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Ceremonial or court hair dressings for aristocrats

• Byzantine Women and Their World. Passages describe hairstyles and headdress depicted on works of art as well as personal toiletry items of women.
  
  Aristocratic and Elite Women

  "Many elite women delighted in luxurious display wearing 'long dresses bright with purple and rusting with gold,' according to the fifth-century bishop Paulinus of Nola who decried the practice.  They also wore their hair uncovered and piled high, 'structured and castellated with layers of ropes and interwoven locks.'  Thus, while the idealized images of modesty and chastity suggested dignity, legitimacy, and the goodness of women rulers, it is clear that their high status was also expressed through expensive attire and the freedom to wear and display it." (pg 70)
   

  • Portrait Head, Perhaps of Fausta or Helena dated to the 1st quarter of the 4th century [catalog number 24.  No online photographs have been located] 

    "The hair is drawn back and interwoven with false locks in a net rendered through crosshatching; the luxury of artificial hair indicates her wealth and privilege.  The hairpiece is folded over the top of the head to from a broad roll--the scheitelzopf style worn by empresses of the late third and early fourth centuries." (pg 76) There is a semi circle of curls framing her face. 

    Helena wears this hairstyle on coins that commemorate her elevation to principle empress in 324.  He is most often depicted with a hair band or diadem.
     

  • Portrait Head of a Young Woman dated after 320 CE [catalog number 25. No online photographs have been located]

    "The tightly wrapped tower hairstyle is retrospective.  Popularized by the Roman empress Faustina the Elder (ruled 138-41) it was revived by the women of Constantine's family, with variations appearing in a number of life-sized portrait heads and other sculptures of the period (cat. 28)  The hair is parted in the middle, flowing back in waves partially covering the ears.  The small, high, oval nest is built up from thick plaits secured in the back by a vertical braid. Two twisted strands meet behind the head to stabilize the base of the nest." (pg 78)
     

  • Statuette of an Imperial Woman dated to the 4th century [catalog number 28 No online photographs have been located]

    "The hair is parted in the center, flowing in waves to the ears, with three or four plaits wrapped around the head to form a nest.  The broad braid next is characteristic of later versions of the style in the fourth century." (pg 86)  She wears, "a jeweled diadem, reserved for women of the imperial family granted the highest female rank, augusta. A similar diadem, with round pearls or gems set in squares was introduced on coinage celebrating Helena's  elevate to augusta in 324." (pg 86)  She is wearing a veil over her dressed hair appearing to be attached mid crown and flowing down the back of her head.
     

  • Portrait Head in the Type of Flacilla dated to circa 380-390 [catalog number 26]

    She wears a "turbanlike 'round plait' hairstyle [with] a wide fringe  of ribbed, grooved waves framing the face, almost covering the ears, and is surmounted by a high, thick band composed of two twisted strands of equal size wrapped around the top of the head.  A flat, vertical braid runs from the nape of the neck over the top of the head.  The hairstyle is worn by numerous imperial women of the fourth and fifth centuries [and is seen in] sculptures and coins as well as in steelyard weights." (pg 81)

    "The rigid, complex coronet of hair, requiring the substantial labor of a hairdresser, suggests the nobility and high status of the subject, as well as the formal context for which her portrait was intended.  The hairstyle of this head was popular with women of high senatorial aristocracy, was perceived as a signifier of luxury and seduction." (pg 83)
     

  • Head of a Female Figure, Possibly an Empress dated to circa 375-400 [catalog number 27]

    The high hairstyle has heavy twists of hair the fall down over the ears and vertically on the back of the head.  A semicircle of curls frames the face.  A band with stylized back bow shows that the hair is held by a hair band. She is wearing a "highly unusual headdress" (pg 85) [note: this portrait shows evidence of re-cutting to possibly update the original figure into a more current style]

• Hairstyles and headdresses of Empresses, Princesses, and ladies of the aristocracy in Byzantium.

  Emmanuel, Melita; "Hairstyles and headdresses of Empresses, Princesses, and ladies of the aristocracy in Byzantium"; Deltiontes Christianikes Archaiologikes Etairerias, Vol. 17, 1993-94; pp. 113-116

  Some notes of interest:

  Article attempts to clarify and classify hairstyles and headdresses of the aristocracy. Written sources from the times are lacking for the ladies of the court, beyond the empress.  The only art sources in which the subject's head is uncovered is from the 4th and 5th centuries.

  Three types of hairstyles appear in the 4th century.

  1. "the hair is parted in the middle and is gathered at the nape of the neck--sometimes divided into two plaits--and is carried up to the crown of the head. (pg 113 and figs 1 and 2)  This hair style can be found into the 6th century.
      

  2. "the 'turban-like' hairdo [in which] the hair is parted in the middle and plaited into two heavy braids which encircle the head like a crown.  This coiffure gives a special volume to the head and resembles a diadem.  Helena often adorned her hair with pearls." (pg 113 and fig 13 a)

     Variation: "the hair over the forehead is cut short and forms a thickish roll sectioned as if arranged in very stiff narrow waves."  This style is found into the 6th century as well.  (pg 114 and fig. 3)
      

  3. "the hair is gathered behind the head and forms a simple small bun" (pg 114 and fig 13 b)

  Diadems and crowns for the Empress

  "Empresses diadems were originally wreaths, decorated with precious stones, which were placed on the head and sometimes covered the hair." (pg 114)  After the 5th century this changes and a style of hear with the thickish roll is seen with the hair entirely covered with, "a fine scarf of a thin, silk-like material; a bonnet made of a stiffer material is fixed on the scarf and on the hair with pins.  The bonnet is shaped in such a way as to adapt itself to the two plaits.  The crown is placed on it is no longer a wreath, but consists of two parts: a round one, and another consisting of one or two transversal bands, placed crosswise on the round part of the diadem."  In use until the end of the 12th century. (pg 114)

  Variations: whether or not a central cross is used or the number of triangular projections decorate the top part.

  "Sometimes the hair under the crown is covered with a scarf or net...the crowns are often combined with precious fabrics which either hand behind or cover the head under the crown and hang on either side of the face, reaching the shoulders." (pg 117)

  Princesses, court ladies and aristocratic ladies

  "Until around the 6th century, one can observe two ways in which the ladies of the aristocracy covered their heads:

  1. they might either use a veil under which the sometimes wore a mitella, in accordance with Roman custom, or 
      

  2. a fine scarf, most probably of silk which covered all the hair like a bonnet."  (pg 117) One example of a piece of art shows a young lady using a scarf clip to hold it upon her head.

  "From around the 10th century on, the princesses--when they do not imitate the empress, wearing the typical crown--must have appeared with a typical headdress: that is, a small round hat reminiscent of the camelaukion, with a small veil, whose ends sometime fall on either side of the face."  This style is typical from the 13th century on. (pg 118 and Fig. 13 f and 5)

  11th and 12th centuries

  "we find a type of headdress in the shape of a trapezoid." (pg 118 fig 6)

  Fan-shaped headdresses are also worn by dancing Hebrew women and Byzantine court ladies.  Theirs also has gold stripes.

  During the 12th century along with the trapezoidal hat appears another that is reminiscent in form to the camelaukion. (pg 119 fig 13 g and fig. 7)

  False hair

  Portrait of Anna Radini (fig 8) from the end of 12th century shows, "a hat following the fashion of the 11th century in the lower part and that of the 12th century in the upper part.  False, dyed blonde hair made, perhaps, of lambs wool, hangs from the hat and frames the face." (pg 119)  This headdress marks the beginning of a new era.

Everyday dressings for ordinary women

Byzantine Women and Their World. Passages describe hairstyles and headdress depicted on works of art as well as personal toiletry items of women.
 

• Description of women in the scene of the Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple, a fresco circa 1290 [also dated to the 14th century in another source] by Manuel Panselinos in the Protation Monestery on Mount Athous, Greece.  Several women are depicted in what the author considers typical of the period (pg 15-17)  [Apparently several versions of this fresco exist.  This version is not the same as in the book, but will serve as a reasonable illustration.  This cropped photo is part of the piece in the book, but includes most of the women referred to.] Click here for a description of the clothing.
   

  • Four have their hair held back with white hair bands and no further head covering.

  • One has her hair held back with a white hair band and a head covering/mantle.

  • "Three have their heads covered in white scarves decorated with yellow stripes, white fringed and embroidery, the kind of head cover we have to imagine that women wore outside the home." (pg 16)  [I am having trouble seeing the embroidery, but I will trust it is there.]

  • One of the three with headscarves is clearly wearing a turban or other type of wrap with a scarf trailing from beneath it. 

  The author feels that these women represent ordinary young women and are not individual portraits.

  Note: An interesting reframing on some of the interpretations by myself and the author appears in a message on SCAbyzantine.  Do not consider the above as definitive, but the interpretations of three different individuals at three different places on the research journey.

• Ordinary Women  Emmanuel, Melita; "Some Notes on the External Appearance of Ordinary Women in Byzantium: Hairsyles, Headdresses: Texts and Iconography"; Byzantinoslavica Revue Internationals Des Estudes Byzantines, Vol. LVI, (1995)3 pp. 769-778.

Hairnets and Sprang Hairnets

• Jenkins, Ian and Williams, Dyfri; "Sprang Hair Nets: Their Manufacture and Use in Ancient Greece"; American Journal of Archeology 89 (1985); pp. 411-418.

  This article is interesting but does not fit my current research needs.  Topics covered include: sprang weaving frames, evidence in Grecian art of hairnet and mention of a sole surviving hairnet.

• Roman Era Gold Wire Hairnet from the VRoma Project.  A bit early, but of great interest to me.  Perhaps additional examples and/or references will be turned up for the Middle Byzantine period.

• gold wire hairnet similar to that worn in so-called “Sappho” fresco in Pompeii 
  Roman, imperial period, from tomb at Vetralla
  Rome, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme (National Museums). Credits: Barbara McManus, 2003
• woven gold hairnet 
  Roman, imperial period, from Via Tiburtina
  Rome, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme (National Museums). Credits: Barbara McManus, 2003

Compared to the elaborate construction of the later western Roman women, the hairstyles of Byzantium seem elegant and refined. A coin minted in Thessalonica in 324 A.D. shows a simple chignon with the hair parted in the middle and waved on the sides (Fig. 1). From the same year, a coin minted in honor of Helena (mother of Constantine) shows her hair pulled back from the face and secured with a jeweled headband. The long hair in the back appears to be brought up to form a loop over the headband at the front of the head (Fig. 2). Coins of the Empress Flaccilla (383-87 A.D.) and Eudoxia (400-404 A.D.) show a more elaborate hairstyle. The hair was parted in the middle and braided. The braids were brought forward over the crown to the forehead. Strands of pearls were laid in the waves at the temples and pearl headed pins were inserted in the braids to enrich them. The imperial diadem (a richly jeweled band of cloth) was bound over top of this (Fig. 3). From this evolved the most recognized of Byzantine styles, those of the Ravenna mosaics which show Empress Theodora and her court (6th century). Here the hair is pulled back from the temples, probably over a pad of false hair, and the back hair is braided and wrapped in a long oval on the back of the head. Ribbons, probably attached to the pad in the front, wrap over the front hair and are secured under the back braid. A jeweled diadem holds the ribbons in place. The empress wears an imperial crown on top of this (Fig. 4). This hairstyle has also been interpreted as a turban-like roll decorated with ribbons and pearls, with a small cap attached to the back.(See directions below). It is equally possible that the whole hairstyle was a wig, since wigs and hairpieces were very popular during early eras.These are imperial hairstyles. Variations of them (different shapes of rolls with slightly differing decorations) were the fashion until the end of Byzantium.One popular method was to pile the hair on top of the head. place a coronet around it and cover it with a transparent veil (Fig. 6). Other styles were similar to Fig. 4 above, but with less decorative ribbon and simpler diadems. Sometimes the back of the head was covered with a cap (Fig. 7). A simple cap decorated with cords or pearls was probably popular for less formal occasions (Figs. 8a and 8b). Caps without trim but of the same shape would be good for commoners.Norris shows a middle class cap made with a roll around the edge like the imperial hairstyle (Fig. 9). Eighth century commoners are shown wearing a veil over the head secured to a band or fillet (Fig. 10). A tenth century textile shows a Byzantine princess with her hair in long braids. This style could also have been worn by commoners. The ends of the braids were often fitted with jeweled or ornamented terminals to make them hang straight and for decoration (Fig. 11). This is probably the forerunner of the Norman hairstyle of the 12th century. Common women still wore the long veil over their heads, with or without a headband. Interesting is the type of fold found over the forehead (Fig. 12). This type of fold is from a semi-circular fabric, but the veil is usually described as being rectangular, and in depictions its ends are squared.Directions:I. Figure 4: 
To fake this hairstyle, you will need quilt batting, ribbon or trim, pearls or other trim as needed, scrap material to cover the roll and form the cap in the back.Measure around your head at the hairline and add 12". Cut a piece of quilt batting that long and approximately 24 inches wide. Roll the batting to form a fairly tight roll (roll from one hairline measurement edge to another) (a). Secure the free edge with large stitches so that it can't unroll (b). Wrap the roll around your head so that it fits comfortably. Mark where the ends meet and cut off the excess batting. Stitch the two ends together to form a circle (c). To cover the circle, cut a rectangle of material as long as the outside circumference of the circle plus seam allowance and as wide as the diameter or the circle plus seam allowances. Pin the fabric to the circle with the seam allowances to the inside, and hand stitch down (d). Wrap ribbons around the circle at intervals and secure with stitches on the inside (see illustrations of headwear) (e). If you want to sew pearls on the edges of the ribbons, now is the time. To finish the cap, cut a circle of material 1" larger than the outside of the padded circle. Gather the edge so that you can fit it inside the padded circle. Stitch in place (f). To make the commoners version (Fig. 9), do not trim and use more "common" looking material.II. Figure 8. 
You will need about ? yard of material (silk or substitute) and trims --pearls or gold cording.Using the pattern below (a), cut out a cap from your chosen material. If you are using pearls, sew them on in a pattern, staying well away from the seam allowances. You can add pearls at the edges after the cap is sewn together. If you are using gold cord, sew it to the piece as shown (b), taking the cord all the way to the seam allowances. Sew a band of contrasting material from point A to point B and turn it under and stitch down (c). This is the front of the cap. Turn the rest of the edge of the cap under and stitch down to form a casing (d). Run a narrow elastic or a cord through the casing and fit to the head.III. Figure 10. 
Braid cases can fake a number or long hair styles for many periods. You will need some long pieces of scrap material, two fishing weights, some sort of stuffing material (polyester is good), and any decorations or ribbons you might want to add.Cut a long piece of material approximately 3 ?" to 4" wide and as long as you want your cases to be (a). Sew up the tube, narrowing the bottom to a point and leaving the top open (b). If you have hair of shoulder length or longer, the top of the case should be just large enough to insert the end of your braided hair into. If it is too large, take it up. Turn the case right side out and drop a fishing weight into the bottom or the case. Don't get carried away with the size of the weight. You need just enough to help the braid hang straight. Stuff the case with polyester stuffing and trim as you wish. To wear the case, braid your hair and stick the ends into the top of the case. Sew the case to your braid with needle and thread (c). If your hair is shorter, attach the cases to a headband and wear a veil over it (d).
IV. Fig. 12
This is an interesting problem. The folds around the face are from a semicircular veil, but the rest of the palla appears to be rectangular and the ends are square. A shape similar to the one below could explain it. 

 

From a now out-of-print publication called Early Period, issue #5, written and published by Rebecca and David Wendelken, original date unknown (circa late 1970s - early 1980s).

Warning: The information from the Early Period journal is based partly on the work of a modern author, Nicholas Tselementes (Greek Cookery. Divry, Inc.: New York, 1977).  Tselementes provides no documentation for any of the recipes in this book. Readers desiring authenticated Byzantine recipes must keep this in mind.

Byzantine Foods

Unlike the Romans or earlier Greeks, Byzantine cookbooks seem to be rare indeed. In fact, only very tempting references to Byzantine cooking are found tucked into diplomatic reports and biographies of the Imperial family. We know that the Empress Lupicina of the Danube Valley was a cook, and that Theodora, wife of Justinian, import!ed cooks from Persia, India, Syria and the Greek mainland to serve at her court.

In the 10th century Liutprand of Cremona, an ambassador to the Imperial Court, made disparaging remarks about resined wine and dishes cooked in oil, although he enjoyed some of the sauces and was impressed by the food at the Imperial table. He especially liked the roast kid stuffed with garlic, leeks and onions and dressed with "garon" sauce (probably a variety of the Roman "garum," that notorious fermented fish sauce).

What did their food taste like? We have a number of earlier Greek cookbooks, such as Gastronomia by Archstratus (5th century BC), and we know what Greek cooking is like now. To tie them together we have the work of such scholars As Nicholas Tselementes, who traced back to earlier times such dishes as Keftedes (meatballs made with grain), Dolmades (grain and/or meat stuffed into vegetables or plant leaves and cooked), Moussake (a layered dish of meat, cheese and pasta or grain), Yuvarelakia (meat and/or grain dumplings cooked in broth), and Kakavia, the Greek version of Bouillabaise. He also traced back to the ancient Greeks the making of white sauce - using flour and fat to thicken a broth or milk mixture. Although some of these dishes are now known to the world by Turkish or European names (even the Greeks call white sauce "bechamel"), their origins are Greek. We know they ate three meals a day - breakfast, midday and supper. They had many fast days. While the lower classes made due with what they could get, the upper classes were served three courses at their midday and supper meals consisting of hors d'ouvres, a main course of fish or meat and a sweet course. They ate all kinds of courses of fish or meat and a sweet course. They ate all kinds of meats including pork, and numerous types of fowl. They ate large amounts of fresh fish and seafood. There were many types of soups and stews and salads were popular. They liked a variety of cheeses and fruits were eaten both fresh and cooked. Fruits included apples, melons, dates, figs, grapes and pomegranets. Almonds, walnuts, and pistachios were used in many dishes as well as being eaten by themselves.

The recipes given here were created by taking modern Greek ones, removing or replacing non-period ingredients and attempting to reconstruct cooking methods. They are the types of dishes that would have been served by the common people or middle classes rather than to the Imperial household.

• Keftedes - meatballs of beef and herbs, dredged in barley flour and fried in olive oil.

• Dolmades - a dish of baked chicken and stuffed grape leaves.

• Avgolemono Sauce - a sauce of egg yolks, lemon juice, and boullion.

• Moussaka - beef, Feta cheese, and zuchinni baked in a white sauce.

• Yuvarelakia - meatballs of lamb and herbs, simmered in broth.

• Kakavia - a fresh fish and seafood soup.

• Pastfeli - a honey and sesame seed candy.

• 1 lb. lean beef or veal, ground
• 1 medium onion, grated
• 1 clove garlic, crushed
• 1 egg, beaten lightly
• 2 slices of bread, crusts removed, soaked in water and squeezed dry
• 3 Tbs minced parsley
• 2 sprigs fresh mint
• 1/2 tsp. ground cinnamon
• 1 Tbs red wine
• 2-3 Tbs water, if necessary
• salt
• 1 cup of barley, powdered in the blender
• olive oil, enough for a frying depth of 1/2"

In the original recipe, the meat would probably be pounded or minced instead of ground. You can run your meat through a food processor for a more period texture. Mix all ingredients except barley and olive oil, season & refrigerate for an hour. Pinch off small pieces the size of walnuts, form into a ball and dredge in the barley flour. Heat the oil to a smoking point and fry the meatballs until crisp, turning constantly. Remove and drain on absorbent paper.

• 3/4 cup of olive oil
• 1/2 onion, chopped
• 8 scallions, chopped fine
• 2 lg. cloves of garlic, chopped
• 1 cup natural barley
• chopped fresh dill to taste
• 1/2 cup parsley, chopped
• juice of 1/2 lemon
• salt to taste
• 1 cup hot water
• 1 one pound jar grapevine leaves
• 3-4 pound chicken, cut in quarters

Heat 1/2 cup of oil in a skillet and add the onion and scallion and cook until soft. Add the garlic and cook for a few more minutes. Add barley, and brown slightly, stirring frequently, then add dill, parsley, lemon juice, salt and remaining olive oil. Stir well and add hot water. Cover and let simmer for five minutes. remove the grapeleaves from the jar and rinse. Line an enamel pan with a layer of leaves and set aside. To stuff the leaves, put a leaf on the work surface with the rough side up and the stem end toward you. Place a teaspoonful of barley mixture near the stem end. Using both hands, fold the part of the leaf near you up and over the filling. Then fold the right side of the leaf over the filling and then the left side and roll tightly and away from you, toward the pointed end. Place in the prepared pan with the seam side down. Continue until you have used all the ingredients. Place an inverted plate on top of the dolamades and add enough water to come up to the edge of the plate. Rub the chicken with additional lemon juice and garlic and place on top of the plate. Bring to a boil and then cover the pan, reduce the heat, and simmer for 1 1/4 hours. Check to see that the barley is tender and the chicken cooked. Remove, cool and chill. Serve with sour cream or Avgolemono Sauce.

• 2 large egg yolks
• juice of 1-2 lemons, strained
• 1 - 2 cups hot broth or boullion

Beat the egg yolks for two minutes. Continue to beat and gradually add the lemon juice. Beat in the hot broth or boullion. The amount of liquid depends on how thick you want the sauce.

• 1 1/2 cups natural barley
• salt
• 3/4 cup Feta cheese, crumbled
• 1 lb. ground beef
• 1 onion, finely chopped
• bread crumbs
• 4 zucchini, sliced
• 3 cups medium white sauce:
  • 2 Tbs olive oil
  • 2 Tbs flour
  • 1 cup of warm milk
  • pinch of salt

Cook the barley in salted water until done. Drain & set aside. Brown the ground beef and onions together. Sprinkle the zucchini with salt and let stand 10 minutes. Squeeze out the excess moisture. Add the zucchini to the beef and onions and saute a few moments longer. Mix half of the Feta cheese and the beef mixture with the barley. Oil a 9 x 12 x 3 baking pan with olive oil and spread the barley mixture over it. Make the white sauce by heating the olive oil in a heavy skillet. Stir in the flour and add the 1 cup of warm milk, stirring steadily to make a smooth sauce. Add the pinch of salt. Add the rest of the Feta to the sauce and stir. Pour the sauce over the barley, top with bread crumbs and bake at 350° F for 30 to 40 minutes. Remove and let stand 10 mintues before cutting.

• 1 lb. ground lamb (may be pounded if you like)
• 1 grated onion
• 2 cloves of chopped garlic
• 6 Tbs natural barley (crush it coarsely in the blender of food processor)
• 3 Tbs chopped parsley
• 2 Tbs mint or basil (fresh)
• 1 Tbs dried oregano or thyme
• salt
• 1 egg slightly beaten
• 5 cups stock
• 1 onion, chopped
• 1 stalk of celery, chopped
• 1 carrot, chopped
• juice of 1 lemon

Combine lamb, grated onion, chopped garlic, barley, chopped parsley, fresh mint or basil, dried oregano or thyme, salt and the slightly beaten egg. Mix well and knead for a few minutes. Shape into walnut-sized barrel or egg shapes and set aside. Bring the 5 cups of stock to a boil with the chopped onion, celery, and carrot. Add salt to taste. Add the "barrels" and simmer, covered, for 30 minutes. Add the lemon juice and serve.

This is a fresh fish soup, which is improved by having as many different varieties of fish as possible. You can make it with salt or fresh water fish, but you will need at least 3 or 4 varieties for the best results.

• 1 cup scallions or leeks, sliced
• 1/2 cup olive oil
• 1/2 stalk fennel, sliced
• 3 sprigs of parsley
• 1 bay leaf
• 1 tsp thyme
• 2 cup dry white wine
• 4 cups water
• 4 pounds of fish (3 or 4 different types)
• 1 pound shrimp
• 1 pound mussels or scallops in the shell (well scrubbed)
• thick slices of home made bread

Saute onions in oil until soft. Add fennel, herbs, wine and water and bring to a boil. Season with salt and simmer for 45 minutes. Pour stock through a sieve and squeeze out the juice from the vegetables and discard the fibers. Return to the pot and bring to a boil. (For a richer stock, ask the fishseller for the heads and bones from your fish and add them to the water for the initial boiling. Remove when you strain out the vegetables. Or you could add a bottle of clam juice instead of some of the water). Lightly salt the fish and let stand for 10 minutes, then rinse and lower into the boiling liquid. Lower heat and simmer 10 minutes. Add shrimp and scallops or mussels and simmer an additional 10 minutes. Taste and adjust the seasonings. Toast the bread slices and place them in large soup plates or bowls. Place a variety of fish and some of the broth in each dish. You may also serve the Avgolemono Sauce with this.

Here is something sweet to round out the meal.

• honey
• sesame seeds
• orange flower water

Use equal weights of honey and sesame seeds. In a heavy skillet bring the honey to a very firm ball stage (250° to 256° F). Stir in the sesame seeds and continue cooking until the mixture comes to a bubbling boil. Spread the mixture 1/2" thick on a marble slab or tray moistened with orange flower water. Cool and cut into small diamonds or squares.

Byzantine Family life was based on Christianity, but on the steady formations of ancient Hellenistic culture and its family cell. Gradually, it went into several changes, but remained basically the same.

The family wa consisted of parents, children, free servants and slaves, slaves, who were under authority of the father of the family (π?τηρ - pater). The autonomy of each family was strengthened by using the family name, and thus representing the family tradition and pride.

An illustration depicting the marriage and the life in Byzantine family

Family names

At the very beginning, there were to different customs in the Constantinople: the Hellenic tradition, of naming the person by its personal name, followed by the father's name or the name of some predecessor form the father's side (like Δημ?στενε? Δημοστ?νου? - Demostenes of Demostenes, Θεωφρ?στο? Θεοδ?ρου - Theophrastos of Theodoros). The tradition was extended by adding some nicknames, and even replacing family names with them.

The Latin tradition, preserved by Latin immigrants to Constantinople at the time after the foundation: it had: praenomen (Petrus). nomen gentilicium (Marcelinus), cognomen (Felix Liberius). So, we have the name of a Patricius on the 6th century, Petrus Marcellinus Felix Liberius. The nomen genrilicium was referred to free slaves and servants, and gradually disappeared from the 7th century, and was usually replaced with the name of hometown or the place of origin.

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