퀴노아

[나경실]

Quinoa

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For other uses, see Quinoa (disambiguation).

Quinoa
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Order:	Caryophyllales
Family:	Amaranthaceae
Genus:	Chenopodium
Species:	C. quinoa
Binomial name
Chenopodium quinoa Willd.
Natural distribution in red, Cultivation in green
Synonyms[1]
Chenopodium canihua O.F.Cook Chenopodium ccoyto Toro Torr. Chenopodium ccuchi-huila ToroTorr. Chenopodium chilense Pers. nom. inval. Chenopodium guinoa Krock. Chenopodium nuttalliae Saff.

Chenopodium quinoa near Cachilaya, Lake Titicaca, Bolivia

Quinoa (/ˈkiːnwɑː/ or /kɪˈnoʊ.ə/, from Quechua kinwa or kinuwa)^[2] is an annual seed-producing flowering plant (Chenopodium quinoa) grown as a grain crop. It is a pseudocereal, not a grass, unlike wheat and rice. It is botanically related to spinach.

Quinoa seeds are rich in protein, dietary fiber, B vitamins, and dietary minerals in amounts greater than in many grains.^[3] It is gluten-free.

Quinoa is cultivated in the Andes Mountains of Bolivia, Argentina, and Peru where it originated; in Colorado;^[4] and in six European countries. After harvest, the seeds are processed to remove the bitter-tasting outer seed coat.

Quinoa crop prices tripled between 2006 and 2013 as a result of increased consumption in North America, Europe, and Australasia.^[5][6]

Quinoa originated in the Andean region of northwestern South America.^[7] It was first used to feed livestock 5.2-7 thousand years ago, and for human consumption 3-4 thousand years ago in the Lake Titicaca basin of Peru and Bolivia.^[8]

Contents

• 1Botany
  • 1.1Description
  • 1.2Natural distribution
  • 1.3Saponins and oxalic acid
• 2Nutritional value
• 3Cultivation
  • 3.1Climate requirements
    • 3.1.1United States
    • 3.1.2Europe
  • 3.2Sowing
  • 3.3Soil and pests
  • 3.4Genetics
  • 3.5Harvesting
  • 3.6Processing
• 4Production
  • 4.1Price
  • 4.2Effects on growers of rising demand
• 5Culture
  • 5.1United Nations recognition
  • 5.2Kosher certification
• 6History
• 7Gallery
• 8See also
• 9References
• 10Further reading
• 11External links

Botany[edit]

Quinoa seeds

Red quinoa, cooked

Description[edit]

Chenopodium quinoa is a dicotyledonous annual plant, usually about 1–2 m (3–7 ft) high. It has broad, generally powdery, hairy, lobed leaves, normally arranged alternately. The woody central stem is branched or unbranched depending on the variety and may be green, red or purple. The flowering panicles arise from the top of the plant or from leaf axils along the stem. Each panicle has a central axis from which a secondary axis emerges either with flowers (amaranthiform) or bearing a tertiary axis carrying the flowers (glomeruliform).^[9] The green hypogynous flowers have a simple perianth and are generally self-fertilizing.^[9][10] The fruits (seeds) are about 2 mm (¹⁄₁₆ in) in diameter and of various colors—from white to red or black, depending on the cultivar.^[11]

Natural distribution[edit]

Chenopodium quinoa is believed to have been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild or weed populations of the same species.^[12] There are non-cultivated quinoa plants (Chenopodium quinoa var. melanospermum) that grow in the area it is cultivated; these may either be related to wild predecessors, or they could be descendants of cultivated plants.^[13]

Saponins and oxalic acid[edit]

In their natural state, the seeds have a coating which contains bitter-tasting saponins, making them unpalatable.^[9][14] Most of the grain sold commercially has been processed to remove this coating. This bitterness has beneficial effects during cultivation, as it deters birds and therefore, the plant requires minimal protection.^[15] The genetic control of bitterness involves quantitative inheritance.^[14] Although lowering the saponin content through selective breeding to produce sweeter, more palatable varieties is complicated by ≈10% cross-pollination,^[16] it is a major goal of quinoa breeding programs, which may include genetic engineering.^[14]

The toxicity category rating of the saponins in quinoa treats them as mild eye and respiratory irritants and as a low gastrointestinal irritant.^[17][18] In South America, the saponins have many uses, including their use as a detergent for clothing and washing, and as a folk medicine antiseptic for skin injuries.^[17]

Additionally, high levels of oxalic acid are in the leaves and stems of all species of the genus Chenopodium, and in the related genera of the family Amaranthaceae.^[19] The risks associated with quinoa are minimal, provided those parts are properly prepared and the leaves are not eaten to excess.

Nutritional value[edit]

Quinoa, uncooked

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	1,539 kJ (368 kcal)
Carbohydrates	64.2 g
Dietary fibre	7.0 g
Fat	6.1 g
Monounsaturated	1.6 g
Polyunsaturated	3.3 g
Protein	14.1 g
Vitamins	Quantity%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.	0% 1 μg
Thiamine (B1)	31% 0.36 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	27% 0.32 mg
Niacin (B3)	10% 1.52 mg
Vitamin B6	38% 0.49 mg
Folate (B9)	46% 184 μg
Choline	14% 70 mg
Vitamin C	0% 0 mg
Vitamin E	16% 2.4 mg
Minerals	Quantity%DV†
Calcium	5% 47 mg
Copper	30% 0.590 mg
Iron	35% 4.6 mg
Magnesium	55% 197 mg
Manganese	95% 2.0 mg
Phosphorus	65% 457 mg
Potassium	12% 563 mg
Sodium	0% 5 mg
Zinc	33% 3.1 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	13.3 g
Link to USDA Database entry
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.  Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Quinoa, cooked

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	503 kJ (120 kcal)
Carbohydrates	21.3 g
Dietary fibre	2.8 g
Fat	1.92 g
Monounsaturated	0.529 g
Polyunsaturated	1.078 g
Protein	4.4 g
Vitamins	Quantity%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.	0% 0 μg
Thiamine (B1)	9% 0.107 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	9% 0.11 mg
Niacin (B3)	3% 0.412 mg
Vitamin B6	9% 0.123 mg
Folate (B9)	11% 42 μg
Choline	5% 23 mg
Vitamin C	0% 0 mg
Vitamin E	4% 0.63 mg
Minerals	Quantity%DV†
Calcium	2% 17 mg
Copper	10% 0.192 mg
Iron	11% 1.49 mg
Magnesium	18% 64 mg
Manganese	30% 0.631 mg
Phosphorus	22% 152 mg
Potassium	4% 172 mg
Sodium	0% 7 mg
Zinc	11% 1.09 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	72 g
Link to USDA Database entry
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.  Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Raw, uncooked quinoa is 13% water, 64% carbohydrates, 14% protein, and 6% fat. Nutritional eval‎uations indicate that a 100 g (3.5 oz) serving of raw quinoa seeds is a rich source (20% or higher of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins, including 46% DV for folate, and the dietary minerals magnesium, phosphorus, and manganese.

After cooking, which is the typical preparation for eating the seeds, quinoa is 72% water, 21% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 2% fat.^[17]In a 100 g (3.5 oz) serving, cooked quinoa provides 120 kcal (500 kJ) and is a rich source of manganese and phosphorus (30% and 22% DV, respectively), and a moderate source (10–19% DV) of dietary fiber, folate, and the dietary minerals, iron, zinc, and magnesium.

Quinoa is gluten-free.^[3] Because of the high concentration of protein, ease of use, versatility in preparation, and potential for increased yields in controlled environments,^[20] it has been selected as an experimental crop in NASA's Controlled Ecological Life Support System for long-duration human occupied space flights.^[21]

Cultivation[edit]

Climate requirements[edit]

The plant's growth is highly variable due to the number of different subspecies, varieties and landraces (domesticated plants or animals adapted to the environment in which they originated). However, it is generally undemanding and altitude-hardy; it is grown from coastal regions to over 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in the Andes near the equator, with most of the cultivars being grown between 2,500 m (8,200 ft) and 4,000 m (13,000 ft). Depending on the variety, optimal growing conditions are in cool climates with temperatures that vary between −4 °C (25 °F) during the night to near 35 °C (95 °F) during the day. Some cultivars can withstand lower temperatures without damage. Light frosts normally do not affect the plants at any stage of development, except during flowering. Midsummer frosts during flowering, a frequent occurrence in the Andes, lead to sterilization of the pollen. Rainfall requirements are highly variable between the different cultivars, ranging from 300 to 1,000 mm (12 to 39 in) during the growing season. Growth is optimal with well-distributed rainfall during early growth and no rain during seed maturation and harvesting.^[9]

United States[edit]

Quinoa has been cultivated in the United States, primarily in the high elevation San Luis Valley of Colorado where it was introduced in 1983.^[22] In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed 30 °C (86 °F) and night temperatures are about 7 °C (45 °F). Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of Bolivian origin.

Europe[edit]

Several countries within Europe have successfully grown quinoa on a commercial scale.^[23]

Sowing[edit]

Quinoa plants do best in sandy, well-drained soils with a low nutrient content, moderate salinity, and a soil pH of 6 to 8.5. The seedbed must be well prepared and drained to avoid waterlogging.^[15]

Soil and pests[edit]

Quinoa has gained attention for its adaptability to contrasting environments such as saline soils, nutrient-poor soils and drought stressed marginal agroecosystems.^[24] Yields are maximised when 170–200 kg/ha (150–180 lb/acre) of nitrogen is available.^{[citation needed]} The addition of phosphorus does not improve yield. In eastern North America, it is susceptible to a leaf miner that may reduce crop success. (It also affects the common weed and close relative Chenopodium album, but C. album is much more resistant.)

Genetics[edit]

The genome of quinoa was sequenced in 2017 by researchers at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia.^[14][25] Through traditional selective breeding and, potentially, genetic engineering, the plant is being modified to have higher crop yield, improved tolerance to heat and biotic stress, and greater sweetness through saponin inhibition.^[14]

Harvesting[edit]

Traditionally, quinoa grain is harvested by hand, and only rarely by machine, because the extreme variability of the maturity period of most Quinoa cultivars complicates mechanization. Harvest needs to be precisely timed to avoid high seed losses from shattering, and different panicles on the same plant mature at different times. The crop yield in the Andean region (often around 3 t/ha up to 5 t/ha) is comparable to wheat yields. In the United States, varieties have been selected for uniformity of maturity and are mechanically harvested using conventional small grain combines.

Processing[edit]

The plants are allowed to stand until the stalks and seeds have dried out and the grain has reached a moisture content below 10%. Handling involves threshing the seedheads from the chaff and winnowing the seed to remove the husk. Before storage, the seeds need to be dried in order to avoid germination.^[9] Dry seeds can be stored raw until being washed or mechanically processed to remove the pericarp to eliminate the bitter layer containing saponins. The seeds must be dried again before being stored and sold in stores.

Production[edit]

In 2016, world production of quinoa was 148,720 tonnes, led by Peru and Bolivia with 97% of the total combined (table).^[26]

Price[edit]

Since the early 21st century when quinoa became more commonly consumed in North America, Europe, and Australasia where it was not typically grown, the crop value increased.^[27] Between 2006 and 2013, quinoa crop prices tripled.^[5][6] In 2011, the average price was US $3,115 per tonne with some varieties selling as high as $8,000 per tonne.^[28] This compares with wheat prices of $9 per bushel (about US $340 per tonne), making wheat about 10% of the value of quinoa. The resulting effect on traditional production regions in Peru and Bolivia also influenced new commercial quinoa production elsewhere in the world, such as the United States.^[29][30] By 2017, quinoa was being cultivated in some 50 countries.^[5]

Quinoa production – 2016
Country	(tonnes)
Peru	79,269
Bolivia	65,548
Ecuador	3,903
World	148,720
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[26]

Effects on growers of rising demand[edit]

Farmer field school on crop husbandry and quinoa production, near Puno, Peru.

Rising quinoa prices over the period 2006 to 2017 may have reduced affordability of traditional consumers to consume quinoa.^[6][31][32]However, a 2016 study using Peru's Encuesta Nacional de Hogares found that during 2004-2013 rising quinoa prices led to net economic benefits for producers,^[33] and other commentary has suggested similar conclusions,^[34][35] including for women specifically.^[36] It has also been suggested that as quinoa producers rise above subsistence-level income, they switch their own consumption to Western processed foods which are often less healthy than a traditional, quinoa-based diet, whether because quinoa is held to be worth too much to keep for oneself and one's family, or because processed foods have higher status despite their poorer nutritional value.^[6][31][32] Efforts are being made in some areas to distribute quinoa more widely and ensure that farming and poorer populations have access to it and have an understanding of its nutritional importance, including use in free school breakfasts and government provisions distributed to pregnant and nursing women in need.^[31]

In terms of wider social consequences, research on traditional producers in Bolivia has emphasised a complex picture. The degree to which individual producers benefit from the global quinoa boom depends on its mode of production, for example through producer associations and co-operatives such as the Asociación Nacional de Productores de Quinua (founded in the 1970s), contracting through vertically-integrated private firms, or wage labour.^[37][35] State regulation and enforcement is also important.^[35] It has promoted a shift to cash-cropping among some farmers and a shift toward subsistence production among others, while enabling many urban refugeesto return to working the land, outcomes with complex and varied social effects.^[38][39][35]

The growth of quinoa consumption in nonindigenous regions has raised concerns over food security, such as unsustainably intensive farming of the crop, expansion of farming into ecologically fragile ecosystems, threatening both the sustainability of producer agriculture and the biodiversity of quinoa.^{[40][41][35][36]}

World demand for quinoa is sometimes presented in the media particularly as being caused by rising veganism,^[6][42] but academic commentary has noted that promoting meat consumption as an ethical alternative to eating quinoa is generally inconsistent with achieving a sustainable world food supply.^[43]

Culture[edit]

United Nations recognition[edit]

The United Nations General Assembly declared 2013 as the "International Year of Quinoa" ^[44][45][46] in recognition of the ancestral practices of the Andean people, who have preserved it as a food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective was to draw the world’s attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing food security, nutrition and poverty eradication in support of achieving Millennium Development Goals. Some academic commentary emphasised, however, that quinoa production could have ecological and social drawbacks in its native regions, and that these problems needed to be tackled.^[40]

Kosher certification[edit]

Quinoa is used in the Jewish community as a substitute for the leavened grains that are forbidden during the Passover holiday. Several kosher certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of the product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging.^[47] However, in December 2013 the Orthodox Union, the world's largest kosher certification agency, announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover.^[48]

History[edit]

Quinoa was first domesticated by Andean peoples around 3,000 to 4,000 years ago.^[49] It has been an important staple in the Andean cultures, where the plant is indigenous, but relatively obscure to the rest of the world.^[50] The Incas, who held the crop to be sacred,^[51] referred to it as chisoya mama or "mother of all grains", and it was the Inca emperor who would traditionally sow the first seeds of the season using "golden implements".^[51] Native Mapuches in south-central Chile cultivated quinoa but there is uncertainty as to whether this variety originated in Central Chile or in the Central Andes of Peru and Bolivia.^[52]

During the Spanish conquest of South America, the colonists scorned it as "food for Indians",^[53] and suppressed its cultivation, due to its status within indigenous religious ceremonies.^[54] The conquistadors forbade quinoa cultivation at one point,^[55] and the Incas were forced to grow wheat instead.^[56]

Gallery[edit]

• 

  Quinoa plant before flowering

 
• 

  Quinoa flower

 
• 

  Developing black quinoa seed

 
• 

  Threshing quinoa in Peru

 
• 

  Quinoa seeds

See also[edit]

• List of cereals
• 2010s in food

References[edit]

1. ^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Retrieved May 1, 2014.
2. ^ Teofilo Laime Ajacopa, Diccionario Bilingüe Iskay simipi yuyayk'ancha, La Paz, 2007 (Quechua-Spanish dictionary)
3. ^ Jump up to:^a b "Quinoa: An ancient crop to contribute to world food security" (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization. July 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
4. ^ Growing Quinoa in Colorado, February 2016
5. ^ Jump up to:^a b c "Quinoa". Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, US Department of Agriculture. November 2017. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
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7. ^ Fuentes, F. F.; Martínez, E. A.; Hinrischen, P. V.; Jellen, E. N.; Maughan, P. J. (10 May 2008). "Assessment of genetic diversity patterns in Chilean quinoa (Chenopodium quinoaWilld.) germplasm using multiplex fluorescent microsatellite" (PDF). Conservation Genetics. 10 (2): 369–377. doi:10.1007/s10592-008-9604-3. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
8. ^ Kolata, Alan L. (2009). "Quinoa" (PDF). Quinoa: Production, Consumption and Social Value in Historical Context. Department of Anthropology, The University of Chicago.
9. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e} The Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation. U.S. National Research Council, Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, National Academies. 1989.
10. ^ Reinhard Lieberei, Christoph Reissdorff & Wolfgang Franke (2007). Nutzpflanzenkunde. Georg Thieme Verlag. ISBN 978-3135304076.
11. ^ Vaughn, JG; Geissler, CA (2009). The New Oxford Book of Food Plants. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199549467.
12. ^ Barbara Pickersgill (August 31, 2007). "Domestication of Plants in the Americas: Insights from Mendelian and Molecular Genetics". Annals of Botany. 100 (5): 925–40. doi:10.1093/aob/mcm193. PMC 2759216. PMID 17766847. Archived from the original on October 21, 2007.
13. ^ Heiser Jr., Charles B. & Nelson, David C. (September 1974). "On the Origin of the Cultivated Chenopods (Chenopodium)". Genetics. 78 (1): 503–5. PMC 1213209. PMID 4442716.
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15. ^ Jump up to:^a b "Quinoa". Alternative Field Crops Manual. University of Wisconsin Extension and University of Minnesota. January 20, 2000.
16. ^ Masterbroek, H.D.; Limburg, H.; Gilles, T.; Marvin, H. J. (2000). "Occurrence of sapogenins in leaves and seeds of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 80: 152–156. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(20000101)80:1<152::AID-JSFA503>3.0.CO;2-P.
17. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Johnson DL, Ward SM (1993). "Quinoa". Department of Horticulture, Purdue University; obtained from Johnson, D.L. and S.M. Ward. 1993. Quinoa. p. 219-221. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
18. ^ "Biopesticides Registration Action Document: Saponins of Chenopodium quinoa"(PDF). EPA. 2009.
19. ^ Siener, Roswitha; Honow, Ruth; Seidler, Ana; Voss, Susanne; Hesse, Albrecht (2006). "Oxalate contents of species of the Polygonaceae, Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae families". Food Chemistry. 98 (2): 220–224. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.059.
20. ^ Abugoch, James L. E. (2009). Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): composition, chemistry, nutritional, and functional properties. Adv Food Nutr Res (Review). Advances in Food and Nutrition Research. 58. pp. 1–31. doi:10.1016/S1043-4526(09)58001-1. ISBN 9780123744418. PMID 19878856.
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22. ^ Growing Quinoa in Colorado, February 2016
23. ^ "European Quinoa Group". www.quinoaeurope.eu. Retrieved 2015-12-27.
24. ^ Hinojosa, Leonardo; González, Juan; Barrios-Masias, Felipe; Fuentes, Francisco; Murphy, Kevin; Hinojosa, Leonardo; González, Juan A.; Barrios-Masias, Felipe H.; Fuentes, Francisco (November 2018). "Quinoa Abiotic Stress Responses: A Review". Plants. 7 (4): 106. doi:10.3390/plants7040106. PMC 6313892. PMID 30501077.
25. ^ McGrath, Matt (8 February 2017). "Quinoa genome could see 'super-food' prices tumble". BBC News. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
26. ^ Jump up to:^a b "Quinoa production in 2016, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2017. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
27. ^ Collyns, Dan (14 January 2013). "Quinoa brings riches to the Andes". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 17 Jan 2013.
28. ^ Collyns, Dan (14 January 2013). "IQuinoa brings riches to the Andes". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 17 Jan 2013.
29. ^ Ernest Small (2013), 'Quinoa – is the United Nations' featured crop of 2013 bad for biodiversity?', Biodiversity, 14:3, 169-179 (p. 176), DOI:10.1080/14888386.2013.835551.
30. ^ Alastair Bland (29 November 2012). "Quinoa Craze Inspires North America To Start Growing Its Own". NPR. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
31. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Tom Philpott. "Quinoa: Good, Evil, or Just Really Complicated?". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2013-11-24.
32. ^ Jump up to:^a b Ernest Small (2013), 'Quinoa – is the United Nations' featured crop of 2013 bad for biodiversity?', Biodiversity, 14:3, 169-179 (pp. 176-77), DOI:10.1080/14888386.2013.835551.
33. ^ Marc F. Bellemare, Johanna Fajardo-Gonzalez and Seth R. Gitter, 'Foods and Fads: The Welfare Impacts of Rising Quinoa Prices in Peru', Towson University Department of Economics Working Paper Series Working Paper No. 2016-06 (March 2016), http://webapps.towson.edu/cbe/economics/workingpapers/2016-06.pdf.
34. ^ Allison Aubrey (2013-06-07). "Your Love Of Quinoa Is Good News For Andean Farmers". NPR. Retrieved 2013-08-01.
35. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e} Cinthya Verastegui Effel, 'Implications of the Quinoa Boom on the Farmers’ Income: How do changes in the quinoa market structure mediate quinoa farmers’ income' (unpublished MA thesis, Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University, 2012), https://thesis.eur.nl/pub/13122/.
36. ^ Jump up to:^a b Alexander Kasterine (17 July 2016). "Quinoa isn't a threat to food security. It's improving Peruvian farmers' lives". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
37. ^ Andrew Ofstehage, 'The construction of an alternative quinoa economy: balancing solidarity, household needs, and profit in San Agustín, Bolivia', Agriculture and Human Values (2012) 29:441–454 DOI 10.1007/s10460-012-9371-0.
38. ^ Tanya M. Kerssen (2015), 'Food sovereignty and the quinoa boom: challenges to sustainable re-peasantisation in the southern Altiplano of Bolivia', Third World Quarterly, 36:3, 489-507, DOI:10.1080/01436597.2015.100.
39. ^ Dan Collyns (14 January 2013). "Quinoa brings riches to the Andes". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
40. ^ Jump up to:^a b Ernest Small (2013), 'Quinoa – is the United Nations' featured crop of 2013 bad for biodiversity?', Biodiversity, 14:3, 169-179, DOI:10.1080/14888386.2013.835551.
41. ^ S.-E. Jacobsen, 'The Situation for Quinoa and Its Production in Southern Bolivia: From Economic Success to Environmental Disaster', Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 197 (2011), 390-99; doi:10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00475.x.
42. ^ Alibhai-Brown, Yasmin (January 8, 2018). "Sanctimonious vegans would do well to think about their diet's global impact".
43. ^ Ernest Small (2013), 'Quinoa – is the United Nations' featured crop of 2013 bad for biodiversity?', Biodiversity, 14:3, 169-179 (p. 177), DOI:10.1080/14888386.2013.835551.
44. ^ United Nations (2012). Resolution adopted by the General Assembly (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-30.
45. ^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2013). International Year of Quinoa.
46. ^ "International Years". United Nations. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
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Further reading[edit]

• Pulvento C., M. Riccardi, A. Lavini, R. d’Andria, & R. Ragab (2013). (2013). "SALTMED Model to Simulate Yield and Dry Matter for Quinoa Crop and Soil Moisture Content Under Different Irrigation Strategies in South Italy" (PDF). Irrigation and Drainage. 62 (2): 229–238. doi:10.1002/ird.1727.
• Cocozza C., C. Pulvento, A. Lavini, M.Riccardi, R. d’Andria & R. Tognetti (2012). (2013). "Effects of increasing salinity stress and decreasing water availability on ecophysiological traits of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)". Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science. 199 (4): 229–240. doi:10.1111/jac.12012.
• Pulvento C, Riccardi M, Lavini A, d'Andria R, Iafelice G, Marconi E (2010). "Field Trial Eval‎uation of Two Chenopodium quinoa Genotypes Grown Under Rain-Fed Conditions in a Typical Mediterranean Environment in South Italy". Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science. 196 (6): 407–411. doi:10.1111/j.1439-037X.2010.00431.x.
• Pulvento, C., Riccardi, M., Lavini, A., Iafelice, G., Marconi, E. and d’Andria, R. (2012). "Yield and Quality Characteristics of Quinoa Grown in Open Field Under Different Saline and Non-Saline Irrigation Regimes". Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science. 198 (4): 254–263. doi:10.1111/j.1439-037X.2012.00509.x.
• Gómez-Caravaca, G. Iafelice, A. Lavini, C. Pulvento, M.Caboni, E.Marconi (2012). "Phenolic Compounds and Saponins in Quinoa Samples (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Grown under Different Saline and Non saline Irrigation Regimens". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 60 (18): 4620–4627. doi:10.1021/jf3002125. PMID 22512450.
• Romero, Simon; Shahriari, Sara (March 19, 2011). "Quinoa's Global Success Creates Quandary at Home". The New York Times. Retrieved July 22, 2012.
• Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Vacher J, Mamani R, Mendoza J, Huanca R, Morales B, Miranda R, Cusicanqui J, Taboada C (2008). "Introducing deficit irrigation to stabilize yields of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)". Eur. J. Agron. 28 (3): 427–436. doi:10.1016/j.eja.2007.11.008.
• Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Mendoza J, Huanca R (2008). "Indicators to quantify the flexible phenology of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in response to drought stress". Field Crop. Res. 108 (2): 150–6. doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2008.04.008.
• Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Condori O, Mamani J, Miranda R, Cusicanqui J, Taboada C, Vacher J (2008). "Could deficit irrigation be a sustainable practice for quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in the Southern Bolivian Altiplano?". Agric. Water Manage. 95 (8): 909–917. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2008.02.012.
• Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Taboada C, Miranda R, Cusicanqui J, Mhizha T, Vacher J (2009). "Modeling the potential for closing quinoa yield gaps under varying water availability in the Bolivian Altiplano". Agric. Water Manage. 96 (11): 1652–1658. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2009.06.020.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Chenopodium quinoa(category)

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Cookbook:Quinoa

 Data related to Chenopodium quinoa at Wikispecies

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Cereals and pseudocereals

Cereals

• Barley
• Fonio
• Job's tears
• Maize (Corn)
• Millets
• Oats
• Rice
• Rye
• Sorghum
• Teff
• Triticale
• Wild rice

Wheat (Triticum)

Bread Durum Khorasan Red Fife Norin 10 Winter
Farro	Einkorn Emmer Spelt

Pseudocereals

Polygonaceae

• Buckwheat
• Tartary buckwheat

Amaranthaceae

Amaranth	A. caudatus A. cruentus A. hypochondriacus Celosia

Chenopodiaceae

• Quinoa
• Pitseed goosefoot
• Cañihua

Lamiaceae

• Chia

See also

 

Triticeae

Neolithic founder crops

Neolithic Revolution

History of agriculture

Natufian culture

Fertile Crescent

Tell Abu Hureyra

Tell Aswad

Domestication

Green Revolution

Genetic engineering

Selective breeding

Crop wild relative

Taxon identifiers

Wikidata: Q139925 Wikispecies: Chenopodium quinoa BioLib: 38681 Ecocrop: 2509 EoL: 489447 EPPO: CHEQU GBIF: 3083935 GRIN: 10194 iNaturalist: 122848 IPNI: 165175-1 IRMNG: 10205972 ITIS: 506567 MoBotPF: 279158 NBN: NBNSYS0000014667 NCBI: 63459 NZOR: 264c4030-5890-4c27-bef9-43cad4f392f7 Plant List: kew-2717733 PLANTS: CHQU Plazi: 2BB185EE-CE12-AABD-260A-055DA2B97505 POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:165175-1 Tropicos: 7200325

Authority control	GND: 4314944-3

Categories: 

• Chenopodium
• Crops originating from the Americas
• Crops originating from Ecuador
• Crops originating from Peru
• Pseudocereals
• Flora of South America
• Leaf vegetables
• Quechua words and phrases
• Staple foods
• Tropical agriculture
• 2010s in food