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이 메커니즘은
Simons의 "Integrated Hypothesis"와
이후 "Energy Crisis Hypothesis"에서 가장 잘 설명됩니다.
실제 조직 생검에서도 MTrP 부위에서
contraction knot와 metabolic waste(대사 폐기물)가 확인
| 이 연구는 근막통증유발점(Myofascial Trigger Points, MTrPs)에서 자발적 바늘 EMG 활동(spontaneous needle EMG activity)이 실제로 존재한다는 것을 처음으로 체계적으로 증명한 대표적인 논문.
MTrP 연구 분야에서 가장 많이 인용되는 고전 중 하나로, “MTrP에서 spontaneous electrical activity(SEA)가 존재한다”는 사실을 처음 명확히 보여준 연구 |
2, Simons DG (2004). Review of enigmatic MTrPs as a common cause of enigmatic musculoskeletal pain and dysfunction. J Electromyogr Kinesiol.
MTrP의 “enigma”(미스터리)를 종합 리뷰하며
Integrated Hypothesis(endplate dysfunction + energy crisis)를 체계화.
이후 연구의 이론적 기반.
이 논문은
David G. Simons (근막통증유발점 연구의 세계적 권위자)가 쓴 리뷰 논문으로,
근막통증유발점(Myofascial Trigger Points, MTrPs)이
직장 내 근골격계 장애(MSD)와 원인 불명의 근골격 통증의 주요 원인 중 하나라는 점을 강조합니다.
3. Shah JP et al. (2005). An in vivo microanalytical technique for measuring the local biochemical milieu of human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol.
MTrP 부위 microdialysis 기술 개발
→ 생화학적 milieu(산성 pH, substance P 등) 직접 측정 가능하게 함.
--> 이후 biochemical 연구의 기술적 분기점.
근막통증유발점(MTrPs)과 관련된 근육통의 병태생리를 밝히기 위해,
상부 승모근(upper trapezius)에서 미세투석(microdialysis) 기술을 개발·적용하여
MTrP 부위의 국소 생화학적 환경(local biochemical milieu)을 실시간으로 측정했습니다.
'투석(Dialysis)'이라는 말은
원래 반투과성 막을 이용해 물질을 분리하는 물리적 원리
정상군, 잠재성(latent) MTrP군, 활성(active) MTrP군 간
생화학적 차이를 비교하는
proof-of-principle 연구입니다.
방법 요약
주요 결과
활성 MTrP군에서 다음과 같은 유의한 변화가 관찰되었습니다 (P < 0.01~0.001):
이 결과는
활성 MTrP 부위에
국소 에너지 위기, 염증, nociceptor 민감화, 교감신경 활성화가 존재한다는
생화학적 증거를 제공합니다.
결론
개발된 미세투석 기술은
근육 조직의 생화학적 환경을 최소 침습으로 실시간 측정할 수 있으며,
활성 MTrP와 잠재성/정상을 객관적으로 구분할 수 있습니다.
이는
MTrP의 병태생리 이해와
dry needling 등 치료 효과 기전을 밝히는 데 중요한 기초가 됩니다.
그림 설명
Figure 1: 상부 승모근에서의 바늘 위치와 Local Twitch Response (LTR) 상부 승모근에 표준화된 바늘 삽입 위치(TP1: trigger point 1)를 보여주고, latent 및 active MTrP군에서 LTR 발생 시 나타나는 EMG 전위(potential) 파형을 표시합니다. 정상군에서는 LTR이 발생하지 않습니다. 이 그림은 MTrP 진단과 LTR 유발(침 치료 시 흔히 관찰되는 반응)을 EMG로 확인하는 과정을 시각화합니다.
Figure 2: 미세투석 바늘의 구조 (A) 바늘 제작 모식도, (B) 실제 미세투석 바늘 사진. 바늘 끝에서 200 μm 떨어진 위치에 105 μm 두께의 반투막(semi-permeable membrane)이 있어, 75 kDa 이하 물질만 투과되도록 설계되었습니다. 이 구조가 조직 손상을 최소화하면서 국소 생화학 물질을 채취하는 핵심입니다.
Figure 3: 관류 펌프와 수집판 모식도 미세투석 펌프와 72-well Terasaki plate를 이용한 연속 샘플 수집 시스템을 보여줍니다. 샘플을 미네랄 오일 아래에 모아 증발을 방지합니다.
Figure 4: 시간에 따른 pH와 bradykinin 농도 변화 시간 경과(화살표: 2분 pre, 5분 peak, 11분 post)에 따른 pH (active군에서 유의하게 낮음)와 bradykinin (active군에서 유의하게 높음) 그래프. LTR 유발 후 생화학적 변화가 뚜렷하게 나타납니다.
Figure 5: CGRP와 Substance P 농도 변화 활성군에서 peak 시 CGRP와 SP가 가장 높고 (active > latent > normal), LTR 후 감소하는 양상을 보여줍니다. 통증과 혈관확장, 염증과 밀접한 물질입니다.
Figure 6: TNF-α와 IL-1β 농도 변화 염증성 사이토카인인 TNF-α와 IL-1β가 활성 MTrP군에서 현저히 증가한 그래프 (P < 0.001).
Figure 7: Serotonin과 Norepinephrine 농도 변화 교감신경 및 mast cell 관련 물질인 serotonin과 norepinephrine이 활성군에서 증가하여, motor endplate 활동과 LTR 민감도에 영향을 줄 수 있음을 시사합니다.
4. Shah JP et al. (2008). Biochemicals associated with pain and inflammation are elevated in sites near to and remote from active myofascial trigger points. Arch Phys Med Rehabil.
active MTrP 주변(그리고 원격 부위)에서
bradykinin, substance P, IL-6, TNF-α 등 pain/inflammation 물질이 현저히 증가함을 입증.
neurogenic inflammation 증거로 가장 많이 인용되는 milestone (인용 1000회 이상).
활성 근막통증유발점 (Active Myofascial Trigger Points, MTPs) 이 있는 사람들의
상부 승모근 (upper trapezius) 에서 통증·염증 관련 생화학 물질의 농도를 측정하고,
주요 방법
주요 결과 (가장 중요한 부분)
결론
활성 근막통증유발점은 단순한 근육 결림이 아니라,
국소적으로 매우 높은 농도의 염증 매개체, 신경펩타이드, 사이토카인, 카테콜아민 등이 축적되어 있고,
주변 환경이 강한 산성 상태라는 것이 객관적으로 증명되었습니다.
이러한 생화학적 환경은
주변 및 중추 감작(peripheral & central sensitization) 을 일으켜
통증을 지속·악화시킬 수 있습니다.
또한
통증 부위와 멀리 떨어진 근육에서도
비슷한 변화가 보인다는 점은
전신적인 신경생리학적 변화를 시사합니다.
이 연구는
근막통증증후군(Myofascial Pain Syndrome) 의
생물학적 기전을 과학적으로 뒷받침하는 매우 중요한 논문
5. Sikdar S et al. (2009). Novel applications of ultrasound technology to visualize and characterize myofascial trigger points. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 초음파로 MTrP를 hypoechoic nodule로 시각화 + stiffness 차이 확인. 비침습적 영상 진단의 시작(현재 2024 논문의 기반).
이전 연구들(특히 Shah et al.의 미세투석 연구)에서
근막통증유발점(Myofascial Trigger Points, MTrPs) 의
생화학적 이상(염증 물질 증가, 산성 환경 등)이 밝혀졌지만,
영상으로 직접 시각화하는 것은 어려웠습니다.
이 논문은 초음파(ultrasound, US) 기술을 새롭게 적용하여:
주요 방법
주요 결과
결론
이 연구는
초음파가 근막통증유발점을 시각화하고 특성화하는 데 유용한 새로운 도구가 될 수 있음을
최초로 보여준 선구적 연구입니다.
기존의 촉진(palpation) 중심 진단에서 벗어나
객관적 영상 증거를 제공한다는 점에서 큰 의미가 있으며,
이후 많은 초음파 기반 MTrPs 연구의 기초
6. Dommerholt J et al. (2006). Myofascial trigger points: an evidence-informed review. J Manual Manipulative Ther. (또는 Gerwin RD 관련 expansion 2004)
MTrP 진단·치료의 evidence-based 리뷰.
임상 적용성을 높이고 dry needling 등 치료 연구 활성화.
당시까지 축적된 과학적 증거를 바탕으로
근막통증유발점(Myofascial Trigger Points, MTrPs) 에 대한
최선의 evidence-informed review(증거 기반 리뷰)를 제공하는 것.
주요 다루는 내용:
원인(에티올로지), 병태생리학(pathophysiology), 임상적 함의(clinical implications).
이 리뷰는 순수 이론적 논문이 아니라,
임상 경험과 과학적 문헌을 종합하여
수기치료사(manual therapists)에게 실질적으로 도움이 되는 지식을 정리한 논문입니다.
주요 내용 요약
오른쪽 그림: 압력 분포가 약간 비대칭적이며, 낮은 압력대(10~30)도 명확히 구분됨.
일상생활에서 가벼운 자세 유지나 반복적인 저강도 작업만으로도 근육 특정 부위(특히 건-근육 접합부)에 압력이 집중되어 혈액순환 장애를 일으킬 수 있음을 시사. 이는 Simons의 Integrated Hypothesis(통합 가설)에서 말하는 “local energy crisis”를 뒷받침하는 중요한 증거 중 하나 |
7. Ballyns JJ et al. (2011/2012). Objective sonographic measures / elastographic technique for quantifying mechanical properties of myofascial trigger points. J Ultrasound Med.
초음파 + elastography로 MTrP의 정량적 stiffness·echogenicity 측정.
객관적 바이오마커 개발의 중요한 단계.
이전 Sikdar/Shah 연구팀의 2009년 초음파 연구(시각화 feasibility)를 발전시켜,
경부통(cervical pain) 과 관련된 근막통증유발점(Myofascial Trigger Points, MTrPs)을
객관적 초음파 지표(objective sonographic measures) 로 정량적으로 특징짓는 것.
특히:
을 비교하여, 물리적 특성(면적, 경도) 과 혈관 환경(vascular environment) 이 어떻게 다른지 확인.
주요 방법
주요 결과
결론
Sonoelastography를 이용한 MTrPs 면적 측정은
활성·잠재성·정상 MTrPs를 객관적으로 구분할 수 있는
신뢰할 수 있는 정량적 지표가 될 수 있습니다.
또한
활성 MTrPs 주변의 혈관 변화(높은 PI)는
이전 Shah 연구의 생화학적 소견(염증 물질 증가, 산성 환경)과 연관지어 설명할 수 있습니다.
이 연구는
촉진(palpation)에만 의존하던 MTrPs 진단을
초음파 기반 객관적 영상 진단으로 발전시킨 중요한 후속 연구
8. Quintner JL et al. (2015). A critical evaluation of the trigger point phenomenon. Rheumatology. MTrP 이론의 한계를 비판적으로 검토(신경 기원 referred pain 대안 제시). 논쟁을 촉발하며 연구 방향 재고의 분기점.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4508225/
이 논문은
근막통증증후군(Myofascial Pain Syndrome, MPS)에서
근막통증유발점(Myofascial Trigger Point, MTrP)의 역사적 발전과 과학적 근거를
종합적으로 검토하는 서술적 리뷰(narrative review).
Travell & Simons의 고전적 이론부터
2015년까지의 임상·영상·생화학 연구를 바탕으로
MTrP의 병태생리, 진단, 치료의 진화를 정리하고,
객관적 평가 방법(초음파, 미세투석 등)의 필요성을 강조.
주요 내용 (역사 vs 현대 관점)
Figure 및 Table 주요 설명:
Understanding of MTrPs based on Travell and Simons’ workContemporary understanding of MTrPs based on scientific evidence
| MTrP Characteristics A systematic description of physical and electrodiagnostic findings: • Defined MTrP as “a hyperirritable locus within a taut band of skeletal muscle . . . [that] is painful on compression and can evoke characteristic referred pain and autonomic phenomena” • Differentiated active from latent MTrPs • Codified criteria for identifying MTrPs in the evaluation of pain • Utilized electrodiagnostic studies to demonstrate abnormal activity, indicating involvement of the neuromuscular junction | MTrP Characteristics Objective measures of abnormal physical findings suggesting MTrP pathophysiology: • Biochemical findings indicate local and remote inflammation, and local acidic milieu • Biochemical and physical findings implicate local sensitization • Oxygenation studies indicate local regions of hypoxia • Imaging studies indicate local regions of muscle stiffness • Evidence implicating abnormalities of the myofascial neighborhood beyond the MTrP |
| Relation to MPS MTrP causes MPS symptomatology: • MTrP associates with focal pain and hyperirritability • MTrP presents with pain radiation • MTrP perturbation produces local twitch response | Relation to MPS Relationship between MTrP and MPS has not yet been determined: • Patients may have MPS without MTrPs, and MTrPs without MPS • MTrP may or may not present with pain radiation • MTrP perturbation does not always produce local twitch response |
| Clinical Evaluation Clinical case series propose tentative link between symptoms and physical findings: • A specific collection of symptoms is associated with MTrPs including regional pain, decreased flexibility, and clinical signs of allodynia and hyperalgesia • Stereotypical patterns of referred pain are associated with MTrPs in different muscles | Clinical Evaluation Clinical studies and trials establish link between symptoms and physical findings: • Mechanisms of muscle nociception, sensitization, and pain have been well documented • Biochemical studies link painful MTrPs with muscle nociception, sensitization, and pain |
| Treatment Treatments target MTrPs to reduce pain: • Spray and stretch • Deep massage • Anesthetic injections • Pharmacological agents | Treatment Treatments target MTrP to reduce pain and improve symptoms and function: • Manual manipulation • Dry needling • Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation • Ultrasound |
| Outcome Measures Treatment of MTrP leads to: • Improvement of pain • Increased flexibility (anecdotally) | Outcome Measures Treatment of MTrP leads to: • Improvement of pain • Decreased tenderness • Increased range of motion • Improvement of quality of life |
항목좌측 열 (전통적/고전적 설명) 우측 열 (증거 기반 설명)
| MTrP 특징 (MTrP Characteristics) | - MTrP를 “긴장된 근육 밴드 내의 과민성 부위(hyperirritable locus)”로 정의하며, 압박 시 통증이 발생하고 특징적인 방사통(referred pain)과 자율신경 현상을 유발할 수 있음 - 활성(active) MTrP와 잠재성(latent) MTrP를 구분 - MTrP 식별을 위한 코딩된 기준 제시 - 전기진단학적 연구를 통해 신경근 접합부(neuromuscular junction) 이상을 증명 | - 비정상적인 신체 소견의 객관적 측정은 MTrP 병태생리를 시사함 - 생화학적 소견: 국소 및 원격 염증, 국소 산성 환경(local acidic milieu)을 나타냄 - 생화학적 소견: 국소 감작(local sensitization)을 시사 - 산소화 연구: 국소 저산소증(hypoxia) 영역을 나타냄 - 영상 연구: 국소 근육 경직(stiffness) 영역을 나타냄 - MTrP 주변 근막 환경(myofascial neighborhood)의 이상을 시사하는 증거 |
| 근막통증증후군(MPS)과의 관계 (Relation to MPS) | - MTrP가 MPS 증상을 유발함 - MTrP는 국소 통증과 과민성과 관련 - MTrP는 방사통과 함께 나타남 - MTrP 자극 시 국소 경련 반응(local twitch response)이 발생 | - MTrP와 MPS의 관계는 아직 명확히 밝혀지지 않음 - MPS가 없는 환자에서도 MTrP가 있을 수 있고, MTrP가 있는 환자에서도 MPS가 없을 수 있음 - MTrP는 방사통과 함께 나타날 수도, 나타나지 않을 수도 있음 - MTrP 자극이 항상 국소 경련 반응을 유발하는 것은 아님 |
| 임상 평가 (Clinical Evaluation) | - 임상 증례 시리즈는 증상과 신체 소견 사이의 잠정적 연관성을 제안 - MTrP와 관련된 특정 증상 모음: 국소 통증, 유연성 감소, 압통, 이질통(allodynia), 과민통(hyperalgesia) - 서로 다른 근육에서 특징적인 방사통 패턴이 관찰됨 | - 임상 연구와 시험은 증상과 신체 소견 사이의 연관성을 확립 - 근육 통각(nociception), 감작(sensitization), 통증 기전이 잘 문서화됨 - 생화학 연구는 통증성 MTrP와 근육 통각, 감작, 통증을 연결 |
| 치료 (Treatment) | - MTrP를 표적으로 하는 치료는 통증을 감소시킴 - Spray and stretch - Deep massage - 마취제 주사(Anesthetic injections) - 약리학적 약물(Pharmacological agents) | - MTrP를 표적으로 하는 치료는 통증 감소와 기능 개선을 목적으로 함 - 수기 조작(Manual manipulation) - 건식침(Dry needling) - 경피적 전기 신경 자극(Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation) - 초음파(Ultrasound) |
| 결과 측정 (Outcome Measures) | - MTrP 치료의 결과: - 통증 개선 - 유연성 증가 (anecdotally, 경험적으로) | - MTrP 치료의 결과: - 통증 개선 - 압통 감소 - 운동 범위 증가 - 삶의 질 개선 |
결론 및 임상적 의미
MTrP와 MPS의 병태생리는 아직 완전히 밝혀지지 않았으나,
초음파와 생화학 분석으로
객관적 이상(저에코, 강성 증가, 국소 염증 환경)이 확인되고 있습니다.
MTrP는
단순한 “수축 결절”이 아닌,
근육·근막·신경·면역 상호작용의 복합 결과로 보아야 합니다.
임상에서는
palpation 외에 초음파를 활용해 진단 정확도를 높이고,
치료 효과를 모니터링할 수 있습니다.
Dry needling 등 MTrP 표적 치료가 증상 완화에 유용합니다.
제한점 (논문에서 지적)
이전 대화와의 연관성
9. Fernández-de-las-Peñas C, Dommerholt J (2018). International consensus on diagnostic criteria and clinical considerations of myofascial trigger points: a Delphi study. Pain Med.
국제 전문가 Delphi 합의로
MTrP 진단 기준 표준화(taut band + tenderness + referred pain 등).
진단의 주관성을 줄인 현대적 합의.
주요 결과 (가장 중요한 부분)
전문가들의 70% 이상이 동의한
핵심 진단 기준을 다음과 같이 정리했습니다.
MTrP 필수 진단 기준 (Essential Diagnostic Criteria)
세 가지 기준 중 최소 2가지 이상이 있어야 TrP로 진단할 수 있다는 합의:
→ 특히 “taut band + hypersensitive spot” 조합이 가장 강력한 진단 지표로 인정됨.
활성(Active) vs 잠재성(Latent) TrP 구분
기타 합의된 임상적 고려사항
결론
이 Delphi 연구는
그동안 논란이 많았던 MTrP 진단 기준을 국제 전문가 합의로 표준화한 중요한 논문
10. Dry needling in active or latent trigger point in patients with neck pain: a randomized clinical trial
Sci Rep. 2022 Feb 24;12:3188.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8873236/
이 연구는
2022년 Scientific Reports에 발표된 무작위 대조 임상시험(RCT)으로,
만성 목 통증 환자에서 상부 승모근(upper trapezius)에
deep dry needling(DDN, 깊은 건식 침술)을 시행할 때,
active myofascial trigger point(활성 MTrP),
latent MTrP(잠재성 MTrP),
non-MTrP(트리거 포인트가 아닌 부위) 중 어디를 찌르는 것이 더 효과적인지 비교한 연구.
연구 방법
그래프에서 보이는 수치 (대략적)
|
주요 결과
결론 (연구자 요약)
상부 승모근의 활성 트리거 포인트(active MTrP)에 deep dry needling을 적용하면,
잠재성 MTrP나 트리거 포인트가 아닌 부위에 비해
통증 강도 감소 효과가 더 크고 지속적입니다(특히 1주~1개월).
그러나
DDN을 근육에 시행하는 것 자체는 위치와 관계없이
통증과 기능 개선에 긍정적인 효과를 보입니다.
임상적 의미
목 통증 환자에게 dry needling을 고려할 때, 활성 트리거 포인트를 정확히 찾아 치료하는 것이 더 좋은 결과를 기대할 수 있다는 점을 시사
11. Proposal of a diagnostic algorithm for myofascial trigger points based on a multiple correspondence analysis of cross-sectional data
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9872335/
근막통증증후군(Myofascial Pain Syndrome, MPS)의 형태학적 상관물질인
근막 트리거 포인트(Myofascial Trigger Points, MTrPs)는
전 세계적으로 만성 통증의 주요 원인입니다.
그러나
MTrP의 진단 기준에 대한 불확실성이 여전히 존재합니다.
이 연구는
물리적 검사에서 평가 가능한 13가지 MTrP 진단 기준을 분석하여,
클러스터를 도출하고 MTrP 진단을 위한 데이터 기반 알고리즘을 제안하는 것을 목적으로 했습니다.
연구 방법
주요 결과
방사통은 Cluster 3과 4에서만 나타났습니다.
결절(nodule)은 상대적으로 기여도가 낮았고,
보완 기준 중 운동 범위 제한과 수축 시 통증이 진단에 더 중요한 역할을 했습니다.
의사들의 MTrP/MPS 진단과 통증 관련성은 Cluster 3·4에서 현저히 높았습니다.
제안된 진단 알고리즘 (Munich Myofascial Trigger Point Score, MMTS)
확정적 MTrP 진단 조건:
이 알고리즘은 고전적 기준만으로는 불충분하고, 근육 기능 이상 징후를 더 중요하게 고려해야 함을 강조합니다.
결론 및 임상적 의미
Figure 1: M. trapezius (A)와 M. levator scapulae (B)의 palpation 검사 방법.
→ 화살표가 근육 섬유 구조에 수직인 palpation 방향을 보여줍니다.
연구에서 사용된 표준화된 검사 기법을 시각화한 그림으로,
taut band나 nodule 등을 감지하는 데 중요한 기술을 설명합니다.
Figure 2: Scree plot (스크리 플롯). → MCA에서 유지할 차원 수를 결정하기 위한 그래프. 각 근육별로 2차원 솔루션이 적절함을 보여주며 (설명 분산 44.6~59.9%), 고전적 기준이 Dimension 1을, 보완 기준이 Dimension 2를 주로 설명함을 뒷받침합니다.
Figure 3: MCA-plots of categories of MTrP diagnostic criteria. (A: trapezius left, B: trapezius right, C: levator scapulae left, D: levator scapulae right) → 13가지 기준 카테고리(예: TB=taut band, HSTB=hypersensitive spot within taut band, RP=referred pain, LT=local twitch 등)의 연관성을 2차원 평면에 플롯한 그래프. 클러스터 분석의 기반이 되는 시각화로, 고전적 기준들이 한쪽에, 드문 보완 기준들이 다른 쪽에 군집되는 패턴을 보여줍니다.
Figure 4~5: (추가 플롯) 클러스터별 기준 분포나 상관관계 등을 보완적으로 보여주는 그래프들로, 각 클러스터의 특징(예: Cluster 4에서 방사통과 보완 기준이 함께 나타남)을 구체화합니다.
|
Figure 6: Proposed diagnostic algorithm (Munich Myofascial Trigger Point Score, MMTS).
→ 본 논문의 핵심 결과물인 진단 흐름도.
Taut band + hypersensitive spot를 기본으로 확인한 후,
referred pain / local twitch / ≥2 complementary criteria를 추가로 확인하여
MTrP를 확정하는 단계별 알고리즘을 도식화한 그림입니다.
임상에서 바로 활용할 수 있도록 설계되었습니다.
12. Tsai P et al. (2024). Myofascial trigger point (MTrP) size and elasticity properties can be used to differentiate characteristics of MTrPs in lower back skeletal muscle. Sci Rep (제공 논문).
초음파로 크기·깊이·stiffness 조합 지표 개발
→ 통증 MTrP를 객관적으로 구분.
2020년대 quantitative, non-invasive diagnosis의 최신 분기점.
이 논문들은
MTrP 연구를 “임상 관찰
→ 생화학·영상 객관화
→ 진단 기준 합의
→ 정량적 도구”로 발전
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10981696/
이 연구는
하요부(허리) 근육의 근막통증유발점(Myofascial Trigger Point, MTrP)의
크기(size)와 탄성(elasticity/stiffness) 특성을
초음파(ultrasound)와 정적 압력(static force)을 이용해
정량적으로 분석한 횡단적 기술 연구(cross-sectional descriptive study)입니다.
연구 목적
연구 방법
주요 결과
그림 설명 (Figure 반드시 포함)
Figure 1: 실험 방법 및 MTrP 변형 분석
Figure 2: 단일 MTrP의 깊이와 경도 관계
Figure 3~5 (추가 주요 그림): 크기·깊이·거리별 경도 변화, 통증 유무에 따른 분류, 두 개의 MTrP가 있을 때의 영향 등을 보여주는 산점도와 모델 그래프들.
결론 및 임상적 의미
하요부 MTrP의 크기(두께), 깊이, 탄성 특성(stiffness/strain)을 조합하면 활성/잠재성 MTrP를 더 객관적으로 구분할 수 있습니다. 특히 통증을 동반한 MTrP는 더 작고 단단하며 깊은 위치에 있어, 초음파를 이용한 정량적 평가가 진단과 치료(예: dry needling 등) 정확도를 높일 수 있습니다.
이 연구는 MTrP의 생물역학적 특성을 처음으로 정량적으로 제시한 점에서 의미가 크며, 향후 진단 도구 개발의 기초가 될 수 있습니다.
2024년 논문 추가
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11266154/
근골격계 질환,
특히 만성 근육 통증은 전 세계적으로 수많은 사람에게 불편, 장애, 사회경제적 부담을 초래합니다.
이 리뷰는
근막통증(Myofascial Pain)의 진단과 치료를 발전시키기 위해,
트리거 포인트(Trigger Point) 이론의 최신 진보를 종합적으로 검토합니다.
주요 초점:
통증 분류 (주요 결과)
근육 통증 패턴을 다음 3가지로 체계적으로 분류했습니다:
Table 1: 신체 부위별 근육 수와 통증 유형 분포 (Head/Neck, Upper Back/Shoulder, Forearm 등 총 89개 근육 분석).
치료 및 임상적 접근
결론 및 임상적 의미
트리거 포인트 이론을 통증 패턴으로 세분화하면 진단이 더 정확해지고, 치료가 표적화될 수 있습니다. 임상에서는 개인화된 치료 계획(dry needling + manual therapy + 재활 운동)과 다학제 접근을 권고합니다. 환자 교육과 기능 평가를 통해 장기적인 통증 관리를 강조합니다.
그림 설명
13. Ultrasound features of myofascial trigger points: a multimodal study integrating preliminary histological findings from the upper trapezius.
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-05869-2
상부 승모근(upper trapezius, UT)의
활성 근막통증유발점(active MTrP)에서
초음파(그레이스케일, 전단파 탄성초음파 SWE, 도플러, SMI)와
조직생검(조직학적 분석)을 결합하여
MTrP의 특징을 밝히고,
건식침(Dry Needling, DN) 치료 전후 변화를 객관적으로 평가하는 다중 모달 연구입니다.
전통적인 “contraction knot” 이론을
재검토하는 데 초점.
연구 방법
주요 결과
주요 그림 (Figure 설명)
Figure 2: 상부 승모근과 깊은 근막 두께 초음파 (a) DN 전 MTrP 측 (두껍고 불규칙) (b) DN 후 (두께 감소) (c) 건강 측 비교
Figure 3: 전단파 탄성초음파 (SWE) – Young’s modulus (a) DN 전: 높은 강성 (빨강/노랑 영역) (b) DN 후: 강성 감소 (c) 건강 측: 낮은 강성
Figure 4: 혈관 저항지수(RI)와 혈류 속도 (도플러)
Figure 5: 미세혈관 이미징 (SMI) – Vascularity Index DN 후 혈관 지수가 크게 증가하는 모습
Figure 6: 조직학 (H&E, Masson’s trichrome, 면역염색)
Figure 7: 전자현미경
(Figure 1은 연구 흐름도)
결론 및 임상적 의미
Dry Needling은 상부 승모근 MTrP의 두께와 강성을 줄이고 혈류를 개선하여 통증을 빠르게 완화합니다. 초음파(SWE + 그레이스케일 + SMI)는 MTrP를 객관적으로 진단하고 치료 효과를 모니터링하는 유용한 바이오마커입니다.
조직학적으로 전통적인 contraction knot 대신 근육 리모델링, 섬유화, 미세염증이 주요 병태생리임을 시사하며, MTrP를 대사 피로 + 섬유화 + 신경면역 상호작용으로 재정의
14. Myofascial trigger points therapy increases neck mobility and reduces headache pain in migraine patients – pilot study
편두통(migraine) 여성 환자에서
허혈성 압박 근막통증유발점 치료(Ischemic Compression MTrPs therapy, IC-MTrPs)가
연구 방법
주요 결과
주요 그림 및 테이블
결론 및 임상적 의미
허혈성 압박 MTrPs 치료(IC-MTrPs)는 편두통 모든 아형에서 경추 가동범위를 증가시키고 두통 강도·빈도·지속시간을 유의하게 감소시켰습니다. CGRP 농도에는 큰 영향을 주지 않았으나, 근골격계 접근(특히 상부 승모근 MTrP)이 편두통 관리에 유용한 비약물적 옵션이 될 수 있음을 시사
MTrP에 대해서 잘 정리된 2025년 논문
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11998975/
MPS의
위험요인, 병태생리(etiogenesis), 진단 기준, 감별진단, 치료 옵션을
최신 증거를 바탕으로 종합 정리
1. 역학 및 위험요인 (Prevalence & Risk Factors)
2. 병태생리 (Etiopathogenesis)
3. 진단 (Diagnosis)
전체 진단 흐름 요약 (Figure 2) 시작: 환자가 의심되는 MPS로 내원 ↓ 필수 진단 단계 (Essential diagnostic steps)
주요 기준 (Major Criteria) — 5가지 모두 필요 (5 required)
임상 병력 + 신체 검사 → Simons 기준(5 major + 1 minor) 적용 → Possible/Probable/Confirmed MPS 분류 → 감별진단 및 중추 감작 평가를 체계적으로 진행하도록 제안 |
4. 치료 (Treatment)
감별진단
섬유근육통(fibromyalgia), 신경병증성 통증, 골관절염 등과 구분 (MPS는 국소적이며 twitch response가 특징적)
결론 및 임상적 함의
MPS는 만성 생심사회적(biopsychosocial) 질환으로, MTrPs가 통증, 기능 장애, 삶의 질 저하를 일으킨다
15. 암환자 MTrP 탐구!!!
두경부 암 치료(수술 또는 방사선 치료) 후
3개월 이상 경과한 환자에서
근막통증(Myofascial Pain Syndrome, MPS) 의 점유병률(point prevalence)을 조사하고,
특히 국제 합의 진단 기준(Fernández-de-las-Peñas & Dommerholt, 2018)을 적용해 객관성을 높였습니다.
연구 방법
주요 결과
암 치료 후 근막통증은
방사선 섬유화(radiation fibrosis), 수술로 인한 조직 손상, 만성 염증, 자세 변화 등으로 인해 흔히 발생합니다.
특히 목·어깨 근육(sternocleidomastoid, trapezius, levator scapulae 등)의 TrP는
머리/목 움직임 제한, 자세 불량을 유발하며, 이는 일상생활 장애와 심리적 고통(우울증)을 악화
토론 및 결론
두경부 암 치료 후 근막통증은 방사선 섬유화(radiation fibrosis), 수술로 인한 조직 손상, 만성 염증, 자세 변화 등으로 인해 흔히 발생합니다. 특히 목·어깨 근육(sternocleidomastoid, trapezius, levator scapulae 등)의 TrP는 머리/목 움직임 제한, 자세 불량을 유발하며, 이는 일상생활 장애와 심리적 고통(우울증)을 악화시킵니다
근막통증증후군(Myofascial Pain Syndrome, MPS)은
만성 근골격계 통증 증후군입니다.
이 narrative review의 목적은
암 환자 및 암 생존자에서 MPS의 역학(유병률)과 치료 증거를 정리하고,
향후 연구 방향을 제안하는 것입니다.
방법 (Methods)
암 종양학 분야에서
MPS의 유병률과 치료를 다룬 기존 보고서들을 종합한
서술적 리뷰(narrative review)입니다.
대상 집단: 암 환자(cancer patients)와 암 생존자(cancer survivors).
주요 결과 (Results)
1. 유병률 (Prevalence)
총 5개 연구(전향적 3개 + 후향적 2개)가 유병률을 조사했습니다.
2. 치료 효과 (Treatment Evidence)
총 9개 보고서에서 다음 중재의 효과를 검토:
결론 및 제언 (Conclusions)
임상적 함의
암 환자의 통증 관리는 암 자체 통증뿐 아니라 근막통증 같은 근골격계 문제를 함께 평가하고 다학제적으로 접근해야 합니다. 특히 불치성 암 환자와 치료 후 생존자에서 MPS를 조기에 발견하고 관리하는 것이 삶의 질 향상에 중요
Sci Rep
. 2024 Mar 30;14:7562. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-57733-4
Myofascial trigger point (MTrP) size and elasticity properties can be used to differentiate characteristics of MTrPs in lower back skeletal muscle
P Tsai 1, J Edison 2, C Wang 3, J Sefton 4, K Q Manning 3, M W Gramlich 5,✉
PMCID: PMC10981696 PMID: 38555353
Abstract
Myofascial trigger points (MTrPs) are localized contraction knots that develop after muscle overuse or an acute trauma. Significant work has been done to understand, diagnose, and treat MTrPs in order to improve patients suffering from their effects. However, effective non-invasive diagnostic tools are still a missing gap in both understanding and treating MTrPs. Effective treatments for patients suffering from MTrP mediated pain require a means to measure MTrP properties quantitatively and diagnostically both prior to and during intervention. Further, quantitative measurements of MTrPs are often limited by the availability of equipment and training. Here we develop ultrasound (US) based diagnostic metrics that can be used to distinguish the biophysical properties of MTrPs, and show how those metrics can be used by clinicians during patient diagnosis and treatment. We highlight the advantages and limitations of previous US-based approaches that utilize elasticity theory. To overcome these previous limitations, we use a hierarchical approach to distinguish MTrP properties by patients’ reported pain and clinician measured palpation. We show how US-based measurements can characterize MTrPs with this approach. We demonstrate that MTrPs tend to be smaller, stiffer, and deeper in the muscle tissue for patients with pain compared to patients without pain. We provide evidence that more than one MTrP within a single US-image field increases the stiffness of neighboring MTrPs. Finally, we highlight a combination of metrics (depth, thickness, and stiffness) that can be used by clinicians to evaluate individual MTrPs in combination with standard clinical assessments.
Subject terms: Biophysics, Diagnostic markers, Imaging, Biological physics
Introduction
It is estimated that 30–85% of patients visiting primary care or pain clinics suffer from myofascial pain syndrome (MPS), a painful condition that affect muscles and fascia1,2. Small nodules of tight tissue, called myofascial trigger points (MTrPs)3,4, can be found in the affected muscle tissues1,2. Diagnosis of MPS is primarily based on patients’ report and physical examination, such as palpation. This presents a serious problem for proper diagnosis since effective palpation requires clinicians to possess vital skills and experience. Like most chronic pain conditions, patients may first be seen by primary physicians. Unfortunately, most primary physicians lack the skill and experience to identify MPS and intervene. In addition, most patients may be reluctant to report or dismiss their suffering until it flares up and requires urgent medical attention. Therefore, similar to other chronic pain conditions, MPS patients may potentially be undertreated5. However, until the field can be advanced to provide proper MPS diagnosis, we cannot be certain about the prevalence of MPS and its consequences. This lack of advancement also prevents the development of training protocols for providers to identify and treat MPS and teaching materials for patients to be made aware of this chronic pain condition and treatment options. Therefore, the overarching goal of this project was to identify an objective measurement protocol for MPS diagnosis and treatment outcomes evaluation. In this study, we used MPS of the low back as a study model since it is one of the most affected body regions3,4.
It has been hypothesized that poor posture, muscle overuse and/or physical injury lead to muscle overload. This creates a series of underlying mechanistic responses that lead to the development of MTrPs6–9. For example, one initiating mechanism includes an increase of local acetylcholine (ACh) levels. ACh release is associated with ischemia and hypoxia in muscle tissue, disrupted mitochondrial activities, and the release of sensitizing substances6. Sustained muscle contraction and continuous release of these molecules often cause nociception and pain reaction6,10. MTrPs begin to form during this process as a local contraction in a small number of muscle fibers in a larger muscle bundle or muscle mass. These MTrPs in turn can contribute to pull on tendons and ligaments associated with the muscle. All of these factors then reduce muscle strength and alter the elastic capacity of the affected muscle6,8–10. Further, these complex combinations of mechanisms lead to different types of MTrPs that in turn differentially affect patients. Thus, the ability to distinguish between different types of MTrPs has been an important issue, both from a fundamental science and a clinical perspective, in order to better effectively treat MPS.
Importantly, while there is a broad consensus on clinically diagnosing different types of MTrPs11,12, there is still uncertainty in if/how to treat MTrPs based on types. Two established categories of MTrP types are called active or latent. For active MTrPs, patients exhibit: (i) muscle weakness, (ii) local twitching response when palpated by the clinician, (iii) taut band, and (iv) referred pain. Alternatively, patients with latent MTrPs exhibit symptoms (i)–(iii) but do not always report referred pain. This has made the treatment of MTrPs and MPS difficult because patients with latent MTrPs may not always seek relief due to lack of pain, resulting in worsening symptoms. The underlying mechanisms that lead to differences in MTrPs and their clinical implications are still unclear. Thus, there has been significant interest in studying the basic properties of MTrPs in order to better understand how to diagnose and treat them.
The elastic properties of MTrPs have been established as biomarkers because they can provide insights into MTrP formation and effectiveness of intervention treatments. Fundamental elasticity theory13 has been an effective framework to understand and quantify MTrP properties, because MTrPs are composed of surrounding elastic muscle tissue which have established elasticity properties14. MTrPs function as defects in the local muscle structure15,16, equivalent to point defects in a lattice structure13,17. This has proven to be a useful framework. MTrPs have been observed with in vivo imaging to have fewer elastic properties than the surrounding tissue15. Previous studies have assumed the MTrP defects and surrounding tissues are both composed of homogenous material and structure15. This may not be accurate, thus limiting the application of the theory. Further, elasticity theory states the local defects also alter the elasticity properties of the surrounding environment17, implying that developing and worsening MTrPs may be associated with a change of elasticity in the affected tissues. Therefore, identifying biomarkers that can be used to better quantify levels of elasticity in both MTrPs and surrounding muscle tissues are essential to assist in diagnosing MTrP(s).
Recent developments indicate that structural imaging methods are effective tools to identify MTrPs. Ultrasound (US) is one of the most promising tools. US can be used to differentiate between MTrPs and the surrounding normal tissues16, and to map the elastic properties of soft tissues15. US imagery indicates MTrPs are much stiffer than normal tissue in terms of tissue strain16,18–20. However, recent research using vibration sonoelastography has failed to demonstrate the sensitivity to distinguish between different types of MTrPs21. The data showed that two types of MTrPs (active and latent) have a similar degree of stiffness5. This presents a major challenge for early treatment for patients, because latent MTrPs are often not associated with spontaneous pain report22, which may prevent patients from seeking medical attention. Delayed detection and treatment of latent MTrPs could lead to worsening of MPS and further development of chronicity.
MTrP locations also affect the ability to diagnose and develop effective intervention techniques. MTrPs are often observed around the head, neck16, shoulder, back15 and extremities. MTrPs in these locations have different environments (composed of muscle, fascia and connective tissue) that can in turn affect their properties: size, elastic properties, amounts of blood flow in the surrounding tissue, and even the ability to be effectively imaged. Effective treatments for MTrPs will change depending upon location due to how the local muscles are being used.
Gaps in our understanding remain despite broadly established knowledge of the pathophysiology of MTrPs and the application of US for their diagnosis. Previous work exploring elastic properties of muscle explored in vitro muscle tissue revealed vast differences in native elasticity14,23. Additionally, in vivo measurements of MTrP within muscle tissues were based on assumptions involving elastic properties of MTrPs and muscles tissue, without direct measurements15,16. Further, the application of force-based intervention treatment, such either static force15 or vibrational waves16,24, did not take into account how changes in the local tissue environment alter results. Thus, a comprehensive US and force-based approach that can be utilized by clinicians is still a major gap.
In the present study we sought duals goals to: (i) advance our understanding of basic MTrP properties based on different types, and (ii) use US-measured basic MTrP properties to establish biomarkers for clinicians to use during diagnosis. To accomplish these goals we quantitatively differentiate the elastic properties of MTrPs in lower back muscles using a US and static force-based approach. We first establish that all MTrPs respond to a localized static compressive force by establishing a stiffness parameter that is directly measurable using US imaging. We then categorize MTrPs, into four groups based on different categories. Next, we utilize the stiffness metric to show that the MTrP response to applied force depends upon: (i) MTrP depth in muscle tissue, (ii) MTrP size relative to muscle tissue, and (iii) MTrP distance from applied force. We show that the number of MTrPs affect the elasticity properties of each individual MTrP. Finally, we use the biophysical proterties of MTrPs to present how stiffness and corrected strain parameters can distinguish the difference between four categories of MTrPs in a clinically relevant diagnosis and treatment evaluation environment.
MethodsPatient recruitment
This project was part of a larger study which investigated characteristics of patients with MPS of the low back. The current project only reports the difference among 4 groups of MTrPs at the local MTrP level (defined in "Patient MTrP categories of response:"). The original study was a cross-sectional descriptive study conducted between 8-30-2021 and 6-30-2022 after receiving approval from IRBs of Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine (VCOM, #1797222) and Auburn University (#22-018 EP 2201). Twenty-five participants were recruited from VCOM and Auburn University campuses using a snow-ball sampling method. The study included participants who (1) were diagnosed with non-specific low back pain, (2) English-speaking, and (3) ambulatory without a cane or walker. Participants were excluded if they had (1) major illness, such as cancer, (2) major surgery within 6 months, (3) major psychiatric disorder, such as bipolar disorder and depression, (4) cognitive impairment or (5) other painful conditions of the low back.
The number of patients required for this study were based on the number of MTrPs required using a power analysis. To establish statistically significant differences in MTrPs based on categories (identified in "Patient MTrP categories of response") we estimated differences to be measured using paired samples t-test. We assumed a minimum significance level set at 0.05, power at 0.80, and medium effect size Cohen's d at 0.50. For these conditions, a minimum number of 27 MTrPs was required. A majority of patients exhibiting more than one MTrP. Thus, our patient sample size of 25 participants is sufficient based on our power analysis.
Ultrasound measurements
Identifying location, number and type of MTrPs: the participant was asked to lie in a prone position on an examination table. The participant was examined by an osteopathic doctor using a physical examination and palpation to determine the presence, site, and number of MTrPs on low back muscles between L1 and S1. The ultrasound procedure described later was used to confirm the finding of MTrPs.
The physician then randomly selected three MTrPs in each participant for further ultrasound evaluation procedure using the Sonosit Edge II system. Two images were taken for each MTrP site. One gray scale US image was taken without force and a second image was taken immediately after applying ~ 4.5 N weight to the same site. Images were coded for follow-up analysis. We recorded coordinates and the length of the maximum vertical line of the MTrP muscle tissues with and without applied force. The measured length of maximum vertical lines in images with and without applied force was used to assess strain of muscle tissues. Stress was determined by dividing applied force by transducer contact area. The elastic modulus was determined by the ratio between stress and strain.
Calculated tensile stress due to applied force on the ultrasound head
Based on the reduction in measured MTrP compression with distance (Fig. 4), we corrected the total area over which our applied force occurred, which is less than the head size (See “Methods”); we assume that the surface area of the force applied on the muscle tissue occurs with a radius between 1.5 and 2 cm, given that measured MTrP compression did not occur beyond this distance.
Figure 4.
MTrP stiffness response decreases with increasing longitudinal distance from applied force: (A) model of MTrP response to applied static force as a function of distance from force (δx). (B) Example of two MTrPs directly beneath the applied force (left panel), or equal distance from applied force (right panel). Each MTrP is designated as Left or Right. (C) Stiffness of Left and Right MTrP versus longitudinal distance (δx) between the two MTrPs. Stiffness for both Left MTrP (black squares) and Right MTrP (red circles) decreases exponentially with distance between points (solid line). (D) Implied force on Left and Right MTrPs as a function of lateral distance from applied force.
Exclusion criteria for data analysis
MTrPs were excluded from analysis if their transverse height was greater in the presence of applied force than without applied force. This increase in height with applied force is likely a consequence of changing MTrP orientation and/or muscle orientation during US imaging.
Patient MTrP categories of response
We tracked patient pain and twitch response in addition to the US measurements. The existence of an MTrP does not necessarily guarantee that an individual will report spontaneous pain. Further, under locally applied pressure affected muscles may or may not twitch in the presence of a nodule confirmed by palpation and ultrasound procedure. We collected 75 ultrasound images and then designated four distinct categories based on Travell and Simons criteria, and divided MTrP characteristics into four groups as described below (Table 1)6. One outlier was identified as the image which included three MTrPs, and was removed from data analysis.
Table 1.
Report of 4 categories.
CategoryTaut band palpableTenderness spot upon palpationReport of current pain constantly or during movement on the low back, discomfort, soreness or other related syndromesTwitching observedNsingleNtwo
| 1 | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | 16 | 3 |
| 2 | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | 8 | 0 |
| 3 | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | 15 | 2 |
| 4 | Yes | No | No | No | 21 | 9 |
| Total | 60 | 14 |
Criteria used to diagnose myofascial trigger point pain syndrome vary, and include the classic definition of MTrPs provided by Travell and Simons3, and recent international consensus of the MTrP diagnostic criteria11. In this study the MTrPs were divided into four groups based on their characteristics. Category 1 was defined as a tender spot within a taut band of a skeletal muscle, a local twitch response, spontaneous local or referred pain, discomfort, soreness, restricted movement, or other related symptoms. Category 2 was similar to Category 1, but did not show spontaneous local or referred pain, discomfort, soreness, or other related complaints. Category 3 demonstrated all of the characteristics of Category 1, except for the twitch response. Finally, Category 4’s only characteristic was a taught band within a skeletal muscle (see Table 1).
Hierarchical categorization approach
In this study we had two goals: (i) establish if US stiffness measurement parameters are sufficient to distinguish changes in MTrP elasticity; and (ii) establish if US stiffness measurements can be used as diagnostic tools for different categories in the international consensus25. To achieve these goals we performed a hierarchical approach to determine the limits of US stiffness measurement parameters as follows:
ComparisonCategoriesFigure(s)
| Stiffness sensitivity for all MTrP categories combined | 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 | 1, 4, 5 |
| Patients with reported pain vs. no reported pain | 1 + 3 (pain) compared to 2 + 4 (no-pain) | 2, 3 |
| All patient categories separated | 1, 2, 3, 4 | 6 |
In the final comparison of all categories separately we present how US measured stiffness can be used by clinicians as a tool to distinguish categories11.
Statistical analysis
Statistical comparisons between pressure/no-pressure (Fig. 1), and all MTrP groups (Fig. 2, 5, 6) were performed as pair-wise two-tailed t-tests. Comparison between MTrP groups as a function of depth or thickness (Figs. 2, 3) were performed using repeated-measured t-tests. Comparisons between MTrPs and equations describing MTrP stiffness as a function of depth/thickness were performed using χ2 analysis.
Figure 1.
Experimental MTrP measurement resolution and analysis: (A) example MTrP measurement using ultrasound. MTrP point measurements are identified relative to the muscle tissue size. (B) MTrP compression resolution is measured using transverse height of a single MTrP and its corresponding longitudinal length (L). Measured height (h0) decreases under direct application of 1 lbp pressure (hp). (C) Aggregate circularity ratio (h/L) decreases with pressure. **P < 0.01, 2-tailed t-test; mean ± SEM; N = 65 both conditions.
Figure 2.
Single MTrP response: (A) model representation of decreasing deformation with depth. Local force experienced by the MTrP decreases quadratically with depth. (B) Distribution of MTrPs versus depth in tissue. (C) Cartoon Model of MTrP compression dependent upon depth in tissue. (D) MTrP stiffness increases linearly with depth in tissue. Inset shows average MTrP stiffness separated by pain (green) and no-pain (blue). (E) Inferred effective for at MTrP as a function of depth in tissue. (F) Inferred effective for at MTrP as a function of depth in tissue separated by pain (green stars) and no-pain (blue circles).
Figure 5.
Comparison of one and two MTrPs within an US image region: (A) Comparison of strain for a single MTrP and two MTrP data. Single MTrPs are uncorrected, while two MTrP data is corrected for longitudinal distance. (B) Calculated Young’s modulus for single MTrP and two MTrPs. All data corrected for depth and distance from applied force. Means ± SEM; statistical tests are two-tailed t-test; Nsingle = 54; Ntwo = 28.
Figure 6.
Comparison of MTrPs with reported pain and/or twitching group. (A) Comparison of MTrP thickness. (B) Comparison of MTrP depth in tissue. (C) Comparison of compression ratio for a single MTrP data. (D) Comparison of MTrP corrected strain. All data corrected for depth and distance from applied force. All N-values given in Table 1. Means ± SEM; statistical tests are 2-tailed t-test.
Figure 3.
Single MTrP stiffness response correlates with MTrP size: (A) example MTrP compression measured versus original MTrP thickness. (B) Distribution of MTrP sizes. Average MTrP size is 0.6 cm. (C) MTrP size correlates with muscle thickness. (D) MTrP stiffness slightly decreases with increasing thickness. Grey points show raw data, and red squares are equal number averaged data. (E) MTrP stiffness slightly decreases with increasing fraction of muscle tissue. Grey points show raw data, and red squares are equal number averaged data. (F) MTrP as a function of muscle fraction separated by pain (green stars) and no-pain (blue circles). Data for each group have been separated into equal number (N = 6 MTrPs) bins. On average, Active MTrPs are more stiff than Latent MTrPs for the same size and fraction of muscle tissue. Statistical comparison from pair-wise repeated measures t-test.
MTrP identification and quantification with ultrasound imaging approach
We first established the parameters used to measure and quantify MTrP response to pressure (Fig. 1). MTrPs were identified using an established palpation approach (see “Methods”). We defined the longitudinal direction along the muscle fiber, and transverse as perpendicular to that direction. We then quantified the transverse local muscle tissue size (tissue size, Fig. 1A) to determine the location of the MTrP within the muscle. We quantified the depth of the MTrP (MTrP depth, Fig. 1A) relative to the top of the muscle tissue without applied pressure; this provides a standard approach from which to measure changes due to applied pressure. Finally, we quantified the transverse height of the MTrP (height, Fig. 1A) at its center. These combined measurements provide sufficient metrics from ultrasound image analysis for use in MTrP diagnostic analysis.
To confirm that our approach was sufficient to distinguish changes in MTrPs under pressure, we used the circularity of the MTrPs before and after applied pressure. Typically, MTrPs are elliptical in shape (top panel, Fig. 1B), with longitudinal length (L) approximately twice the transverse height (h0) (Circularity 0.54 ± 0.027, Fig. 1C) that is aligned with the direction of muscle contraction. This elliptical shape is consistent with previously established three-dimensional structure of MTrPs studied in the neck18, suggesting that MTrPs follow the shape of the muscle tissue. Under an applied static local pressure of 1 lbs. transverse to the muscle, MTrP transverse height significantly reduced in circularity ratio by ~ 22% (0.42 ± 0.03; P = 0.0023, two-tailed t-test). We note here that this difference is based on MTrP response to an applied force directly above the MTrP location, and we will show later that this ratio decreases with increasing longitudinal distance between the location of the applied force and the MTrP. This measured reduction shows that transverse height measurement is a basis for quantifying changes in MTrPs under applied pressure using ultrasound.
In the present study, we used a single measure of MTrP response to apply pressure in order to quantify the physical properties of MTrPs. Typically, MTrP analysis uses traditional Young’s Modulus calculations from elasticity theory to determine elastic properties, which is defined as:
| 𝑌=𝑃𝜀 | 1 |
| 𝑃=𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 | 2 |
| 𝜀=∣1,−,ℎ𝑃ℎ0∣ | 3 |
where hp is height after pressure (hp, Fig. 1B) and h0 the height before pressure (h0, Fig. 1B).
This approach assumes applied pressure is uniform at the MTrP regardless of the properties of the muscle tissue and MTrP position, which we will show is not always accurate. Instead, in this study we used the height ratio as our metric, which we call stiffness, and define simply as the height of the MTrP with pressure divided by the height of the MTrP without pressure. This stiffness parameter does not require any assumptions about how the MTrP responds to applied force. We interpret this metric such that a ratio of 1 implies that the MTrP does not respond to applied force and is completely stiff, while a ratio approaching 0 implies that the MTrP compresses under applied force and thus more elastic.
Authorization of human studies
This project was approved by Auburn University’s and Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine’s institutional review board. Additionally, all methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.
ResultsBiophysical characterization: MTrP response to applied static force depends on MTrP depth in tissue
We characterized the response of MTrPs to applied static force as a function of depth within the tissue, which has several clinical implications. First, palpation procedure applies force directly on the muscle surface. Potentially MTrPs near the surface may experience more force leading to a twitching response while MTrPs that lie deep within the muscle experience less force and may not produce a twitching response. The effectiveness of any static force-dependent treatment should also be affected by the location of MTrPs in the tissue. For example, force used to treat MTrPs is usually applied to the tissue surface (Fig. 2A). Surface applied force must then translate through the muscle to the MTrP within the tissue. Previous studies assumed that the force at the MTrP was equal to the applied force at the surface15,21,26; however, elasticity theory shows that an applied force at a localized point on the surface of any material will begin to decrease as a function of depth following Saint–Venant’s principle27. This would mean that force experienced locally within the muscle tissue will be less than the force applied on the surface of muscle tissue, and would follow a quadratic relationship.
We established the depth of MTrPs within the muscle tissue in order to distinguish how they respond to applied force. We observed that MTrPs can exist at all depths within the muscle tissue (Fig. 2A). However, the majority of MTrPs (~ 70%) occur near the surface of the muscle (top 25% of muscle depth, Fig. 2B), which corresponds to the surface of the body. This suggests that the majority of MTrPs will not experience a significant reduction in applied force as previously assumed. Alternatively, a significant minority of MTrPs (~ 30%) exist deeper into the muscle tissue (bottom 75% of depth, Fig. 2B) and would thus experience a decreasing effective force with increasing depth27.
In order to determine if MTrP response to static force follows Saint–Venant’s principle, we modeled the muscle tissue as a stacked layer of equally elastic material (Fig. 2C). Applied static force at the surface deforms each muscle fiber layer which is then translated to a deformation force on the MTrP (triangles indicating layers represented by deformed lines, Fig. 2C). This layered model also assumes that force is translated exclusively along the z-axis into the muscle, and only a fraction of force is translated between each muscle fiber layer, which we represent as decreasing layer deformations with increasing depth (solid lines, Fig. 2C). This model then predicts that the force at any given muscle layer decreases with depth and corresponds with a decrease in MTrP stiffness as a function of depth for an applied static surface force.
To test this response vs. depth relationship prediction, we measured MTrP stiffness (hp/h0, Fig. 1B) as a function of depth in the muscle (Fig. 2D). We observed that the majority of MTrPs near the surface have a mean stiffness of ~ 0.67, and MTrPs exhibited an apparent slight correlation of increasing stiffness with depth in the tissue (solid line, Fig. 2C), with a rate of 0.2 per fraction of depth in tissue (R2 0.08). The force at the surface is static. The apparent increasing stiffness is likely a consequence of decreasing force experienced at the MTrP within the muscle tissue.
We then use MTrP observed stiffness to determine an inferred depth-dependent local force to further support the depth-dependent MTrPs results. If we assume that the average change in MTrP stiffness corresponds to a decrease in the local effective force experienced at the MTrP, then we can use the measured stiffness results to estimate what the effective force on the MTrP would be as a function of depth. To perform this inference, we re-scaled the stiffness values by their effective depth following a quadratic relationship:
| 𝐹∼𝐹𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑∣1,−,(,𝑧2𝐷2,),/,𝐿∣ | 4 |
where z is the depth of the MTrP in the tissue and D is the total diameter of the muscle tissue, L is the characteristic decay length over which the force will dissipate. If the data follows Saint–Venant’s principle, then the observed stiffness values should all collapse onto the same quadratic curve above.
We found that the majority of MTrPs collapse onto the expected quadratic relationship with depth according to Saint–Venant’s principle (Fig. 2E). To apply this relationship, we multiplied each stiffness value (Red squares, Fig. 2D) by its normalized depth, squared the result, and subtracted from one. First, the average relationship of stiffness with depth rescales quadratically as the inferred force (solid line, Fig. 2E). Second, the rate of change in stiffness with depth (0.2, Fig. 2D) now represents the characteristic decay length (L) over which force dissipates within muscle tissue. Third, the majority of MTrPs re-scale onto the average inferred force (Red squares, Fig. 2E), which corresponds with the majority of MTrPs near the surface of the muscle tissue (Fig. 2B). This result suggests that the majority of MTrPs near the surface (< 40%, Fig. 2E) follow the quadratic relationship.
Rescaled effective MTrPs stiffness values began to deviate away from the re-scaled effective force (solid line, Fig. 2E) with depth greater than 40% of the muscle tissue. To determine if the deviation was due to elasticity differences in category, we separated the results by the Pain/No-Pain groups (Table 1). First, we measured overall stiffness (independent of depth) separated by Pain/No-Pain categories (Inset, Fig. 2D). We found that on average patients with pain have MTrPs with a slightly higher stiffness (0.73 ± 0.03) compared to patients with no-pain (0.67 ± 0.03). To determine if these average differences are reflected in the depth-dependent results, we re-scaled the stiffness values as above (Eq. 4) and separated by Pain/No-Pain groups. We observed that the deviation from the average inferred force was different for patients with pain and patients with no-pain (Fig. 2F). Beyond a depth of 30%, MTrPs from patients with reported pain remained above the average inferred force (green stars, Fig. 2F), while MTrPs from patients with no-pain reported remained below the average inferred force (blue circles, Fig. 2F). We assume that there is no difference in the local force for either groups, and thus this result suggests that patients that report pain have MTrPs with a higher stiffness than MTrPs from patients with no-pain reported, for the same force and depth confirming the finding of Fig. 2D.
Taken together, these results suggest that the depth of any MTrP must be considered as a parameter in determining any force-dependent intervention. Further, the depth-dependent results (Fig. 2D, F) support the hypothesis that MTrPs have different elastic properties, and that their elastic properties mediate whether patients report pain or no-pain.
Biophysical characterization: MTrP elasticity is dependent on MTrP size and patient pain report
We determined if MTrPs stiffness response to applied force depends upon size of the MTrP. Ultrasound results show that MTrPs exhibit different sizes and orientations within muscle tissue (Fig. 3A). Elastic material is typically assumed to be homogenous and isotropic, which would result in a compression response independent of size13,16. This has been an implicit assumption in the context of quantifying the elastic properties of MTrPs. However, the pathophysiology of MTrP formation is hypothesized to result from a low pH, accumulation of Ca2+, recruitment of motor units, and dysfunctional actin/myosin cross-bridging9,28. The consequence of this complex distribution of tissue and motor unit dysfunction would thus lead to the possibility of a heterogeneous structure that corresponds with MTrP size. This potential heterogenous combination of materials would result in elastic properties that change with size. Further, no previous study has directly explored MTrP elasticity as a function of size, which would have significant implications on designing diagnostic tools for MPS.
We characterized MTrP size and correlation with muscle tissue size in order to establish how MTrP size distribution varies within the muscle. MTrPs are composed of muscle tissue and thus would be constrained by the total amount of muscle available9,28. We observed that the average MTrP size was predominantly 0.6 ± 0.03 cm (Fig. 3B). We then observed that this average MTrP size depended upon the muscle tissue size, where the MTrP size increased linearly with muscle tissue size (0.2 cm increase in MTrP size per every cm increase of muscle tissue size, Fig. 3C). Further, the fraction of muscle tissue taken up by MTrPs is a significant amount for smaller muscles (40% for 1 cm thick muscle), but quickly decreases for larger muscles (25–30% for 3 cm thick muscles). These results suggest that MTrP stiffness and effects on surrounding muscle tissue will depend upon the MTrP size and fraction of muscle tissue it encompasses.
To understand if and how MTrP size affects elasticity measurements, we compared MTrP stiffness as a function of MTrP size and fraction of muscle tissue. We quantified MTrP stiffness with respect to its size independent of the surrounding tissue and found that stiffness decreased with increasing MTrP size (Fig. 3D). Average MTrP stiffness decreased exponentially with a rate of 0.25 cm (dashed line, Fig. 3D), up to a thickness of 0.6 cm at which point MTrP stiffness remained constant (0.6, solid line, Fig. 3D). The same relationship was observed with MTrP fraction of muscle size (Fig. 3E), where stiffness decreased exponentially (rate constant ~ 0.2) with the increasing fraction of total muscle tissue it covered. These combined results that have the same relationship for MTrP size and muscle thickness suggest that MTrPs stiffness is dependent upon MTrP size but not dependent upon the fraction of muscle it covers. Further, the observation that MTrP stiffness is constant above 0.6 cm suggests that the MTrPs become more homogeneous in structure with increasing size. However, these results do not distinguish how the MTrP structure or function mediate size-dependent stiffness.
To understand the variance in the relationship between MTrP stiffness, size, and fraction of muscle tissue, we separated MTrP stiffness by pain/no-pain categories (Fig. 3F). We observed that on average patients that reported pain have MTrP stiffness (green stars, Fig. 3F) that is larger (~ 15 to 20%) than patients that reported no-pain MTrPs (blue circles, Fig. 3F) for the same fraction of muscle tissue. Further, both types of MTrPs stiffness decrease with increasing fraction of muscle tissue with a slightly slower rate for pain (0.26, R2 = 0.56) compared to no-pain (0.43, R2 = 0.95).
These combined results show that MTrP elastic properties are dependent upon size and fraction of muscle tissue displaced. Further, these results show that patients that reported pain have MTrPs that are more stiff and less elastic than patients that reported no-pain MTrPs.
Biophysical characterization: MTrP response decreases with increasing longitudinal distance from applied force
Applied static force at any elastic material surface will decrease significantly with longitudinal distance from the location of the applied force13,29. This means that any defect within the material will experience a different effective force depending upon its longitudinal distance from the location of the applied force. Consequently, along with depth and MTrP size, the longitudinal location of the MTrP relative to the applied force will affect the measured stiffness using US imaging (Fig. 4A). If not taken into account, this difference will lead to incorrect measurements of MTrP stiffness, elasticity, and effectiveness of any force-based intervention approach. Thus, we next characterized the effective MTrP stiffness and effective force at the location of the MTrP as a function of longitudinal distances from the applied force.
To determine the role of distance from applied force, we analyzed US data that included two MTrPs in a region (Fig. 4B, C). This approach allowed us to distinguish the relationship between MTrP stiffness and applied force, because force is typically applied directly above a single MTrP; it may not be possible to apply force directly to all points for two or more MTrPs. Further, two MTrPs will allow us to distinguish any potential anisotropy in the elastic response of the muscle tissue as a function of direction. We applied a force at the center of each US image equidistant between two MTrPs for all patients imaged (Fig. 4B). We quantified the distance between the two MTrP locations as the longitudinal distance from the applied force (δx, Fig. 4A, B). We note that the distance of each MTrP is then half the longitudinal distance (δx/2).
We also distinguished the two MTrPs by direction in US images in order to discern any potential MTrP anisotropy in response to applied force. We defined the MTrP to the left of the force as Left, and the MTrP to the right of the force was defined as Right. If the two MTrPs laterally overlapped, then the bottom MTrP is defined as Left and the top MTrP is defined as Right (Fig. 4B). We observed that the Left MTrP depth starts lower than the Right MTrP, per our definition (Left Panel, Fig. 4B), but Left MTrP depths decrease with increasing longitudinal distance to reach the same average depth as the Right MTrPs (Right panel, Fig. 4B). This observation suggests that MTrPs in general have a preferential depth closer to the muscle surface, consistent with the single MTrP depth results (Fig. 3B).
We observed that both the Left and Right MTrP stiffness increased with distance from the applied force (Fig. 4C). First, both the Left and Right MTrP stiffness were lowest directly beneath the applied force (0.6 ± 0.07, Fig. 4C), which is consistent with the single MTrP stiffness measurements (Figs. 2D, 3D). Second, the measured stiffness for both the Left and Right MTrPs quickly increases with increasing longitudinal distance to a maximum at approximately 1 cm away from the applied force (0.93 ± 0.057, Fig. 4C). We then averaged the observed increase for both Left and Right MTrPs and observed the stiffness changed exponentially with increasing longitudinal distance (solid line, Fig. 4C). Since the applied static force is unchanged for all conditions, these results support our hypothesis that the effective force felt by each MTrP decreases with increasing longitudinal distance from the position of applied force (Fig. 4A). We also note that both the Left and Right MTrPs have the same relationship between stiffness and distance from applied force, suggesting that there is no directional anisotropy in MTrP response and only the distance from applied force matters.
We applied the same quadratic re-scaling of MTrP following Saint–Venant’s principle (Eq. 1) to further support our hypothesis that differences in MTrP stiffness are due to changes in local effective force at the MTrP29. Here we assume that the effective force at the MTrP decreases quadratically with increasing longitudinal distance (δx, Fig. 4A, B). We then scaled the observed stiffness for both Left and Right MTrPs and observed a significant decrease in the effective force with distance (δx, Fig. 4D). The force experienced by any MTrP decreases 25% for every 0.25 cm away from the applied force, and all the applied force has been lost when the MTrP is greater than 1 cm away from the applied force. The consequence of this effective force result shows any intervention or diagnosis procedure that relies on applied pressure, such as palpation, will be limited by how closely the pressure is applied to the MTrP.
These combined stiffness and effective force results support the hypothesis that longitudinal distance from applied force significantly affects the observed stiffness, and distance must be considered when using US measurements and stiffness as diagnostic tools.
Biophysical characterization: the number of MTrPs in an US region affects measured stiffness
We determined if there is a difference in how MTrPs respond to applied force for more than one MTrP in a given muscle region. Defects can change the elastic properties of the surrounding material, and thus influence other defects nearby13,17. This occurs when one or more defects expands the surrounding material and alters the materials’ ability to respond to applied static force. In the context of MTrPs, this would suggest that having more than one MTrP can influence the elastic properties of each compared to only having a single MTrP. Thus, any intervention or diagnostic procedure that relies on US measurements and applied force may report different effects depending on the numbers of MTrPs.
To determine if multiple MTrPs in a muscle alter the measured elastic properties of each individual MTrP, we compared both the strain response (ε, Eq. 3) and Young’s Modulus (Y, Eq. 1) of one MTrP to the two MTrP measurements (Fig. 5 A,B). Since depth and MTrP thickness would also influence the elasticity properties of the surrounding muscle tissue, we did not correct for either of these properties in order to determine how much they influence resulting strain of more than one MTrP. However, we did correct the two MTrP data for distance from applied force (Fig. 4), in order to establish a native change at maximum force. Finally, we treated each Left and Right MTrP as separate defects so that 14 US images resulted in 28 unique MTrPs.
We found that on average single MTrPs were more elastic than two MTrPs within a US image field (Fig. 5A,B). We first observed that each Left and Right individual MTrP exhibited similar strains (Left: 0.22 ± 0.05; Right: 0.17 ± 0.04) to each other, supporting the result that there is not any significant anisotropy in MTrP response to applied force (Fig. 4). However, each Left and Right individual MTrP strains were both lower than single (0.29 ± 0.02) MTrP strain (Fig. 5A). This difference is further highlighted when combining Left and Right MTrPs strain response (0.20 ± 0.03) compared to single MTrP strain, which showed that the average two MTrP strain response was significantly lower. This result suggests that each MTrP in the muscle influences the elastic properties of the surrounding muscle tissue and thereby affects the elastic properties of other MTrPs nearby.
We compared calculated Young’s Modulus for single and double observed MTrPs, but corrected for size and depth. This corrected MTrP analysis will provide a more accurate measurement of MTrP elasticity properties. First, we calculated the effective Tensile stress (see “Methods”) at the MTrP ~ 3980 N/m2. Comparing both single and two MTrP data shows that the Young’s modulus (Fig. 5B) is slightly elevated for two MTrPs (Y = 17,000 ± 5554) compared to a single MTrP (Y = 14,300 ± 3125). Because of the variability in MTrP corrected strain response, this slight difference is not statistically significant. However, both single and two MTrP Youngs moduli are consistent with previously published results15.
These combined results suggest that more than one MTrP within a 1 cm muscle region influences the elastic properties of the surrounding muscle, and each other, resulting in greater stiffness.
Clinical characterization of MTrP results
Finally, we focused on whether the fundamental properties of MTrPs can be used as diagnostic tools in addition to both spontaneous pain report and measured twitching response. Because US MTrP elasticity measurements depend upon depth and size, it is possible that these same properties can be used as diagnostic tools for clinicians. For example, quickly identifying MTrP size and depth could be used to support other assessments such as reported pain and twitching to determine the effectiveness of force-based treatments. We also note that we will only consider single MTrP results to distinguish MTrP properties with category.
We considered the native properties of MTrPs in the tissue for groups where twitching was observed, but without any response to applied force (Table S1, S2, S3; Fig. 6A,B). We observed a slight, but not significant, increase in MTrP thickness between patients that had a spontaneous pain report and twitching response (Group 1) compared to patients that did not have a spontaneous pain report but twitching was observed (Group 2). In contrast, there was no significant difference in MTrP depth between groups (Fig. 6B). In the context of our observed relationship between MTrP stiffness and size, these results suggest that Group 1 MTrPs will on average be slightly stiffer than Group 2 MTrPs, but not any deeper into the tissue.
When comparing groups exhibiting observed twitching (Groups 1 + 2) to groups where no twitching was observed (Groups 3 + 4), differences in MTrP properties were observed (Fig. 6A,B). We observed that groups exhibiting twitching had slightly larger average MTrPs thickness (0.64 ± 0.04 cm), but not significant (P = 0.65, two-tailed t-test), than groups that did not exhibit twitching (0.58 ± 0.03 cm). Further, we observed MTrPs from both twitching groups were deeper into the muscle tissue (0.26 ± 0.03%) compared to MTrPs from no-twitching groups (0.19 ± 0.02%) (P = 0.065, two-tailed t-test). These combined results suggest that twitching response correlates with MTrPs that are slightly larger and deeper within the muscle tissue.
We considered the response of MTrPs to applied force as a diagnostic tool. We initially compared uncorrected stiffness between MTrP groups to determine if MTrP response is depended on the native depth and thickness conditions (Table S1, Fig. 6C). Group 1 MTrPs showed a slight, but not significant, reduction in stiffness (0.64 ± 0.06) compared to all other groups (Group 1 = 0.73 ± 0.04; Group 3 = 0.72 ± 0.04; Group 4 = 0.67 ± 0.04). However, when we compared strain corrected for depth (Table S4; Fig. 6D), we observed that Group 1 MTrPs showed a slight reduction (0.27 ± 0.03) compared to Group 2 MTrPs (0.36 ± 0.06). These results support the observation that Group 1 MTrPs are less elastic than Group 2 MTrPs, and that depth-corrected strain is a useful diagnostic tool to distinguish the two different groups.
We distinguished changes for groups exhibiting twitching compared to no-twitching groups, to determine if force-dependent MTrP properties were dependent upon twitching. Un-corrected stiffness for twitching groups showed a larger stiffness response (0.72 ± 0.03) compared to no-twitching groups (0.68 ± 0.03), which is consistent with the average difference in depth between groups (Fig. 6B). The difference in stiffness also corresponds with a lower corrected strain (P = 0.22) observed for groups with twitching (0.27 ± 0.03) compared to groups without twitching (0.34 ± 0.03). These results suggest that stiffness and strain are potential diagnostic tools to distinguish MTrPs that result in twitching versus no-twitching.
The combined native MTrP properties (thickness and depth) and their respective elastic response to static force (stiffness and strain) can be used as effective diagnostic tools to support clinical diagnosis and treatment as follows:
ComparisonValues for Group 1Values for Group 2
| Thickness | < 0.6 cm | > 0.6 cm |
| Depth | Closer to muscle surface (< 25%) | Deeper into muscle (> 25%) |
| Depth corrected strain | < 0.2 | > 0.2 |
Conclusions and discussion
In the present study we utilized an US-based measurement approach to develop physical parameters to characterize MTrPs (Fig. 1). We established important limitations and considerations of MTrP properties such as depth in tissue (Fig. 2) and MTrP thickness (Fig. 3) when characterizing MTrP elasticity properties. We showed that Group 1 MTrPs are more stiff and less elastic than Group 2 MTrPs (Figs. 3, 6). We showed that the effectiveness of any applied force intervention approach decreases when the MTrP is farther away from the location of applied force (Fig. 4). We showed that two MTrPs within 1 cm of each other alter the elastic properties of each MTrP (Fig. 5). Finally, we showed how native MTrP depth, thickness, and elasticity properties can be utilized as diagnostic tools for clinicians (Fig. 6).
It is important to put the limitations of US-based measured MTrP elasticity properties in context, in order for clinicians to utilize MTrP elasticity for diagnostic and treatment assessment purposes. The difference between patients with pain versus patients with no-pain exhibit a stiffness difference of ~ 9 ± 1% (Fig. 2D). While this difference can have significant biological effects on muscle function, the relatively small-scale difference means that the ability to distinguish any individual MTrPs requires assessing multiple parameters simultaneously. From US imaging alone, we have identified three combined metrics (depth, thickness, stiffness) that can be utilized. Combined, these metrics show that Group 1 MTrPs tend to be simultaneously deeper, smaller, and stiffer than Group 2 MTrPs. When assessing each individual MTrP, these three metrics can be directly measured during US imaging by a clinician without significant interpretation.
One limitation of the present study is that it does not show how MTrPs respond after a force-based treatment. This study shows how these US-based metrics can be utilized as diagnostic tools during diagnostic. However, a more thorough protocol and parameter threshold should be established in future studies to help clinicians determine if the same MTrP types respond differently to force-based treatment.
It is also important to highlight the limitation of using a single static applied force in the elastic characterization of MTrPs in the present study. Our main scope with this study was to develop and establish metrics for US-based MTrP analysis as well as limitations with the US-based approach. We focused on a single applied static force at the center of the US image (Fig. 1). This was sufficient to distinguish differences in Pain and No-Pain group MTrP elasticity properties as a function of depth (Fig. 2) and thickness (Fig. 3). However, elastic deformations can also have force-dependent differences due to heterogeneously different structures. We hypothesized in the current study that our observed relationship between MTrP size and stiffness (Fig. 3) is likely due to changes in the heterogeneous structure of MTrPs as a function of size. If we combine this hypothesis with our observation that Group 1 MTrPs tend to be smaller than Group 2 MTrPs (Fig. 6A), then we would expect that MTrPs would also have different stiffness relationships with respect to applied force. This would represent another potential diagnostic tool to assess each individual MTrP and the effectiveness of any force-based intervention treatment. Future studies could explore this potential by measuring MTrP stiffness for different applied static surface forces.
Supplementary Information
Supplementary Tables. (17.8KB, pdf)
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Research Eureka Accelerator Program (REAP), Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine.
Author contributions
PT, JE, CW, JS, and KM designed and carried out the study. PT, JE, KM, CW, and MWG analyzed MTrP data. All authors contributed to the study design and writing of results from this study.
Data availability
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher's note
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Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-024-57733-4.
References