문법정리

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문장의 형식	명사	대명사	동사의 시제
조동사	형용사	부사	관사
전치사	부정사	동명사	분사
태	관계대명사

 

 문장의 형식

 1.1형식: 주어 +  동사 (  S+V)

 완전자동사: arrive,come,fly,go,happen,live,rain,read,sleep,walk 등

   Birds fly peacefully.

  The baby cried.

  Tom is reading in the living room.

2. 2 형식: 주어+동사+보어( S+V+C) 보어가 주어의 상태를 나타냄

 불완전 자동사: appear,be,become,feel,look seem,smell,sound,taste등

  This is my umbrella.

  The window is open.

  Tom feels tired.

  You look happy.

  It sounds great.

3. 3형식 : 주어+동사+목적어(S+V+O)

  Mary sings a song.

  Tom wants to play.

  Angella enjoyed watching baseball.

4. 4형식: 주어+동사+간접목적어+직접목적어(S+V+I.O+D.O)

 간접목적어:사람,  직접목적어: 사물에 해당[-에게-를 -하다]로 해석

 수여동사: ask,buy,choose,give,make,lend,send,show,teach,tell,write 등

  John sent me a love letter.          (4형식)

  =  John sent a love letter to me.   (3형식)

 My mother bought me this dress

 = My mother bought this dress for me.

  *  make,get,choose,cook,order등은   for

 Cathy asked me a question.

 =Cathy asked a question of me.

  *3형식으로 바꿀 수  없는 동사: cost,envy,save,spare 등

 * expect,explain,introduce,order,propose,recommend,

    require,request,suggest,want 등은 3형식동사( 간접목적어를 쓰지못함)

 I explained to him the difficult situation.

5. 5형식 ( 주어+동사+목적어+목적보어) -보어가 목적어의 상태를 나타냄

 불완전타동사: call,elect,get,have,hear,let,make,see 등

  My friends call me Bill Gates.

  The child made his mother happy.

  She thinks her husband a great musician.

6. 주의해야 자동사,타동사

 (1) 타동사로 잘못 알기 쉬운 자동사: hope,object,apologize,

  agree,complain,look,listen 등

  Look the picture. ( × )        Look at the picture. (O)

 (2) 자동사로 잘못 알기 쉬운 타동사: resemble,reach,approach,

  attend,answer,marry,discuss, consider 등

  reach to the station.(×)          reach the station. (O)

  marry with Tom. (×)               marry Tom. (O)

 (3) raise-raised-raised(타동사) 올리다.일으키다  

   rise-rose-risen(자동사) 오르다

   lay-laid-laid(자동사) 놓다

   lie-lay-lain(타동사) 눕다

   sit-sat-sat(자동사) 앉다

   seat-seated-seated(타동사) 앉히다

(4) tell은 간접목적어를 취할 수 있지만 say는 간접목적어를 취할 수 없다.

  He told me that∼= He said to me that∼

  

    명  사

*가산명사(셀 수 있는 명사)-보통명사,집합명사

단,복수의 구별이 있음,앞에 부정관사a/an 또는 수사가 붙음

*불가산명사(셀 수 없는 명사)-고유명사,물질명사,추상명사

 a/an이 앞에 올 수 없음. 단수 취급

1. 물질명사: 일반적으로 무관사,단수형

 (1) 종류: 음식(bread,meat,butter,tea,milk 등)

  일정한 모양이 없는 자연물(wood,iron,glass,oil,steam,water,ice,

   smoke,ashes,rice,sand,sugar등)

  모양/크기가 일정치 않은 물건들(clothing,furniture,luggage 등)

   Meat is their main food.

   Ice is melting.

   This furniture is old.

 (2) 막연한 수량 표시-much,little,a lot of,some

   We eat a lot of pork and chicken.

 (3) 단위 사용

  a piece of cake

  a glass of water

  a loaf of bread

  a cup of coffee

(4) 구체적인 종류나 제품을 나타내면 보통명사 취급

  It is a great tea.    (구체적인 차의 종류)

  Turn off all the lights. (전등)

2. 추상명사: 일반적으로 무관사,단수형

 (1) 종류: beauty,ignorance,peace,shopping,working 등

    Shopping is her hobby.

    Beauty is only skin-deep.

 (2) 정도 표시: much,little,some,any

     He has not had much experience.

 (3) 형용사의 수식을 받거나 구체적인 것을 지칭하면 보통명사 취급

   Our meeting last night was a great success.

   The conflict between the two countries ended up in a war.

 (4) the+단수보통명사→ 추상명사

     The pen is mighter than the sword.

 (5) all+추상명사=추상명사+itself→very+형용사

     Susan is all beauty.(=beauty itself=very beautiful)

 (6) of+추상명사: 형용사구

      a man of ability=an able man

     a book of no value=a valueless book

3. 고유명사를 보통명사 취급할 때

 He wants to be a Bill Gates.(∼와 같은 사람)

 There are two Schuberts on today's program.(∼의 작품)

 There are two Johns in my office.(∼라는 이름을 가진 사람)   

4. 명사의 복수형과 소유격

(1) 단수 가산명사,물질명사,고유명사 (단수취급)

 An apple is on the table.                     (보통명사)

 The child was hungry.                        (단수명사)

 The merchandise was stolen.               (물질명사)

 The USSR is no longer a single nation. (고유명사)

 (2) 집합명사와 물질명사

   ① 정관사와 쓰여 상황에 따라 단수 또는 복수 취급

- family,class,committee,crew,army,jury,team,public government

    *미국식 영어에서는 단수 취급하고, 복수로 쓸 때는 family members,clss

    members,committee members, crew members등으로 쓴다.

 ② 단수형으로 항상 복수 취급-정관사와 함께 쓰여 특정한 집단,계급을 나타냄

    -the cattle,the police,the clergy

    The cattle are on the hill.

    The police are chasing a thief.

 ③each,either,every,neither와 함께 쓰이거나 -one,-body,-thing단어-단수취급

    Each hour goes by so fast.

    Every girls likes to meet handsome boy.

    Someone is in the room.

    Something is wrong with the boy.

   *either A or B,   neither A nor B의 구문에서 동사는 B에 일치

  ④ A number of +복수명사: 복수

     The number of + 복수명사: 단수

     A number of students have dropped this course.

    The number of students in this school is 4,0000.

 5.항상 복수로 쓰이는 명사

  (1) 짝으로 이루어져 쓰이는 말

   trousers,pants,gloves,scissors,glasses,compasses,suspenders

   My trousers are dirty.

  Where are my glasses?

  cf) A pair of glasses was found in the rest room.

 (2) 운동 팀 이름: Dodgers,Yankees,Bulls

 The Bulls are winning the game.

 (3) 관례적으로 복수로 쓰이는 단어

 : clothes,arms,contents.outskirts,eaves

  The outskirts of the city are still to be developed.

 6. 형태는 복수이지만 단수 취급하는 단어

  (1) 학문명: ethics,phonetics,economics,athletics,statistics,

               physics,politics,mathematics

     Politics is very hard to understand.

  (2) 병명: measles, hysterics.hiccups

      Measles is very annoying.

 (3) 게임명: billiards,darts

     Darts is very boring to play.

 (4) 시간,거리,무게,가격 등을 나타내는 단어

     Twenty dollars is not enough for me.

     Two miles is longer than two kilometers.

 (5) 기타 중요한 단어들 : news,customs,series

     No news is good news.

    * comics 는 복수: The comics are fun to read.

7. 복합명사의 복수형

    주요소인 명사를 복수로

    house-keepers,passers-by,girl friends

    둘 다 복수로-두 요소가 동격일 경우:

     women doctors,men-servants

8. 복수형태로 쓰면 뜻이 달라지는  명사들

 arm(팔)-arms(무기)                             iron(쇠)-irons(수갑)

 compass(나침반)-compasses(콤파스)     letter(문자)-letters(문학)

 custom(관습)-customs(세관)                 manner(방법)-manners(예절,태도)

 force(힘)-forces(군대)                           sand(모래)-sands(사막)

 glass(유리)-glasses(안경)                       spectacle(구경거리)-spectacles(안경)

 good(이익)-goods(상품)                      

9.소유격: 생물에는's  , 무생물에는of+명사

 (1)무생물에's 쓰는 경우

   Europe's future(지명)  today's newspaper(거리,중량,시간)

  a dollar's worth(가격)     Nature's law(의인화된 무생물)

  (2) 복합명사의 소유격: 마지막에's

   my fater-in law's hobby     the teacher of music's room

 (3) 공유와 개별소유

    Jack and William's father-공유

    Jack's and William's fathers-개별소유

 

 대 명 사

  : 명사의 반복을 피하기 위해 명사 대신 쓰이는 말

1. 인칭대명사

(1) 소유격과 소유대명사의 구별: 소유격은 뒤에 명사가 온다

  Your sister is older than mine.

(2) 이중소유격: a(an),this,that,some,any,no,which등은

   소유격과 함께 쓰지 못하므로  수식어 + 명사 + of + 소유대명사의

   형식으로 쓴다

(3) 총인칭: we(나를 포함한 일반인), you(상대를 포함한 일반인),

  they(나와 상대방을 포함하지 않은 일반인)

  We know that the earth goes around the sun.

  You can never tell what will happen.

  They sell rice at that store.

 2. 지시대명사: this(가까운 건), that(먼 것)

  This is Mr.Jones.

  To be or not to be: that is the question.(앞에 나온 문장을 지칭)

  What I want to say is this. Man is selfish by nature.(뒤에 나올 문장을 지칭)

  The temperature in Rome is higher than that in London.(the temperature)

 Those who want to leave early may do so. (∼하는 사람들)

 He makes mistakes, and that very often.(그것도)

 He will arrive on May 1st, that is, tomorrow. (즉)

 3. It의 용법

(1) 앞에 나온 명사,구,절 문장을 가리킨다

 There is a book on the desk.It(=The book) is mine.특정한 것을 가리킴

 *Do you have a pen? - Yes,I have one(=a pen)   :불특정한 것은 one

 I hate to go to bed early. But it is good for our health. : 구를 가리킴

(2) 비인칭 it : 시간,날씨,거리,계절,명암(해석하지 않는다.)

    How far is it to your school.

(3) 상황의 it: 막연한 상황을 가리킴

    It's all over with him.

    We must fight it out.

(4) 가주어,가목적어

   It is important to speak English.(=to speak English)

  You will find it easy to answer those questions.(=to answer those questions)

4. 재귀대명사

(1) 재귀용법

  content oneself,enjoy oneself , pride oneself

(2) 강조용법

 I myself wouldn't do such a thing.

(3) 관용적인 표현

 by oneself, for oneself, of oneself,besides oneself, in spite oneself

5. every-,some-,any-,no-등과 결합된 대명사

  No one knows what time I got home.

  Someone has left his bag.

  Each car must have is own license plate number.

6. both와 none

 Both of the girls live near here. -항상복수

 None of them lives near here.-no one의 뜻:단수

 None of them live near here. -그들 모두가:복수

7. either 와 neither : 단수 취급

  either/neither+단수명사=either/neither of+ 복수명사

  Either of the restaurants is fine.

 =Either restaurant is fine.

 Neither telephone is working.

 =Neither of the telephones is working.

 

 동사의 시제

1. 현재

현재의 상태: I know the author well.

현재의 습관: I often go to the library at night.

일반적인 진리: A smile changes everything.

시간의 부사절(미래대용): Wait until the sun rises.

근접미래: He starts tomorrow morning.

2. 과거

과거의 동작: When I rang the bell, no one came.

시간의 부사절에서 과거완료 대용: I stood stil after the door closed.

3. 미래

단순미래: You will soon get well.

의지미래:  I will do what I can.

상대방의 의향을 묻는 경우: Shall I help you?

                                         Will you go there?

                                         Shall he go at once?

4. 현재 완료: have(has)+p.p

 완료: I have just finished my work.

 결과: I have lost my watch.

 계속: I have known him from a child.

 경험: Have you ever seen a whale?

5. 과거 완료: had+p.p

 완료: The sun had already risen when I awoke.

 결과: I bought him a new watch; for he had lost his old one.

 계속: She had been sick for a week when the doctor came.

 경험: He had never seen an elephant till he visited that country.

 6. 미래 완료: will(shall) have + p.p

 완료: I shall have finished my task by the time you come home.

 결과: By the time you come back from abroad, your son will have full grown.

 계속: I shall have lived here ten full years by next month.

 경험: If I go to Japan again, I shall have been there two times.

7. 진행 시제

 단순진행: I am watching TV now.

 현재완료 진행형 : have(has) been-ing

 : I have been watching TV since noon.

 과거완료 진행형 : had been-ing

 : It had been raining about an hour when he called on me.

 미래 완료 진행형: will(shall) have been-ing

 : By next month he will have been teaching English for twenty years.

8. 주의할 진행 시제

 근접미래: I am leaving Korea tomorrow.

 가까운 미래의 예정: be going to + 동사원형

   They are going to meet their teacher soon.

9. 진행형으로 쓰지 못하는 동사

 * 존재,상태 동사: be,exist,have,belong to,resemble 등

 * 지각,감각 동사: hear,see,feel,taste,like,love 등

 * 사고,지식 동사: know, understand,believe 등

 cf) 단 have, hear, see 등과 같은 동사가 본래의 뜻이 아닌

  다른 뜻으로 쓰였을 때는 진행형이 가능

 

  조동사

1. May, Might의 용법
  
①허락.
    * May I smoke here? 
     - Yes, you may.
     - No, you may (must) not.

  ②추측.
    * He may be rich.
      = It is possible that he is rich. (현재의 추측, may + 원형)
    * He may have been rich.
      = It is possible that he was rich. (과거의 추측, may have + p.p)
    *가정법 과거완료 = might have + p.p.
    * He may meet her. (= It is possible that he meets her.)
      (그는 그를 만날지도 모른다; 현재의 추측)
      He may have meet her. (= It is possible that he met her.)
      (그는 그녀를 과거에 만났을지도 모른다; 과거의 추측)
      He might have met her.
      = He might have met her, if he had not been busy. (가정법 과거완료)
      = He did not meet her, as he was busy. (직설법 과거)
    ③능력.
      * Gather roses while you may. (시기를 놓치지 마라)
      * A man may be known by his friends.
    ④기타용법.
    * Whatever he may do          he will not succeed.
      No matter what he may do
      Do what he will
    * He may be called a poet, but he cannot be called a scholar.
    * May be rest in peace ! (편히잠드소서!, 기원문)
    * Might I ask your mane? (공손)
    * He may well say so.  (∼하는 것은 당연하다)
      = He says so, and well he may.
      = He has good reason to say so.
      = It is  natural               that he should say so.
               no wonder
               a matter of course
               not surprising
      = I take it for granted that he says so.
      ◇ may + well + 원형동사: ∼하는 것은 당연하다.
         과거: may well have + p.p.
      * You may as well --+  begin at once.
            might as well       |
           had better  --+ → ∼하는게 좋다.
      ◇ may (might) as well A as B: B하느니 차라리 A하는게 낫다.
        실현가능  : may ∼
        실현불가능: might ∼
        △You may as well not know a thing at all as know it imperfectly.
          (그것을 불완전하게 아느니, 차라리 전혀 모르는 것이 낫다.)
          You might as well reason with the wolf as try to persuade him.
          (그를 설득하려고 시도하는 것은 이리를 설득하려는 것과 같다.)
2. Can
  ①능력.
    * I can speak English.  (현재시제 = be able to)
      과거    : I was able to speak English.
      미래    : I will be able to speak English.
      현재완료: I have been able to speak English.
      과거완료: I had been able to speak English.
      미래완료: I will have been able to speak English.
      ◇ can의 과거: was able to.
         be able to∼의 부정: be unable to∼
  ②추측, 강한 의혹.
    * Who can he be?  (도대체 누구일까?) (강한 부정적 추측)
    * Can it be true? (도대체 그게 사실일까?) (강한 부정적 추측)
    ◇ can, cannot 등의 의문, 부정문에서 '도대체 ∼일까, ∼일리가 없
       다'의 뜻을 나타내어 강한 의혹이나 부정적인 추측을 표현하는데 쓰 임.
      * He cannot be honest. (현재의 추측, 그는 정직할리가 없다)
        = It is impossible that he is honest.
      * He cannot have been honest. (과거의 추측)
        = It is impossible that he was honest.
        ◇ cannot이 추측을 나타낼 땐 과거형에 could not을 사용치 않고,
           반드시 cannot + have + p.p. 형태를 사용할 것.
  ③기타.
    * You can go home now. (허가)
    * Could you show me the way to the station? (공손)
    * We cannot be too careful of our health.
    * We cannot praise him too much. (아무리 ∼해도 지나치지 않다)

3. Must
  ①필요, 의무 (must + 의지동사)
    * You must go there.
      = It is necessary that you should go there.
      = It is necessary for you to go there.
      ◇ must의 부정어는 need not, do not need to, do not have to,
         have not to 등이 있음.
        * You must go there.
          의: Do you have to go there?
          과: You had to go there.
          미: You will have to go there.
    * You have only to do your duty.  (∼하기만하면 된다)
  ②추측 (must + 무의지동사)
    * He must be honest. (현재의 추측)
      = I am sure  that he is honest.
        It is certain
      = It is impossible that he is honest.
      ≠ He cannot be honest.
    * He must have been honest.  (과거의 추측)
      = I am sure that he was honest.
      = It is impossible that he was honest.
      ≠ He cannot have been honest.
  ③기타.
    * He must needs come. (꼭 ∼한다고 고집하다)
    * Sooner or later, death must come to us all!
      (필연; 반드시 ∼하다. 조만간 죽음은 우리 모두에게 다가온다)
    * You must not tell a lie. (금지; ∼해서는 안된다)
      ≠ You may tell a lie.   (허가; ∼해도 좋다)
    * I think that I must go.
      과거: I thought that I must go.
4. Will, Would
  ① Will : 현재의 불규칙적 습관. (∼하곤하다)
     Would: 과거의 불규칙적 습관. (∼하곤했다)
    * He will often sit up reading all night.
    * He would often come home drunk, and beat his wife.
  ②소망 (wish to, want to)
    * He who would search for pearls, must dive deep.
    * Would that       I were young again!
      Would to God
      I wish

  ③거절, 고집.
    * The door will not open. (현재의 고집)
    * He would not help me.   (과거의 고집)
  ④습관, 경향 (He'll과 같이 생략형을 쓸 수가 없다)
    * Accident will happen.
    * Dogs will bark when they see a stranger.
  ⑤기타.
    * This vessel will hold 2 gallons of water. (포용력)
    * Would you pass me the salt? (공손)
    * He would be about twenty, when he met her. (추측)
    * He was a strong will.   (그는 강한 의지를 갖고 있다)
    * He made his will before his death.
      ◇ will이 명사로 쓰이면 "의지, 뜻, 의사, 유언" 등으로 쓰임.
    * I would rather  die (than) live in dishonor.
        would sooner
        had   rather
      = I would choose death before life in dishonor.
      = I prefer dying to living in dishonor. (전치사 + 명사,동명사)
      = I prefer to die rather than (to) live in dishonor.
      = 불명예스럽게 사느니 죽는 것이 낫다.
5. Should Ⅰ
  ①의무 (should + 원형동사: ∼해야한다)
    * The young should respect the old.
      ◇ 'should + 동사원형'은 'ought to + 동사원형'과 마찬가지로 의무
         "∼해야한다"의 뜻.
  ②과거의 비난, 유감, 후회 (should + have + p.p.; ∼했어야했는데)
    * You should     have worked harder.
          ought to
      = I am sorry (that) you didn't work harder.
      = I wish           you had worked harder.
        Would that
        Would to God
        If only
      = You had to work harder, but you didn't.
  ③강한의문, 놀람, 당연 (의문사 + should)
    * Why should you stay in Seoul in this hot weather?
      ◇ should가 why, how, who 등의 의문문에서 강한 의문, 놀람, 당연
         등으로 쓰이면 "도대체 ∼인가?"의 뜻.
    * How should I know it? (수사의문문)
      = I don't know it at all.
    ◇ Who should A but b? : 도대체 누가 A하는가 했더니 다름아닌 바로 B이더라.
  ④이성적 판단의 should.
    * It is natural that he should get angry.
      = It is natural for him to get angry.
      = He may well get angry.
      ◇ It is + 형 + that∼ 구문에서 형용사 necessary, important,
         natural, good, well, right, wrong, rational 등이 오면 that절
         에 should를 사용한다. (해석할 필요는 없음)
  ⑤감정적 판단의 should.
    * It is strange that she should cry all day long.
      ◇ It is 다음에 a pity, surprising, odd, strange, curious 등이
         쓰이면 that∼에 should를 사용하며, "∼하다니"로 해석한다.
         should + 동사원형    → 현재의 일.
         should + have + p.p. → 과거의 일.
  ⑥기타.
    * He should arrive by the 6:15 train. (추측)
    * I should like to go to America once more.  (완곡한 표현)
    * Write it down in your notebook lest you should forget it.
    * He lowered his voice for fear that he should be heard.
      → "∼하지 않도록", 자체 속에 부정의 뜻 포함. should 다음에 not
         을 쓰지 않도록 주의 할 것.
6. Should Ⅱ
    충고: advice, advisable.    --+
    주장: insist, demand.       | + that + 주어 + should + 동사원형
    소망: desire, expect.       |
    요구: require, request.     |
    제안: propose, move, suggest.       |
    명령: order.        --+
  * He insisted that he (should) go to the party.
    = He insisted on (또는 upon) going to the party.
  * I ordered that he (should) do it himself.
7. Ought to
  ①당연, 의무.
    * You ought to start at once.  (∼해야한다, should와 거의 같은 뜻)
    * You ought not to say such things. (부정; ought not to∼)
  ②과거의 유감, 후회, 비난.
    * You ought to have told me that matter yesterday.
      = You should have told me that matter yesterday.
      = I am sorry (that) you did not tell me that matter yesterday.
      = I wish you had told me that matter yesterday.
        (너는 어제 그일을 나에게 말했어야 했는데...)

      ◇ought to + have + p.p는 과거에 실행되지 못한 일에 대해 유감, 비난, 후회를 나
        타내며 '∼했어야했는데'의 뜻을 갖는다.
    * He ought to have arrived at Seoul Station by now.
      (그는 지금쯤 마땅히 서울역에 도착해있을거야; 당연한 추측)
  ③미래의 추측.
    * It ought to be rainy tomorrow. (당연히 ∼일 것이다)
8. Dare
  * I dare not to go there.
  * How are you say such a thing to my face?
    (내 면전에서 네가 감히 나에게 그런 말을 할 수 있겠는가?)
    ◇부정문, 의문문에서 조동사로 쓰여 "감히 ∼하다"
  * He does not dare to tell us.
    ◇ dare to do : 본동사로서 "감히 ∼하다"
  * I dare say = probably = perhaps = maybe = 아마.
9. Need
  * daily needs: 일용품.
  * immediate needs: 당장 필요한 것들.
  * The house is in need of repair. (명사로 필요, 소용, 결핍의 뜻)
    ◇in need of∼: ∼에 필요한. ◇in need: 곤경에 빠져있는.
  * He needs your help. (본동사, 그는 너의 도움을 필요로 한다)
  * He need not go there. (조동사)
    = He does not need to go there. (본동사)
  * He need not have written to her again.
    (그는 그녀에게 편지를 다시 쓸 필요가 없었는데...(그런데도 썼다))
    He did not need to write to her again.
    (그는 그녀에게 편지를 다시 쓸 필요가 없었다.(썼는지의 여부는 모름))
    ◇need not have + p.p.: ∼할 필요가 없었는데 ∼를 했다.
      did not need to∼   : ∼할 필요가 없었다, 그래서 ∼하지 않았다.
10. Used to
  ① use가 명사, 동사로 쓰일 때.
    * You use your legs when you walk. (동사, [ju:z])
    * The telephone is of no use in this town. (명사, [ju:s])
    * use up = exhaust: 다 써 버리다.
      of no use = useless: 소용이 없는.
  ② used to + 동사원형.
    * I used to get up early. ([ju:st], 과거의 규칙적 습관)
      = I was in the habit of getting up early.
      = I made it a rule to get up early.
      = I made a point of getting up early.
      = I made it a point to get up early.
    * There used to be a big tree here. (과거의 상태)
  ③ be used to + 명사, 동명사.
    * He is used to driving a car.
      = He is accustomed to drive a car.
                             driving a car.
      ◇ be used to 다음에 반드시 명사 또는 동명사가 오며 "∼에 익숙하다"의 뜻.
         그러나 be accustomed to 다음엔 동사원형 또는 명사나 동명사가 모두 쓰임.

 

   형용사     

1. 한정용법: 형용사가 직접 명사 앞 또는 뒤에서 수식하는 용법.
    * I found an empty box.
    * He was awake all the night. (2형식)
    * I found the cage empty.(서술용법; 5형식)
    * I found the empty cage. (한정용법)
      ◇형용사가 주격보어나 목적격보어로 쓰이는 경우를 형용사의 서술적 용법이라 한다.
    ◇한정용법에만 쓰이는 형용사
      * an inner pocket  : 안주머니.            * a woolen goods   : 모직물.
      * the outer world  : 외부세계.          * a woolen box     : 나무상자.
      * the former case  : 전자의 경우.       * a golden saying  : 금언.
      * the upper lip    : 윗입술.             * a lone traveller : 외로운 나그네.
      * drunken, elder, former, latter, only, inner, outer, lone,
        mere, sheer, upper, utmost, utter, very, wooden, sole, this, that, etc.
    ◇ He is a drunken man.
       He is drunk.
       ⇒ drunken은 반드시 한정용법에만 쓰이고, drunk는 서술용법에만 쓰임.
2. 서술용법

    ◇서술용법에만 쓰이는 형용사.
      a-로 시작되는 형용사: afraid, awake, alone, asleep, ashamed,
      aware 등과 fond, content, unable, worth 등이 모두 서술용법에만 사용됨.
      * I am afraid of death.
        ◇ be fond of∼     : ∼을 좋아하다.   * be ashamed of∼  : ∼을 부끄러워하다.
         * be aware of∼    : ∼을 알다.   * be afraid of∼   : ∼을 두려워하다.
    * The bird is still alive.
      ◇ live는 동사 [liv]로서 "살다"이나 형용사로 쓰이면 [laiv]로 발
         음, "살아있는", "활기있는"의 뜻으로 한정용법에 쓰임. living
         역시 살아있는의 뜻으로 한정용법에 쓰임.
    * The baby is sound asleep. (부사, '깊이')
3. 한정용법과 서술용법의 차이에 따라 뜻이 달라지는 단어
    * a certain lady.(어떤부인), It is quite certain. (확실한)
    * Brown is late.(늦다) , the late Brown.(故 Brown)
    * He is the present king. (한정용법; 현재의 왕)
    * The king was present.   (서술용법; 참석하다)
    ◇서술용법은 주격보어, 목적격보어, 명사 뒤에서 한정용법 등 세가지로 쓰임.
      * her late husband : 故人이된 남편.
      * the late king    : 先王.
      * right : 한정용법으로 쓰이면 "오른쪽의"
                서술용법으로 쓰이면 "올바른"
4. 형용사의 후위수식
  ①두개 이상의 형용사가 명사 수식.
    * She is a lady beautiful kind and rich.
  ②형용사가 다른 요소와 결합되어 길어질 때.
    * This is a useful dictionary.
    * I have a dictionary useful for children. (형용사구)
  ③ -thing, -body를 수식하는 형용사는 후위수식.
    * Please give me something hot.
  ④ -able, -ible로 끝나는 형용사가 최상급 all, every 다음에 오는 명사를 수식할 때.
    * I have tired every means possible.
    * This is the best method conceivable.
  ⑤서술용법의 형용사가 명사 수식.
    * He is the greatest poet alive.
    ◇형용사절의 who is, which가 생략된 형식.
      a boy (who is) ten years old.
      the latter (which is) written in English.

  ⑥관용어구.
    * from time immemorial: 옛날부터.     * the sum total       : 합계, 총계.
    * Asia Minor          : 소아시아.     * the authorities concerned: 관계당국.
    * God almighty        : 전능의 신.    * a poet laureate     : 계관시인.
    
5. 형용사의 어순.
        +-------+-------+---------+-----------+-------+--------+----------+-----------+
        |   1   |   2   |    3  |     4 |   5   |    6  |     7 |     8 |
        +-------+-------+---------+-----------+-------+--------+----------+-----------+
        |관사등 |서수   | 기수  | 성질  |대소   |상태,색        |신,구재료      |소속   |
        +-------+-------+---------+-----------+-------+--------+----------+-----------+
        | a, an | first |  one  |  heavy        | large |  white        |   new |  American     |
        +-------+-------+---------+-----------+-------+--------+----------+-----------+
        | the   | second|  two  |  valuable     | small |  yellow|   old        |  Swiss        |
        +-------+-------+---------+-----------+-------+--------+----------+-----------+
        | these | last  | several       |       |       |  black        |  wooden       |       |
        +-------+-------+---------+-----------+-------+--------+----------+-----------+
    * My first new salary is spent.
6. the + 형용사 (또는 p.p.)의 용법
  ①복수보통명사
    * The rich have troubles as well as the poor.
  ②단수보통명사
    * The deceased was a very up right statesman.
    ◇ the deceased: 故人.
       the accused : 피고인.
       the dead    : 죽은 자
       등은 단수보통명사로 단수 취급한다.
  ③추상명사로 쓰일 때.
    * The good and the beautiful do not always go together.
      (선과 미가 항상 병행하는 것은 아니다.)
7. 목적어를 취하는 형용사

  * This book is worth reading.
  * It is worth while to read this book.
  * My house is near the lake.
  * They are opposite each other.
  * They are very like each other.
    ◇이들을 전치사로 볼 수도 있음.
8. 수량형용사 Many, Much
  * Many a student has repeated the same mistake.
    = Many students have repeated the same mistake.
    ◇ many a + 단수명사는 복수의 의미지만 반드시 단수동사를 사용.
    ◇ much + 복수명사는 복수동사를 사용.
  * Much a time did I warn him, but to no purpose.
    ◇ many a time은 many a times와 같은 의미이며, 부사구인 many
       a time은 문두로 도치되었으므로 '조동사 + 주어 + 본동사'의
       형태로 사용.
  * a good many --+
    a great many        |
    a great number of   | + 복수명사
    a large number of   |   "많은", "수많은", {수}에 쓰임.
    a multitude of      -+
    ◇I have a good many things to do today.
      A large number of people visit the historic site.
  * a good deal of      --+ + 물질·추상명사
    a great deal of     --+   : 많은 양의, 상당한 양의.
    ◇He has had to spend a good deal of money on medicines.
  * a lot of    --+
    lots of     | + 복수 또는 단수명사
    (a) plenty of       --+   : 많은, 수많은.  {수 또는 양}에 쓰임.
    ◇She spend a lot of money on clothes.
  * as many: 같은 정도의 수. 동수의.
    as much: 같은 정도의 양, 동량의.
  * like so many: 같은 수의 ∼처럼.
    like so much: 같은 양의 ∼처럼.
    ◇He made ten mistakes in as many lines. (as many = ten)
      (그는 열 줄에서 열개의 잘못을 저질렀다.)
      There were five accidents in as many days. (as many = five)
      (5일 동안에 5건의 사고가 발생했다.)
      She was respected, and her husband as much despised.
      (그녀는 존경을 받았는데, 남편은 그만큼 멸시를 받았다.)

      He drank two bottles of beer and as much wine.
      (그는 맥주 두병과 포도주 두병을 마셨다.)
      They worked like so many ants.
      (그들은 개미 떼처럼 일했다.)
      The wooden houses flamed up like so many match-boxes.
      (목조 건물들은 마치 성냥갑처럼 불길이 타올랐다.)
  * not so much A as B = not A so much as B = less A than B
    = B rather than A = A라기 보다는 오히려 B이다.
    ◇He is not so much a scholar as a statesman.
      = He is not a scholar so much as a statesman.
      = He is a statesman rather than a scholar.
  * not so much as = not even = ∼조차도 못한다.
    ◇She can not so much as write her own name.
      = She can not even write her own name.
  * not much = 너무 ∼은 아니다.
    ◇He is not much of a scholar.(그는 대단한 학자는 아니다.)
      I do not see much of him. (나는 그를 자주 만나지는 않는다.)
  * without so much as = without even = ∼조차도 없이.
    ◇He left without so much as saying goodbye to me.
9. 수량형용사 Few, Little
  * few, a few: 수 표시에 사용.
    few  : 거의없는, 별로없는; 부정을 나타냄.
    a few: 조금있는; 긍정의 기분을 나타냄.
    ◇He has few fiends. (거의 없다.)
      He has a few fiends. (약간있다.)
  * little, a little: 모두 양 표시에 사용.
    little  : 별로없는; 부정의 기분.
    a little: 약간있는; 긍정의 기분.
    ◇I have a little money with me. (약간있다.)
      I have little money with me. (거의 없다.)
  * not a few = quite a few = no few = a good many = many
    = 상당히 많은. {수}에 사용.
    ◇There are not a few such men.
  * only a few = but few = 약간.
    ◇He has only a few friends.
  * the little
    ◇I did the little (what little) I could.(나는 미력이나마 전력을 다했다.)
      △the little은 뒤에 수식하는 말이 오므로 the가 붙는다.

  * not a little = quite a little = no little = much = 꽤 많은.  {양}에 사용.
    ◇It has caused me not a little anxiety. (not a little = considerable)
  * I little dreamed that I should never see him again.
    = Little did I dream that I should never see him again.
      (내가 그를 다시는 보지 못하리라는 것은 꿈에도 생각하지 못했다.)
    ◇little이 문두로 도치되면 little + 조동사 + 주어 + 본동사의 형태.
  * He little knows that the police are about to arrest him.
    = Little does he know that the police are about to arrest him.
      (경찰이 체로하려하고 있다는 것을 그는 전혀 모르고 있다.)
      ◇little이 know, think, imagine, guess suspect, realize 등의
        동사 앞에 쓰여서 [전혀 ∼하지 않은(not at all)]의 뜻으로 쓰인다.
  * little better than = as good as = ∼과 거의 같은.
    ◇He is little better than beggar.
  * little short of = almost
    ◇It is little short of a miracle. (그것은 기적이나 다름없다.)

10. 수사
  ① five hundred / five thousand / five millions.
     hundreds of people / five million inhabitants.
     ◇hundred, thousand는 복수가 없으나 million은 복수가 있다.(미어×)
       △hundred (thousand) of = 많은, million을 형용사로 쓸 때는 단수.
  ② $ 2,358 = two thousand three hundred and fifty-eight dollars.
     ◇hundred 다음에 and를 넣어 읽는다.
    * (the year) 1981 = nineteen eighty-one.
     ◇3021처럼 100 단위가 없을 때에는 three thousand and twenty-one으로 읽는다.
     ◇연대는 둘씩 나누어 읽는다.
        1990: nineteen hundred.
        1801: eighteen hundred and one. (or eighteen one)
    * (at) 7: 55 ㏂ = seven fifty-five [/ei/em]
    * a girl in her teens
  ③ He was the first president of the university.
     Do it a second time. (a second time = again)
     Two-thirds of the apples were bad.
     Two-thirds of the land

was uncultivated.
     ◇서수사: 서수사에는 the를 붙임.
       first, second, third 이외는 기수사에 -th를 붙여 서수사를 만듬.
       △철자에 주의: fifth, eighth, ninth, twelfth, twentieth, fourteenth, fortieth.
       △Napoleon Ⅲ = Napoleon the Third.
         World War Ⅱ = World War Two 혹은 the Second World War.
         a third world war.
       △분수읽기. (분자는 기수, 분모는 서수)
         ½ = a half (or one half),
         ⅔ = two thirds, ⅓ = one third.
         4 2/7 = four and two sevenths.
       △분수의 수는 그 뒤의 말에 따라 결정됨.
       △one and a half는 단수로 받는다.
       △2.34 = two point three four.
  ④ I had to pay double the usual price.
     * He has twice as much money as I have.
     * This is three times as large as that.
       = This is three times the size of that.

11. 고유형용사
        +---------+----------+------------+-------------+------------+
        | 국   명       |고유형용사|국민 한사람 | 국민의 복수   | 국민 전체     |
        +---------+----------+------------+-------------+------------+
        | England       | English       | Englishman    |  Englishmen   |  English      |
        | France        | French        | Frenchman     |  Frenchmen    |  French       |
        | China         | Chinese       | Chinese       |  Chinese      |  Chinese      |
        | Korea         | Korean