [122,123]. 또한 인간 유방암 세포의 올리고펩티드 운반체 PEPT1/2는 멜라토닌을 세포 외부에서 세포질로, 세포질에서 미토콘드리아로 적극적으로 운반합니다 [124] (그림 1). 활성 수송 과정은 미토콘드리아 내 멜라토닌 농도가 세포질이나 핵에 비해 더 높게 유지되도록 합니다 [108,125].
Figure 1.
This figure summarizes the intracellular actions of melatonin. Melatonin enters cells by at least three routes, i.e., passive diffusion, GLUT1 glucose transporter (during which it reportedly competes with glucose), and via the PEPT1/2 oligopeptide transporters. Melatonin also influences lipid rafts—specialized microdomains in the cell membrane, which appear to be involved in cancer signaling. Intracellular cytosolic melatonin, either taken up from the blood or synthesized in the resident mitochondria, has multiple actions, including impacting exosome formation and cargo packaging, reducing endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and binding calmodulin and quinone reductase 2 (QR2); the latter is generally referred to as MT3 melatonin receptor. In the mitochondrial matrix, melatonin influences the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA), mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (miOXPHOS), sirtuin 3 (SIRT3), superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2), etc. Melatonin, produced in the mitochondria (as well as that imported from outside the cell) may also interact with the MT1 receptor on the mitochondrial membrane. Melatonin also enters the nucleus to bind the RORα/RZR nuclear receptors and perhaps influences the makeup of biomolecular condensates, cytosolic conglomerates of biomolecules that are involved in a variety of cell processes including cancer. Biomolecular condensates, such as lipid droplets, are not bound by a membrane.
4. Melatonin Signaling via the Cellular Membrane Receptors
As shown in Figure 1, melatonin performs several actions following its transport into the cytosol. In addition, it also interacts with cells through the membrane receptors, MT1 and MT2. These transmembrane proteins are found in many peripheral organs [126,127] and in neurons and glia of the central nervous system [128,129]. Therefore, it seems possible that every cell harbors MT1 and/or MT2 receptors. Many of the functions of melatonin in modulating oncogenic transformation are mediated by signaling events that follow the binding of melatonin to its membrane receptors [2,7,130,131].
The MT1 and MT2 receptors are members of the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family [131,132,133]; they have the requisite seven transmembrane domains and are linked to a variety of signaling processes [134,135]. Abundant studies have confirmed that melatonin binding to these receptors modulates cAMP production, phosphorylation, morphological adaptation, and intracellular calcium mobilization (Figure 2) [126,136]. When melatonin binds to MT1 receptor, which generally appears to have a wider distribution than the MT2 receptor [127], it suppresses forskolin-stimulated cAMP production, reduces protein kinase A (PKA) activity and depresses phosphorylation of the cAMP responsive element binding protein (CREB) [137]. These changes lead to the triggering of ERK1/2, enzymes committed to cytoskeletal filament remodeling (Figure 2) [138].
Figure 2.
This figure illustrates the intracellular signaling processes of MT1 and MT2 receptors. Most, perhaps all, cells possess the major melatonin membrane receptor subtypes, MT1, MT2 and MT3. These receptors are members of the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family and have been well characterized pharmacologically and cloned. The receptors are differentially distributed depending on the specific cell type and, in general, MT1 seems to be more common than MT2. Also shown are the MT1 and MT2 receptors on the mitochondrial membrane and the cytosolic MT3 receptor, quinone reductase 2 (QR2). Since the identification of the receptors on the mitochondria is a recent finding, little is known about their signaling pathways. 5-HT = serotonin; c-GMP = cyclic guanosine monophosphate; DAG = diacylglycerol; IP3 = inositol triphosphate; MEL = melatonin; NAS = N-acetylserotonin; PLC = phospholipase C.
Binding of melatonin to the MT2 receptor also leads to a drop in cAMP and a stimulation of protein kinase C and phospholipase C [139]. The upregulation of G-proteins also impacts membrane permeability enhancing the opening of ion channels [140]. Concurrently, cGMP is elevated, which stimulates opening of cyclic nucleotide-gated channels allowing calcium influx. The MT2 receptors are of special interest to chronobiologists, as their binding to melatonin results in multiple circadian rhythm and phase shifting actions [141,142]. Melatonin also impacts transcriptional events and gene expression because of its ability to influence CREB and ERK signaling [143].
MT1 and MT2 can form homo- or heterodimers that signal intracellular processes via the canonical G-proteins, i.e., αi, αi2, αi3, β and δ [144]. Many of the signaling events underlying the membrane-mediated actions of melatonin are summarized in Figure 2. The MT1 and MT2 receptors are involved in a multitude of physiological and pathophysiological processes, including glucose metabolism and cancer progression [35,65,130,145,146].
There are several perturbations that significantly reduce circulating melatonin levels, which, as a result, negate the important signaling processes of the melatonin receptors. Advanced age is often highly detrimental to the production of melatonin in the pineal gland [147,148] and possibly also at the mitochondrial level in all cells [26,149], especially in the frail elderly. Because of the requirement for darkness at night to ensure pineal, but not mitochondrial, melatonin production, light pollution is a major factor in the suppression of blood melatonin levels, contributing to circadian disturbances and carcinogenesis [150,151,152]. Interruption of the neural connections between the master circadian oscillator, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), and the pineal gland inhibits melatonin synthesis; this has been demonstrated in quadriplegics [153] and after cervical spinal cord lesions that involve destruction of the cephalic sympathetic neurons [154,155]. Finally, a number of diseases are associated with diminished blood melatonin levels either due to its reduced synthesis or rapid uptake and utilization [29,156]. In each of these situations, the receptor signaling is lost or reduced, which contributes to aberrant cell metabolism and pathophysiology [65,119,157]. Since the MT1/MT2 receptors seem to be present in tissues of aged animals, melatonin supplementation may still have efficacy in regulating cellular metabolism and functions in the elderly [158].
5. Melatonin in Mitochondria: Relation to Oxidative Stress and Glucose Metabolism
Mitochondria are multifunctional organelles involved in almost every cellular activity (Figure 3), i.e., autophagy, apoptosis, glucose metabolism, energy production, etc. [159,160,161]. The latter function is related to their role in ATP production. During the process of ATP generation, the transfer of electrons between successive proteins of the electron transport chain (ETC) is not flawless. Some electrons reduce adjacent ground state oxygen (O2) [162,163] to the superoxide anion radical (O2.−). O2.− is itself damaging to neighboring healthy molecules but is rapidly metabolized to the hydroxyl radical (.−OH) and the peroxynitrite anion (ONOO−), which results in even greater molecular destruction. Normally functioning healthy cells are equipped with a variety of antioxidants, which keep molecular damage to a minimum but still allow ROS to function in essential signaling pathways [164,165]. In normal cells, the redox homeostasis is maintained by a large number of antioxidant enzymes, which convert toxic species to less harmful derivatives, thereby reducing oxidative stress (Figure 4). The recent discovery of melatonin in mitochondria [52,112] of healthy cells and its synthesis in these organelles contributes to limiting ROS destruction as melatonin directly scavenges ROS [71,109,166,167,168] and also stimulates antioxidant enzyme expression. Many studies have confirmed the ability of melatonin to reduce damage to key mitochondrial constituents including proteins of the ETC and the mitochondrial genome [65,168,169], which normally appears under conditions of high oxidative stress. Melatonin’s ability to stimulate mitochondrial superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) follows its deacetylation signaled by upregulation of the major mitochondrial deacetylase, SIRT3 [168,170,171].
Figure 3.
Representative actions of melatonin that involve the mitochondria. Melatonin, derived from the pineal gland, after supplemental ingestion or consumed in the diet is taken up by cells and transported into the mitochondria via the oligopeptide transporters, PEPT1/2. All cells are believed to synthesize melatonin in their mitochondria via the conventional pathway as described in the pineal gland. In mitochondria, melatonin can be reverse-metabolized to its precursor, N-acetylserotonin (NAS); this involves the extrahepatic monooxygenase enzyme, P450 1B1. Thus, the changes induced by melatonin may also involve NAS production. The most recently discovered actions of melatonin that involve the mitochondria are its effects on tunneling nanotubes (TNT) which allow for the transfer of mitochondria between cells. 5-HT = serotonin; AANAT = arylalkyl-N-acetyltransferase; ASMT = acetyl serotonin methyltransferase; Cyt c = cytochrome c; IMM = inner mitochondrial membrane; IMS = Intermembrane space; miDynamics = mitochondrial dynamics; MTP = Mitochondrial permeability transition pore; OMM = outer mitochondrial membrane; UCP = uncoupling protein; SOD = superoxide dismutase.
Figure 4.
Melatonin is synthesized in mitochondria and can be taken up from the systemic circulation by these organelles. In healthy cells, mitochondrial melatonin is an effective direct scavenger of ROS and RNS (shown by red lines), which are generated normally but also in excess when the electron transport chain (ETC) is faulty. Additionally, melatonin indirectly aids in maintaining redox homeostasis by upregulating the deacetylase, SIRT3, and a series of antioxidant enzymes (boxed). This figure also illustrates the necessity of acetyl-CoA for mitochondrial melatonin production; melatonin synthesis ceases in the absence of this co-substrate. The absence of acetyl-CoA is a consequence of the inhibition of the pyruvate-to-acetyl-CoA transformation due to the suppression of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC; PDH is one component of this complex), which is under tight control, and inhibited by pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK). The upregulation of PDK is often a result of the stabilization of cytosolic hypoxia-inducible factor-1 α (HIF-1α), an oxygen-sensing transcription factor. In normoxic healthy cells, HIF-1α is ubiquitinated and undergoes proteasomal degradation. During hypoxia, HIF-1α is stabilized, leading to the upregulation of PDK and the inhibition of PDH, resulting in mitochondrial melatonin synthesis inhibition. Warburg metabolism (aerobic glycolysis), however, occurs under normoxic conditions; in this case, the excess of pyruvate and lactate in the cytosol presumably destabilizes HIF-1α such that PDH is disinhibited. 5-HT = serotonin; CAT = catalase; CoA = coenzyme A; e− = electron; GPx = glutathione peroxidase; GRd = glutathione reductase; H2O2 = hydrogen peroxide; LDHA = Lactate dehydrogenase-A; NAS = N-acetylserotonin; NO· = nitric oxide; ·OH = hydroxyl radical; ONOO− = peroxynitrite anion; PDH = pyruvate dehydrogenase; SOD2 = superoxide dismutase 2; TCA = tricarboxylic acid cycle; TRX = thioredoxin; TRXr = thioredoxin reductase.
In addition to or as a result of exposure to excessive ROS/RNS, many pathological cells adopt an alternative method to more rapidly generate ATP to support their metabolism; this involves upregulating glycolysis and rewiring pyruvate metabolism. As an end product of glycolysis, pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria in normally functioning cells, where it is irreversibly decarboxylated to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) [172]. This important product enters the tricarboxylic (TCA)/citric acid cycle (CAC) and eventually improves the efficiency of the ETC and miOXPHOS [173]. Additionally, as noted above, acetyl-CoA is a prerequisite for AANAT to metabolize 5-HT to NAS when it donates its acetyl group for the formation of NAS, which is subsequently converted to melatonin (Figure 3 and Figure 4). Downregulation of the gatekeeper enzyme, PDH by pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) [174] requires pyruvate to be metabolized by an alternate cytosolic pathway, thereby impeding mitochondrial production of melatonin and modulation of its downstream processes (Figure 3). The replacement pathway for pyruvate is its enzymatic conversion to lactate in the cytosol. This change is associated with enhanced glucose uptake by cells and accelerated glycolysis, which also rapidly, but in relatively low yield, generates ATP [175]. Due to the large amounts of lactate produced under these conditions, much of it is discharged from the cell via the monocarboxylate transporter leading to the acidification of the tumor microenvironment. In the case of cancer cells, an acidic microenvironment aids cellular aggressiveness, invasion and metastasis [176].
The absence of melatonin synthesis in the mitochondria significantly alters their physiology due to its multitude of functions in these organelles (Figure 3) [105,146]. One of the major roles of melatonin in healthy cells is to maintain mitochondrial redox hemostasis, in part, by scavenging ROS and RNS when the cells are challenged with an oxidant [103,104]. The presence of melatonin would be even more important under pathological conditions [177], especially in cells manifesting Warburg-type metabolism. Excess O2.− would be formed in these cells due to the less efficient ETC leaking additional electrons. O2.− is the first in a chain of partially reduced oxygen and nitrogen-based derivatives that inflict damage at the mitochondrial level (Figure 4).
Warburg metabolism (aerobic glycolysis) is common to many pathological cell types. This process involves the rapid uptake of large amounts of glucose and accelerated glycolysis, with the end product, pyruvate, metabolized to lactate rather than entering mitochondria for conversion by PDH to acetyl-CoA. Among the many features that make Warburg metabolism unique is that it occurs in the presence of optimal intracellular oxygen concentrations.
This metabolic phenotype seems to be rather labile and can be abandoned quickly, presumably in the favor of conventional miOXPHOS, although Warburg-type metabolism and OXPHOS can also co-exist. The rapidity with which it may be reversed is highlighted by Blask and coworkers [27]. They observed in vivo that breast cancer cells exhibited Warburg-type metabolism during the day but not at night when lactate production was markedly reduced. This switch was governed by the nocturnal rise in serum melatonin, as the metabolic change did not occur when the night time increase was prevented by exposing animals to light at night. Since Warburg-type metabolism is typically associated with diseased cells, the findings of Blask et al. [27] and others [28,29] imply that these cancer cells manifest a pathological phenotype during the day but a healthier phenotype at night, as long as melatonin from the pineal gland is available [30,34].
The dependence of this day-to-night shift on the availability of circulating melatonin is confounded by the observation that mitochondria of possibly all cells produce melatonin in a non-circadian manner [52,108]. To date, only the mitochondria of normal/healthy cells have been investigated for their melatonin-synthesizing ability [52,112]. These organelles have the enzymes required to convert 5-HT to NAS and to transform NAS into melatonin. Any metabolic process that deprives mitochondria of pyruvate may also eliminate intramitochondrial melatonin production since no acetyl-CoA would be available as a co-substrate for 5-HT in the melatonin synthetic pathway [178,179,180]. Such a scenario occurs in a variety of pathological conditions in addition to cancer [181].
Many solid tumors adopt Warburg-type metabolism. Under these circumstances, pyruvate is precluded from entering the mitochondria, as PDH, which converts it into acetyl-CoA, is strongly downregulated. PDH is a complex of mutually dependent enzymes, one of which is pyruvate dehydrogenase E1α. PDH E1 α is inhibited by another mitochondrial enzyme, PDK [182]. Because of this series of events, melatonin is presumably not synthesized in the mitochondria of cells utilizing Warburg-type metabolism in the absence of acetyl-CoA. As a result, pyruvate is retained in the cytosol where it is converted to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase A [183].
There are a host of diseased/pathological conditions in which mitochondria-derived free radicals are implicated in contributing to the malfunctioning of cells. Examples of oxidative damage-related pathologies are amply evidenced in the literature. Included in this list is ischemia-reperfusion injury resulting from transient vascular occlusion [184,185], hypertension [186], cancer initiation and progression [46,187], neurodegeneration [188], sepsis [189,190], radiation injury [191], metabolic syndrome [192,193] and many others. Without exception, at least experimentally, melatonin mitigates the severity of mitochondrial dysfunction in each of these conditions [107,194,195,196,197]. Whether the mitochondria of these damaged cells are capable of producing their own melatonin reserves has yet to be examined, but this is rather unlikely given the above data.
6. Role of Hypoxia Inducible Factor in Determining the Metabolic Phenotype
The upregulation of the hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) is frequently responsible for a reduction in the intramitochondrial conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, which would compromise melatonin synthesis in these organelles. HIF-1α is a critical oxygen-sensing transcription factor. It responds to low oxygen tension by adjusting the physiology of the cells using multiple mechanisms. These include promoting glycolysis, stimulating the pentose phosphate pathway, supporting angiogenesis, and, inducing the release of lactate from the cell, thereby making the extracellular microenvironment more acidic. In the case of cancer cells, these metabolic adjustments enhance tumor growth, invasion and metastasis.
Since the ingrowth of blood vessels into the tumor lags behind the rapid proliferation of cancerous cells, some tumor cells become hypoxic and invariably suffer from oxygen deficiency. This stabilizes HIF-1α, which then rewires cellular metabolism to a phenotype that provides advantages to pathological cells in terms of tumor growth and metabolism. Examples of such advantages include rapid ATP availability and metabolites required to fuel the accelerated development.
The change in the rate of glycolysis and the shunting of pyruvate to lactate is often a result of intracellular hypoxia. Low oxygen tension stabilizes the transcription factor, HIF-1α, which, in turn, upregulates PDK, causing inhibition of PDH and consequent failure of mitochondrial acetyl-CoA formation [198]. This alternate metabolism can also occur when cells are normoxic, a metabolic phenotype discovered over a century ago and named aerobic glycolysis (the Warburg effect) [199]. Under these conditions of normal oxygen tension, pyruvate is not converted to acetyl-CoA in the mitochondria [200,201]. Finally, melatonin has reportedly been shown to be a direct inhibitor of HIF-1α [202,203,204,205]. Thus, during aerobic glycolysis, mitochondrial melatonin synthesis is presumably depressed, as no acetyl-CoA is available to support its synthesis. A lack of melatonin prevents inhibition of HIF-1α such that PDH suppression persistently dampens its production, thereby allowing for the continuation of Warburg metabolism. Clearly, a number of processes may synergize to sustain aerobic glycolysis.
Stabilization of HIF-1α during aerobic glycolysis in cancer cells may also be, in part, related to the loss of mitochondrial melatonin synthesis owing to its antioxidant activity, while also reducing cytokine production and/or release [206,207,208,209]. When melatonin neutralizes these biomolecules, HIF-1α is destabilized and normal mitochondrial metabolism reinstituted [34,146]. This possibility is supported by the findings of Blask et al. [27], Dauchy and coworkers [1], and Mao et al. [29] who found that the presence of melatonin switched metabolism in cancer cells away from aerobic glycolysis.
Under normoxic conditions, HIF-1α is rapidly degraded by the proteasome after its ubiquitination [210,211]. However, normoxia is not always associated with the early destruction of HIF-1α, thus allowing it to function as it does under low oxygen tension. Therefore, pyruvate to lactate conversion proceeds abundantly, resulting in a failure to synthesize mitochondrial acetyl-CoA, characteristic of aerobic glycolysis. Agents that prolong the stability of HIF-1α include RNS, especially NO., ROS, growth factors and a number of cytokines [212]. Additionally, the end products of glycolysis, pyruvate and lactate, also function to directly stabilize HIF-1α ensuring the persistence of Warburg metabolism even under conditions of normoxia (Figure 4) [200,201,204].
7. Concluding Remarks and Perspectives
There is an intensive search for therapeutic agents that will promote normal miOXPHOS in cells undergoing Warburg-type metabolism. The best known of these molecules is dichloroacetate (DCA), which is also used as an anticancer treatment [213,214]. DCA redirects pyruvate into the mitochondria by destabilizing HIF-1α, which subsequently disinhibits PDH in the mitochondrial matrix, allowing for the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. This enhances downstream events, such as the TCA cycle and the functions of the ETC, and likely contributes to the oncostatic effects of DCA [213]. Melatonin is an endogenously synthesized molecule with similar actions to those of DCA; it also reverses Warburg-type metabolism and functions as an anticancer agent. This action of melatonin also involves modulation of the HIF-1α/PDK/PDH axis. Unlike DCA [214], melatonin lacks toxicity and has a very high safety profile at any dose [215].
Regarding the treatment of melatonin-sensitive tumors, the circadian biology of cancer cells has implications at the clinical level [36]. The field of chronopharmacology, i.e., treating cells at the most efficacious time in the constantly changing 24 h metabolism of pathological cells, has a long history [216,217,218,219]. When melatonin is used as a treatment, oncologists could capitalize on the apparent fluctuation in metabolism specific to a given cancer type. In the current review, we mention that at least one breast cancer subtype [87], and likely other tumor types, alternate between Warburg-type metabolism and miOXPHOS during each 24 h period. This cycle requires a night time rise in circulating melatonin levels. Since Warburg metabolism appears to occur in pathological cells, we suggest that when melatonin is used as an oncostatic agent, it should be prescribed when the tumors are undergoing aerobic glycolysis, i.e., during the day. This would likely be the time at which cancers would exhibit the greatest response to oncostatic agents such as melatonin. Melatonin could also be given concurrently with other chemotherapies, as it does not interfere with the anti-cancer effects of these agents but it does reduce their collateral toxicity [220,221,222]. Moreover, treating human tumors with melatonin reverses their resistance to chemotherapeutic agents, such as tamoxifen [223]. In individuals who lack a melatonin rhythm, e.g., in the frail elderly, melatonin treatment could be extended throughout the 24 h period. Due to the advances in melatonin delivery systems, treatment with melatonin for prolonged periods is feasible [224].
The identified actions of melatonin at the mitochondrial level have primarily accumulated within the last two decades, with several of them being elucidated only within the last several years. The burgeoning number of investigations into mitochondrial functions of melatonin is likely due to its unusually high concentrations in this organelle [108] as well as the speculation that mitochondria of all cells produce melatonin [77]. These findings have aided in defining the unusually wide-ranging actions of this ubiquitously distributed molecule. Despite many studies directed at elucidating the antioxidant [106,168,225,226,227], anticancer [25,76,228,229,230], and chronobiological (including sleep) actions [142,219,231,232,233] of melatonin, there are many other functions of melatonin that warrant further investigation, particularly those related to disease prevention and biological aging.
Mitochondrial malfunction is common in innumerable disturbed cellular activities [106,168,234,235,236] and in many diseases [237,238,239,240]. The optimal functioning of mitochondria stems, at least in part, from the local availability of melatonin (Figure 3). It is conceivable that mitochondrial function is maintained by melatonin produced and secreted from the pineal gland, which is then actively taken up by the mitochondria of all cells. However, as noted before, a major drawback of this hypothesis is the rather small quantities of melatonin released from the pineal gland, which would be inadequate to cater to the trillions of mitochondria in every organism. Moreover, melatonin is exclusively released from the pineal gland at night such that, for every 24 h period, mitochondria would only have access to melatonin about half of the time. This would seem to be incompatible with the function of these organelles, as they are involved in a wide range of essential diurnal activities. The non-reliance of mitochondria on melatonin released from the pineal gland is also consistent with the high concentrations of mitochondria in plant cells [67,241,242], which are probably not dependent on melatonin delivered from another organ.
The necessity for the mitochondrial synthesis of melatonin likely also comes into play with respect to the specific activity pattern a species displays. Vertebrates are classified as nocturnal, diurnal or as having a crepuscular activity pattern. If well-functioning mitochondrial physiology indeed relies on melatonin supplied by the pineal gland, these organelles may function suboptimally during the daily interval when ATP synthesis is at the peak in diurnally active species. To ensure highly functioning mitochondria, every vertebrate species (diurnal, nocturnal or crepuscular) may have opted for the continual mitochondrial production of this critical constituent throughout each 24 h period in normal cells [52,108]. On the contrary, reduced synthesis of mitochondrial melatonin may lead to the development of pathological conditions. The specific overt activity patterns of species summarized above are certainly under the influence of the circadian cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood melatonin rhythms which regulate clock genes in the SCN [210,243,244], as well as peripheral oscillators mediating crucial chronological functions in all cells [245,246,247,248], respectively. The hub of melatonin interactions with glucose metabolism in cells obviously involves the regulation of mitochondrial acetyl-CoA synthesis. Reconciling the interactions of circulating melatonin with melatonin produced in the mitochondria requires further detailed investigation. The data accumulated to date show that melatonin from both sources, pineal-derived and mitochondria, likely play critical roles in regulating mitochondrial physiology. This notion is consistent with the numerous effects of melatonin, not only on glucose processing, but also on other diverse cellular actions. Finally, identifying which of the many actions of melatonin are mediated by their known receptors and which are receptor-independent obviously requires more complete detailed examination.
7. 결론 및 전망
워버그형 대사 과정을 겪는 세포에서 정상적인 miOXPHOS를 촉진하는 치료제 개발을 위한 연구가 활발히 진행 중입니다. 이 중 가장 잘 알려진 분자는 항암 치료제로도 사용되는 디클로로아세테이트(DCA)입니다 [213,214]. DCA는 HIF-1α를 불안정화시켜 피루vate를 미토콘드리아로 재분배하며, 이는 미토콘드리아 매트릭스에서 PDH의 억제를 해제하여 피루vate가 아세틸-CoA로 전환되도록 합니다. 이 과정은 TCA 회로 및 전자전달계(ETC)의 기능과 같은 하류 사건을 강화하며, DCA의 항암 효과에 기여할 것으로 추정됩니다 [213]. 멜라토닌은 DCA와 유사한 작용을 하는 내인성 합성 분자로, 워버그형 대사 역전을 역전시키고 항암제로 기능합니다. 멜라토닌의 이 작용은 HIF-1α/PDK/PDH 축의 조절을 포함합니다. DCA와 달리 [214], 멜라토닌은 독성이 없으며 모든 용량에서 매우 높은 안전성을 보입니다 [215].
멜라토닌에 민감한 종양의 치료와 관련하여, 암 세포의 생체 리듬 생물학은 임상적 의미를 갖습니다 [36]. 병리적 세포의 24시간 대사 변화에서 가장 효과적인 시점에 세포를 치료하는 분야인 크로노약리학은 오랜 역사를 가지고 있습니다 [216,217,218,219]. 멜라토닌을 치료제로 사용할 때 종양학자들은 특정 암 유형에 특이적인 대사 변동성을 활용할 수 있습니다. 본 리뷰에서 언급된 바와 같이, 적어도 한 가지 유방암 하위 유형[87]은 24시간 주기 동안 워버그형 대사(Warburg metabolism)와 미옥스포스(miOXPHOS) 사이를 번갈아 가며 전환합니다. 이 사이클은 밤 시간대에 순환하는 멜라토닌 수치의 상승을 요구합니다. 워버그 대사가 병리적 세포에서 발생한다는 점을 고려할 때, 멜라토닌을 항암제로 사용할 경우 종양이 유산소 당대사를 진행하는 시점, 즉 낮에 투여하는 것이 적절할 것입니다. 이는 암이 멜라토닌과 같은 항암제에 가장 큰 반응을 보이는 시점일 가능성이 높습니다. 멜라토닌은 다른 화학요법제와 동시에 투여될 수 있으며, 이는 이러한 약물의 항암 효과를 방해하지 않지만 부수적 독성을 감소시킵니다 [220,221,222]. 또한, 인간 종양에 멜라토닌을 투여하면 타모시펜과 같은 화학요법제에 대한 저항성을 역전시킵니다 [223]. 멜라토닌 리듬이 결여된 개인, 예를 들어 노약자에서는 멜라토닌 치료를 24시간 동안 연장할 수 있습니다. 멜라토닌 전달 시스템의 발전으로 인해 장기간 멜라토닌 치료가 가능해졌습니다 [224].
멜라토닌의 미토콘드리아 수준에서의 작용은 주로 지난 20년간 축적되었으며, 그 중 일부는 최근 몇 년간에만 명확히 규명되었습니다. 멜라토닌의 미토콘드리아 기능에 대한 연구가 급증한 것은 이 분자가 이 세포 소기관에서 이례적으로 높은 농도로 존재하기 때문일 가능성이 높습니다 [108], 또한 모든 세포의 미토콘드리아가 멜라토닌을 생성한다는 추측 때문입니다 [77]. 이러한 발견은 이 널리 분포된 분자의 이례적으로 광범위한 작용을 정의하는 데 기여했습니다. 항산화 [106,168,225,226,227], 항암 [25,76,228,229,230], 및 생체리듬(수면 포함) 작용 [142,219,231,232,233]에 초점을 맞춘 연구에도 불구하고, 멜라토닌의 다른 기능, 특히 질병 예방과 생물학적 노화와 관련된 기능은 추가 연구가 필요합니다.
미토콘드리아 기능 장애는 수많은 세포 활동 장애 [106,168,234,235,236] 및 많은 질병 [237,238,239,240]에서 흔히 관찰됩니다. 미토콘드리아의 최적 기능은 적어도 부분적으로 멜라토닌의 현지 가용성에 의존합니다 (그림 3). 멜라토닌이 송과체에서 생성되고 분비되어 모든 세포의 미토콘드리아에 적극적으로 흡수되어 미토콘드리아 기능을 유지한다는 가설이 가능합니다. 그러나 앞서 언급된 것처럼 이 가설의 주요 단점은 송과체에서 분비되는 멜라토닌의 양이 매우 적어, 모든 유기체에 존재하는 수조 개의 미토콘드리아를 충족시키기에는 부족하다는 점입니다. 또한 멜라토닌은 밤에만 송과체에서 분비되므로, 24시간 동안 미토콘드리아는 멜라토닌에 접근할 수 있는 시간이 약 절반에 불과합니다. 이는 미토콘드리아가 다양한 필수 일일 활동에 관여한다는 점을 고려할 때 이 기관의 기능과 상충되는 것처럼 보입니다. 미토콘드리아가 송과체에서 분비되는 멜라토닌에 의존하지 않는다는 점은 식물 세포 내 미토콘드리아의 높은 농도[67,241,242]와도 일치합니다. 이는 식물 세포의 미토콘드리아가 다른 기관에서 공급되는 멜라토닌에 의존하지 않을 가능성이 높기 때문입니다.
미토콘드리아의 멜라토닌 합성 필요성은 종이 보이는 특정 활동 패턴과도 관련이 있을 것입니다. 척추동물은 야행성, 주간성 또는 황혼 활동 패턴을 가진 종으로 분류됩니다. 만약 미토콘드리아의 정상적인 생리 기능이 송과체에서 공급되는 멜라토닌에 의존한다면, 주간 활동 종에서 ATP 합성이 피크에 달하는 일일 간격 동안 이 소기관은 최적의 기능을 발휘하지 못할 수 있습니다. 고도로 기능하는 미토콘드리아를 유지하기 위해 모든 척추동물 종(일주성, 야행성 또는 황혼성)은 정상 세포에서 24시간 주기 동안 이 필수 성분의 지속적인 미토콘드리아 합성을 선택했을 수 있습니다 [52,108]. 반면, 미토콘드리아 멜라토닌 합성의 감소는 병리적 상태의 발현으로 이어질 수 있습니다. 위에서 요약된 종의 특정 명시적 활동 패턴은 분명히 SCN에서 시계 유전자를 조절하는 일주기 뇌척수액(CSF) 및 혈액 멜라토닌 리듬[210,243,244]의 영향 하에 있으며, 모든 세포에서 중요한 시간적 기능을 매개하는 주변 오실레이터[245,246,247,248]의 역할도 각각 포함됩니다. 세포 내 멜라토닌과 포도당 대사 간의 상호작용의 중심은 미토콘드리아 아세틸-CoA 합성의 조절에 분명히 관여합니다. 순환하는 멜라토닌과 미토콘드리아에서 생성된 멜라토닌 간의 상호작용을 조화시키는 것은 추가적인 상세한 연구가 필요합니다. 현재까지 축적된 데이터는 송과체 유래와 미토콘드리아 유래 멜라토닌이 모두 미토콘드리아 생리 조절에 중요한 역할을 한다는 것을 보여줍니다. 이 개념은 멜라토닌의 다양한 효과, 즉 포도당 처리뿐만 아니라 다른 다양한 세포 작용에 미치는 영향과 일치합니다. 마지막으로, 멜라토닌의 많은 작용 중 어느 것이 알려진 수용체를 통해 매개되고 어느 것이 수용체 독립적으로 이루어지는지 명확히 하는 것은 더 완전한 상세한 분석이 필요합니다.
Acknowledgments
No financial support was provided for this article. The authors are grateful to Lihong Fan for her input into the ideas expressed in this report.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, R.J.R. and R.S.; critical revision and proof reading, R.J.R., R.S., S.R.-C., W.M., L.G.d.A.C. and D.A.P.d.C.Z.; figure preparation, R.S. and S.R.-C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
No data included.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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References
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