스크랩 [스크랩] [海印寺] Tripitaka Koreana at Haeinsa Temple

[강일수]

 

Tripitaka Koreana at Haeinsa Temple

Preface Its religious significance aside, the Tripitaka Koreana preserved in impeccable condition testifies to the outstanding achievements of medieval! Koreans in science and technology, especially printing and publishing.
Every day at the wee hour of three o'clock in the morning, the monks wake up to the deep, reverberation sound of ancient instruments coming from a music pavilion in the main courtyard of the temple. The clergy assemble within half an hour for a predawn service in accordance with the time-hon-ored regulations of monastic life. With their hearts cleansed of all worldly concerns, the monks from all ranks of the community worship the Buddha and chant holy sutras to the beating of wooden gongs as the pious sound echoes along the still pitch-dark mountain valley. For the past twelve centuries, Mt.Gayasan in Hapcheon, South Gyeongsang Province, has been home to one of Korea's most treasured Buddhist monasteries, Haeinsa, or the "Temple of Reflections on a Calm Sea," and its many hermitages.
Famous for the stunning beauty of its craggy peaks and peaceful valleys with burbling streams lined with lush foliage, Mt.Gayasan is believed to have been named after a mountain in Buddha Gaya, India, where Seokgamoni, the Historic Buddha, attained enlightenment. Or, some contend that the name was derived from the Gaya league of tribal states which thrived in the southeastern province from around the first century B.C. to the sixth century A.D. ,before the neighboring Silla expanded its territory to unify the peninsula. Korea's ancient center of the Avatamsaka (Huayen in Chinese and Hwa-eom in Korean) school of Buddhism, Haeinsa was established by two enlightened monks, Suneung and ljeong, in 802 during the Unified Silla period. Its name was taken from a phrase in the
Avatamsaka (The Great and Vast buddha Garland) sutra, which compares the wisdom of Buddha to a calm sea. When the sea, that is the human mind, is freed from the wild waves of worldly desires and follies, it will finally attain a mirror-like peacefulness where the true image of all existence is clearly reflected. Most Koreans instantly associate Haeinsa with the Tripitaka Koreana, a 13th century edition of scriptures known to be the world's most comprehensive and oldest intact version of Buddhist canon in Chinese script. This is one reason why the temple, tucked away in a secluded valley in the deep mountains, has maintained its reputation as a religious heaven among Korean Buddists over the centuries. Haeinsa is one of Korea's three major temple which represent the "three jewels of Buddhism," that is, the Buddha, the sutra and the monks. No doubt that, aside from their normal clerical duties, the temple's some 500-strong legion of bhikkhus is responsible for protecting their "jewel," the 81,258 wooden blocks for printing the scriptures, which have been housed in the temple since 1398. Thus have I heard... These are the words with which the disciples of the Historic Buddha began their recitations of the Enlightened One's sermons. This indicates that his teaching had been transmitted orally before it was written down. The compilation of the Tripitaka, as the Buddhist canon is known, took place during a council convened by the Indian Emperor Asoka around 250 B.C., some two centuries after the Buddha's death. The sacred texts were copied by hand and translated into various languages over the following centuries as the Buddha's teaching spread all over Asia. The Sanskrit "Tripitaka"(Pali:Tipitaka) means "three collections" or "three baskets," referring to the Buddhist canon in its entirety up to the time of compilation. It consists of regulations of monastic life(Vinaya-pitaka), discourses with the Buddha(Sutta-pitaka) and commentaries on the sutras by renowned monks and scholars(Abhidhamma-pitaka). The composition of the Chines Daejanggyeong (Great Collection of Scriptures) was completed around the end of the Dang Dynasty (618-907). Then the first woodblock version in China was published in 983 during the Song Dynasty. However, the world's oldest and finest edition in Chinese script today is attributed to the 13th century Koreans of the Goryeo Dynasty. Known in Korean as Goryeo Daejanggyeong (Great Collection of Scriptures of Goryeo) and Palman Daejanggyeong (Great Collection of Scriptures in Eighty Thousand Blocks), the Tripitaka Koreana is recognized as the finest some 30 East Asian versions of the Buddhist canon in Chinese script in terms of comprehensiveness, accuracy, beauty of calligraphic style and carving. Based on an earlier Goryeo edition as well as Chinese and Khitan versions, the Tripitaka Koreana comprises 6,802 volumes under 1,511 titles, including the latest writings by eminent Korean monks as well. The accuracy of its content is due largely to the great effort of National Preceptor Sugi, who thoroughly studied various texts extant at the time to correct errors and add missing characters. The woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana have defied time and the elements, surviving the ravages of war and internal turmoil over the last seven centuries. Today, the Tripitaka is one of Korea's most prized cultural treasures, transcending religious barriers. Its religious significance aside, the massive canon preserved in impeccable condition testifies to the outstanding achievements of medieval! Koreans in science and technology, especially printing and publishing. The Tripitaka in Woodblocks The Tripitaka Koreana was compiled over a period of 15 years from 1236 to 1251 under the command of King Gojong of the Goryeo Dynasty, who sought to solicit the mercy of the Buddha to expel the brutal Mongol invaders. The Goryeo Dynasty, which adopted Buddhism as the state religion and gave rise to a flowering Buddhist culture, had produced an earlier compendium of the holy scriptures, completed in 1087 as the result of a national endeavor through six reigns over 76 years. But the first edition, compiled in accordance with the national aspiration to repel the Khitan invaders with the power of the Buddha and kept at Buinsa temple near Daegu, was destroyed by fire set by Mongol troops in 1232. The King's fervent wish to seek the benevolence of the Buddha in overcoming the national crisis is well presented in his invocation for the compilation of the second edition, written by Yi Gyu-bo, a famous nobleman of letters of the time. The invocation, as contained in an anthology of Yi's writings, reads as follows: "We, together with the dukes, counts, ministers and all the officials in the civil and military service, pray to the Buddha, Indra and all the gods and spirits of the thirty-three heavens who reside in the endless void of the ten directions. The distress inflicted by the Tartars is severe. Their merciless and brutal nature aside, they are more stupid and savage even than beasts. So how can they ever know that there is the Buddha's law which is the most precious under heaven? Therefore, they have burned up all the Buddha images and scriptures on the path trodden by their filthy footsteps. The printing blocks of the Tripitaka housed in Buinsa were at last burnt down. The product of tremendous endeavor over decades was turned to ashes overnight and a great treasure of the nation has vanished. How could all the Buddhas, bodhisattvas and the heavenly kings, despite their merciful, magnanimous hearts, withstand this disaster? We hope that all the Buddhas, saints and the gods of the thirty-three heavens look upon our wish and grant us miraculous power to make those ruthless barbarians turn course and run away, never to infringe upon the border of our nation again. When the war has ended and peace brought to the country so the queen dowager and the prince may live long and the nation prosper through ten thousand generations, we will all devote ourselves to protecting the Buddha's law and repay his grace. Please heed our earnest wish." Ardent as the king's desire to expel the invaders with the Buddha's help was, it remains a mystery whether any intercession followed his pious project. Possibly, the Buddha chose to teach the Goryeo rulers a lesson because the royal court remained under Mongol domination for some 130 years. When independence was regained at last in the wake of the fall of the continent-wide empire of the terrorsome nomadic horsemen, only a decade later the Goryeo Dynasty succumbed to the rising power of Joseon, whose rulers proclaimed Confucianism as the guiding creed for state administration and public ethics. The printing blocks of the Tripitaka Koreana were fashioned from birch wood, available in abundance on the islands off the south coast. The wood was painstakingly processed to weatherproof rain and retard decay. First, the wood was soaked in seawater for three years, then cut into blocks and boiled in salt water. They were then dried in the shade, exposed to winds, for another three years before planing the surface smooth. Then the elaborate work of writing and carving began. After the text was engraved, the blocks were given a poisonous lacquer coating to repel harmful insects and each corner was reinforced with metal to prevent warping. The printing blocks are some 70cm wide, 24cm long and 2.8cm thick on the average. Each block has 23 lines of text, each with 14 characters, on each side. Each block thus has a total of 644 characters on both sides. Some 30 men carved the total of 52,382,960 characters in the clean and simple style of Song Chinese master calligrapher Ou-yang Hsun, which was widely favored by the aristocratic elites of Goryeo. The carvers worked with incredible dedication and precision without making a single error. They are said to have knelt down and bowed after carving each character. The script is so uniform from beginning to end that the woodblocks look like the work of one person. Carving was done mostly at the head offices for the compilation of the canon at Sonwonsa temple on Ganghwado, an island off the west coast, where the Goryeo court had its wartime capital. Historic records say that a special service was observed at Sonwonsa to celebrate the completion of the Tripitaka, with the king participating. The printing blocks were housed at the temple for a century and a half until they were moved to Haeinsa in 1398, shortly after the founding of the Joseon Dynasty, due to the frequent pillaging of pirates. When the Tripitaka woodblocks were moved to the present depositories at Haeinsa, King Taejo of Joseon went to Yongsan River, which is today's Hangang River, to observe their transportation. The blocks were temporarily stored at Jicheonsa temple, located near the South Gate, because of rain. It remains a subject of study how the immense bulk of the blocks, requiring over 30 eight-ton trucks by today's estimate, was moved from there to Haeinsa in the deep mountains, some 350km southeast of Seoul. With no clear records available, historians are divided concerning how the blocks were moved; by inland transportation or by sea to the southern port of Busan and then up the Nakdonggang River. Notwithstanding the political displacement of Buddhism by Confucianism in the late 14th century, the Tripitaka remained a valuable asset for the nation's Buddhist population as well as not a few members of the royal family who advocated Buddhism for their personal faith. King Sejo(r. 1455-1468), who repented the bloodbath he masterminded to usurp the throne from his nephew, the child King Danjong, ordered the printing of 50 copies of the Tripitaka in 1458 for distribution to major temples, the largest volume in history. Printing the entire Tripitaka was impossible without state support in ancient times as it required vast resources including paper, ink and manpower. The latest printing was done from 1963 to 1968, with the approval of the Ministry of Culture and Information. Thirteen copies were printed. Four of them were presented to Japan, one was presented to the University of California in the United States, another one to Australia, two to Britian and the remaining four copies are preserved in the country. From the early years of the Joseon Dynasty, Japan began to consistently request copies of the Tripitaka and even the printing blocks at times. Incredible as it may sound today, the Joseon court was persuaded to discuss presenting the entire blocks to Japan during the reign of Taejong(r.1400-1418). Printed copies of selected sutras were presented on scores of occasions and the Tripitaka was frequently on the main agenda of diplomatic negotiations between the two countries. Earlier this century, Japan eventually printed its own metal type version, Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo, largely based on the Tripitaka Koreana, which was considered the modern standard version before the international community of Buddhist studies came to pay attention to the value of the Korean version in recent years. Preservation of Woodblocks: A Challenge to Modern Science The excellent condition of the printing blocks of the Tripitaka Koreana, which have defied time and the elements over the last seven centuries, has emerged as a challenge to modern preservation science. The wood was meticulously processed for years to weatherproof rain and prevent decay, before and after the carving of the scriptures. But the manufacturing technology alone would not have been sufficient to preserve the numerous wooden blocks in such a perfect state over the centuries. To a significant extent, the wonder is attributed to the wisdom of those who built the wooden depositories. Constructed in the late 15th century, about a century after the printing blocks were moved to Haeinsa, the two simple and sturdy structures, each of similar size and design, have perfectly played their intended role of preserving the priceless artifacts. The true challenge for modern architecture lies in the fact that the ancient builders took advantage of nature with prominent wisdom and technical knowhow in selecting the site and designing the buildings. The two storage halls, called Changgyeonggak, stand at the highest level of the temple compound, which is located on the southwestern midslope of Mt. Gayasan(1,430 meters). Overlooking the beautiful roof lines of some thirty buildings including worship hall, dormitories and auditoriums, the storage halls stand behind the main worship hall on top of steep stone terraces. The two elongated structures with a rectangular courtyard in between stand at 655 meters above sea level, facing southwest. At this altitude and direction and being protected by high peaks at the back, the buildings can avoid both the damp southeasterly wind blowing up from the valleys and the cold northen wind, with no part of the structures affected by permanent shade. Two small buildings standing on either end of the courtyard are storages of the printing blocks for scriptures and other books published by the temple. Built upon low granite foundations, these typical early Joseon-style wooden structures with hipped roofs, each measuring 60.44 meters long, 8.73 meters wide and 7.8 meters high, facilitate maximum ventilation as well as temperature and humidity control with no obvious devices other than open grill windows. The ingenuity of the ancient architects is shown in the layout of the windows. Both halls have two rows of wooden grill windows divided by a central molding on the front and back walls. In the case of the front hall, named Sudarajang, or the Hall of Sutras, the windows of the lower row in the front wall are about four times as large as those of the upper row, while the upper windows in the back wall are about one and a half times the size of the lower windows. In the case of the back hall, named Beopbojeon, or the Hall of Dharma, the lower windows on the front wall are approximately 4.6 times the size of the upper windows, and the upper windows on the back wall are about 1.5 times the size of the lower windows. This is apparently a plan based on the theory of hydrodynamics and air flow. The windows allow for maximum natural ventilation. Fresh air is brought in through the larger upper windows and moisture is prevented from seeping in from the ground from the back of the buildings as the lower windows are small. The fresh air is intended to circulated around the hall before escaping through the windows on the opposite side. Each hall has two lengthy rows of five-story shelves. Each story contains two rows of woodblocks, vertically arranged one row upon the other. The printing blocks have thicker margins on the sides, so the carved sections are always exposed to the air flow. The storage halls have clay floors, which is another distinctive feature of the buildings intended to help control temperature and humidity. The floors have layers of salt, charcoal and lime underneath, which absorb excess humidity during the rainy season in the summer and maintain an optimum humidity level during the dry winter months. The roofs are built of clay and tiles over wooden rafters and simple brackets, which prevent abrupt changes in temperature caused by direct sunlight. All the natural and technical factors considered, it still remains a mystery how insects and wild animals are kept away from the buildings. The monks contend that not a single spider's web has been found within the halls and no mildew or moss either. Not a single bird has ever been seen resting on the roofs. The buildings survived fires that ravaged the temple no less than seven times, destroying all of its original structures. A miracle of Vairocana or not, the Tripitaka narrowly escaped annihilation during the Korean War. An Air Force pilot was ordered to drop bombs on the mountain to subdue North Korean troops hiding there but he disobeyed and passed by, recalling that down below there was a temple preserving the Tripitaka Koreana, a national treasure. In the 1970s, the late president Park Jeung-hui ordered the construction of a new storage hall equipped with modern preservation devices. Ignoring opposition from the Buddhist community and scholars at home and abroad, a huge cement structure was built in an adjacent valley east of the main temple compound. The building had up-to-date facilities for ventilation and temperature and humidity control. But mildew was found growing on the test blocks moved there soon after, so the ambitious plan for "scientific" preservation of the invaluable national treasures had to be scrapped. The building is now used as a Zen training center for monks. Temple of Reflections on aCalm Sea A great majority of Korean Buddhist temples are located in the mountains. They are normally reached after trekking along scenic valleys with many old trees and clean streams. The trees change color from season to season and birds sing different songs according to the hour of the day. Therefore, walking up to the temple often serves as a ritual for purifying one's soul, escaping the mundane world and thinking about life and the laws of nature. The Hongnyudong valley leading up to Haeinsa in Mt. Gayasan offers greater pleasure and opportunities for deeper thought than the entryways to most other Buddhist temples in the country. Sublime is the beauty of the 4-km-long valley, a verdant tunnel of old pines and numerous deciduous trees, rugged cliffs and wild streams. Legend has it that two monks, Suneung and Ijeong, who had just returned from China where they attained enlightenment, were meditating somewhere in the valley when the queen of a Silla king, Aejangwang, fell very ill with an abscess on her back. As all medicines had proved useless, the king sent his officials throughout the country to seek the wisdom of revered monks. When one of the officials reached this valley, he saw mysterious radiance emanating from the two meditating monks. He asked them to accompany him to the palace but they refused and instead gave him a spool of thread in five colors. The monks told him to tie one end of the thread to the queen and the other to a pear tree in front of the palace. The man followed their advice and the queen was cured whereas the pear tree dried up and died. The grateful king had a temple erected in the valley for the two monks and donated farm land. It was 802, the third year of the reign of Aejangwang. For those who find the legend hard to believe, Choe Chi-won, a prominent writer and calligrapher of Silla, who spent his last days in self-imposed exile in Mt. Gayasan, provides a more credible story regarding the foundation of the temple. In his essay about Haeinsa dating from 900, Choe wrote that the temple was erected in 802 by Suneung who attained enlightenment in China. The queen dowager, who supported Buddhist monks with as much affection as if they were her own sons, was so pleased to hear the news that she converted to Buddhism herself and presented good food and various other gifts. Numerous students gathered like clouds at the temple, but Suneung died suddenly. Then his disciple, Ijeong, who was also an eminent monk, inherited his work and completed the construction. The temple history confirm‎!s that Suneung was a disciple of Sillim who in turn was a disciple of Uisang, the first to propagate the Avatamsaka school of Buddhism in Korea in the early seventh century. Unlike the main worship halls of most other Korean temples enshrining the Seokgamoni images, Haeinsa's main shrine, Daejeokkwangjeon, or the Hall of Great Silence and Light, is dedicated to Vairocana, the Resplendent Buddha, who first preached the Avatamsaka Sutra. The hall has an image of Vairocana attended by two bodhisattvas featured in the sutra, Manjusri and Samantabhadra. Vairocana, one of the five celestial Buddhas, represents the center of the universe and is indicated by his gesture of preaching and the symbol of the wheel of law. The five celestial Buddhas are the concrete manifestations of Seokgamoni, each representing, the center or the four compass points of the universe. The main theme of the Avatamsaka Sutra is the meaning of true enlightenment. It relates the travels of the young boy, Sudhana, in search of enlightenment. He is assisted by numerous spiritual friends along the way, all belonging to different walks of life, and eventually attains truth with the guidance of Manjusri, the Glorious Gentle One. In the end, the devotee makes a pious vow to follow the exemplary conduct of Samantabhadra. The basic work of the Avatamsaka school, which has had a broad following in all of three Far Eastern countries of China, Korea and Japan, the Avatamsaka Sutra is said to have been first preached by Vairocana, the Resplendent Buddha, expressing the perfect truth revealed in his enlightenment. Its main doctrine is the theory of causation-- that there is a universal, immutable mind that is the basis of all phenomena. It teaches harmony with the totality of things encountered in the perfectly enlightened Buddha. The Buddha-nature is present potentially in all things. The Tripitaka Koreana earned Haeinsa its reputation as one of Korea's three major temples representing the "three jewels of Buddhism." Haeinsa stands for Dharma, or the Buddha's teaching. Tongdosa in Yangsan, South Gyeongsang Province, symbolizes the Buddha as it enshrines the Sarira, or the holy relics, of Seokgamoni. Songgwangsa in Seongju, South Jeolla Province, represents Sangha, or the assembly of monk devoted to studying, teaching and preserving the teachings of the Buddha. Haeinsa is also the head temple of the 12th Diocese of the Korean Buddhist Jogye Order, the largest Buddhist sect in the country. Haeinsa underwent its first major renovation in the early 10th century while the famous monk, Hirang, was serving as the chief abbot. The renovation was financed with a generous donation by Wang Geon, the founding monarch of the Goryeo Dynasty, in reward for the monk's assistance in subduing his enemy. Wang Geon patronized Haeinsa, keeping important government documents in the temple and sponsoring seasonal rites and special masses. Hirang, not only a revered monk but an accomplished artist as well, is known to have carved a wooden image of himself at the temple. A realistic image of the monk, seated with his two hands clasped on crossed legs, is now preserved at one of the temple's 16 hermitages. The second major renovation, probably much bigger than the first, was carried out in the late 15th century under the patronage of two Joseon queens, Insu and Inhye, both daughters-in-law of King Sejo. Originally, Sejo wanted to renovate the temple after printing 50 copies of the Tripitaka but he died without fulfilling his wish. His wife, Queen Jeonghi, hoped to fulfill his wish but she died too in 1483, without putting her plan into practice. Their two daughters-in-law finally accomplished the project under the supervision of the senior monk, Hakcho. The main shrine as well as the depositories for the Tripitaka and various other buildings were newly constructed at the time, so the temple obtained its present scale and ambience. The renovation was completed in 1490. Owing to its sequestered location guarded by rough terrain, Haeinsa fortunately escaped the rampant arson by Japanese troops during the Hideyoshi invasions in 1592-1598, which devastated much of the country, destroying almost all wooden palace and temple buildings. But fire erupted at Haeinsa seven times over two centuries from 1695 to 1871, burning down most of the building that had existed since the 15th century renovation. The buildings have all been reconstructed over the years, and the temple maintains much of its ancient magnificence. Haeinsa has been the center of activities for a number of prominent monks. Uicheon, or National Preceptor Daegak, a Goryeo prince who compiled the Supplement to the Tripitaka, once resided at the temple. Royal Preceptor Wongyeong, who traveled to China with Uicheon to study Buddhism, assisted him in compiling the scriptures by proofreading the texts. A stone stele for Wongyeong stands near the entrance to the temple. Samyong, who led a monk militia during the 16th century Japanese invasion, died at Hongje-am hermitage, where a bell-shaped stupa containing his remains now stands. In the 20th century, Seongcheol who headed the Jogye Order, resided at Paengnyonam hermitage and died there. Wondangam hermitage, with its exquisite stone relics dating from the Unified Silla period, adds romantic color to the temple famed for its serious academic tradition and the stern regulations of its Bhikkhus community. Queen Jinseong(r. 887-897) of Silla designated Haeinsa as the tutelary temple for her lover and high courtier, Wihong, when he died In 888. She even abdicated the throne in the 11the year of her reign and moved to the temple, where she died later that year. The two lovers are credited for compiling an anthology of Silla native songs, called Hyangga. The Tripitaka for the Computer Age In spite of its tremendous historic and religious value, the contents of the Tripitaka Koreana remain largely inaccessible to most people. It is simply too vast. Moreover, few Koreans today can read it because the entire text is written in classical Chinese. Translation of the canon into modern Korean has been slow and is still unfinished. In this regard, it is interesting to note that the historic mission of the Haeinsa clerics to preserve the ancient printing blocks has recently come in tune with the computer age. In 1992 a group of monks began computerizing the vast content of the Tripitaka. The seemingly incompatible job of combining one of humanity's oldest spiritual assets with the latest technology fascinated a lot of people as an intellectually stimulating task. It also drew considerable attention from the international community of Buddhist studies. It was no easy task for monks in a mountain monastery to garner all the necessary financial and technical resources, however. As the project faced a stadnstill despite its widely acknowledged significance in and outside the Buddhist world, Samseong Group came to the rescue of the frustrated monks in 1994 and helped complete inputting the canon within a year. It is simply amazing that the entire content of the scriptures is now contained in a single CD-ROM. But, for Cheongnim and his colleagues at the Daejanggyeong Institute of Haeinsa, who masterminded the project, it is just the beginning of an even greater challenge. With all the data input, they set out to create the tools needed for classification, cross-referencing, indexing, exegesis and lexicon compilation. At the same time, the printing blocks are scanned to store the images that are needed for their regular "checkup" for preservation. Electronic publication of a parallel translation of the canon in modern Korean is another program of herculean scale on the agenda of the monks, who expect the computerized canon to bring Buddhism closer to modern-day Koreans. Also looming large is the task of putting the Tripitaka in both Korean and Chinese versions on the Internet for global access. The monks hope it will bring them a step coser to building the "cyber Sangha" which they believe will trigger a "revolution" in Buddhist studies.
Lee Kyong-hee, World Heritage in Korea (Seoul: Organizing Committee for thr Year of Cultural Heritage 1997 & Samsung Foundation of Culture, 1997)