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제로스 법칙 - 제로스 항: 20세기 초까지만 해도 이름과 숫자로 품위가 없었습니다. 그때쯤이면 제1법칙과 제2법칙이 확립되어 다시 번호를 매길 희망이 없었습니다. 제로스 법칙은 가장 익숙한 속성의 의미를 확립하지만 사실 가장 수수께끼 같은 것은 온도입니다. 시스템은 열역학에서 주목의 중심에 있는 우주의 일부입니다. 열역학은 일상적인 의미를 가진 용어를 사용하여 정확한 의미를 부여하기 위해 4 - 제로스 법칙 - 주변 환경: 각 시스템 개체를 둘러싸고 있는 용기를 말합니다. 주변 환경은 우리가 시스템과 그 속성에 대해 관찰할 수 있는 위치입니다. 주변 환경이 일정한 온도로 유지되는 수조라고 가정해 봅시다. 우주는 시스템과 그 주변 환경이 서로 연결되어 있습니다. 예를 들어, 시스템(주변)에 잠긴 물(시스템)의 비커일 수 있습니다. 우주를 둘러싼 시스템 5 - 제로스 법칙- A 시스템은 그 경계에 의해 정의됩니다. 물질을 시스템에 추가하거나 제거할 수 있다면 개방되어 있다고 합니다. 물질에 영향을 미치지 않는 경계를 가진 시스템을 폐쇄라고 합니다. 시스템은 항상 같은 양의 물질을 포함합니다. 시스템이 주변에서 일어나는 일에 관계없이 변하지 않는다는 의미에서 모든 것을 방해하는 경계를 가진 시스템을 고립계라고 합니다. 시스템의 속성은 지배적인 조건에 따라 달라집니다. 예를 들어, 가스의 압력은 가스가 차지하는 부피에 따라 달라지며, 시스템이 유연한 벽을 가지고 있다면 부피 변화의 효과를 볼 수 있습니다. 6 - 제로스 법칙- 속성은 두 가지 클래스로 나뉩니다. 광범위한 속성은 시스템의 질량과 부피와 같은 시스템 내 물질의 양에 따라 달라집니다. 광범위한 특성 (M1, V1) ≠ (M2, V2) M1 V1 M2 V2 집중 특성은 온도와 밀도와 같은 존재하는 물질의 양과 무관합니다. 집중 특성 (T1, ρ1) = (T2, ρ 2) T1 ρ1 T2 ρ 2kg의 철은 1kg의 철 부피의 두 배를 차지하는 반면, 철의 밀도는 1kg 블록 또는 2kg 블록의 유무에 관계없이 7.8g/cm3입니다. 7 - 제로 법칙 - 두 개의 피스톤은 서로 연결되어 있어 마치 한 쪽이 다른 쪽으로 이동하는 것처럼 움직입니다. 핀이 제거되고 피스톤 중 하나가 다른 쪽을 구동하면 구동 피스톤의 압력이 더 높다고 말할 수 있습니다. 두 피스톤의 압력이 동일하면 시스템은 기계적으로 평형 상태에 있습니다. "열역학자들은 아무 일도 일어나지 않을 때 매우 흥분하거나 적어도 매우 흥미를 느낍니다." [페이지 6]. 열평형 둘 다 동일한 온도 열역학 제로 법칙을 갖습니다: A가 B와 열평형이고 B가 C와 열평형에 있다면 C는 A와 열평형에 있을 것입니다.
8 - 제로 법칙 - 열역학 어휘에 두 가지 새로운 단어가 추가되었습니다: 열역학(통)과 (따뜻한): 어떤 벽이든 열을 전도할 수 있습니다. T1 T2 T 단열(통과 불가능): 변화가 일어나지 않고 벽 양쪽의 온도가 여전히 동일하다면. T1 T2 T1 T2 예제: 단열 시스템의 예는 구리 벽입니다. 반면 단열 시스템은 시스템이 발포 폴리스티렌에 내장된 것처럼 표현됩니다. 9 - 제로 법칙 - 단순히 방의 온도를 측정하는 데 사용되는 온도계에서 제로 법칙 기반을 관찰할 수 있습니다. 수은의 열 팽창은 시스템(온도계)과 주변(방) 사이의 열 교환으로 인해 발생합니다. 열역학적 온도는 가능한 가장 낮은 온도인 절대 온도(켈빈 척도)의 척도로 표시됩니다. 섭씨와 화씨 척도와 같이 다양한 온도 척도가 개발되었습니다. 화씨 척도의 일시적인 장점은 몇 가지 음의 값이 필요하다는 것입니다. 10 - 제로 법칙-고전 열역학은 원자를 받아들이기 전에 사용된 열역학의 일부입니다. 통계적 열역학. 개별 원자의 거동에 대해 생각할 필요는 없지만 무한 수의 원자의 평균 거동에 대해 생각할 필요가 있습니다. 벽에 대한 평균적인 분자 폭풍의 영향으로 인해 가해지는 압력. 통계적 열역학 표현은 볼츠만에 의해 도출되었습니다. 그가 자살하기 얼마 전이었는데, 원자의 실체에 대해 확신하지 못한 많은 반대자들이 있었기 때문입니다. 11 - 제로 법칙- 볼츠만 표현의 본질을 이해하기 위해 벽에 있는 서로 다른 높이의 선반, 허용 에너지 상태와 높이를 나타내는 일련의 선반을 상상해 보세요. 그런 다음 선반에 공을 던지고 그들이 착륙하는 위치를 기록하는 것을 생각해 보세요. 많은 던지기 수에 대한 가장 가능성 높은 인구 분포는 다음 이 매개변수인 β를 고려합니다. 매개변수 β가 증가하면(공을 약하게 throwing), 주어진 에너지 상태의 상대적인 인구는 감소하고 공은 더 낮은 선반으로 가라앉습니다. 이는 지수 관계이기 때문입니다. β=1/kT K: 볼츠만 상수 1.38x10-23 J/k 12 허용된 상태 또는 선반 위의 공에 대한 분자의 분포의 정확한 형태를 볼츠만 분포라고 합니다. - 제로 법칙 - 볼츠만 분포에 기반한 온도의 분자적 유의성은 다음과 같습니다: 1. 온도는 평형 상태의 시스템에서 사용 가능한 상태에 대한 분자 집단의 가장 가능성 있는 분포를 알려주는 매개변수입니다. 2. β는 절대 영도(T=0)에 도달하기 어렵기 때문에 T 자체보다 온도를 표현하는 데 더 자연스러운 매개변수입니다. 3. 기본 상수 k. β의 존재와 값은 시스템 분자의 가용 에너지 상태에 대한 평형 분포를 나타내는 매개변수입니다.
"볼츠만 상수 k는 일반적으로 기본 상수로 나열되어 있지만 실제로는 역사적 실수에서 회복된 것일 뿐입니다. 루드비히 볼츠만이 화씨와 섭씨가 일을 하기 전에 일을 했다면 β가 자연스러운 온도 측정값이라는 것을 알 수 있었을 것입니다." [페이지 16] 13 - 제로 법칙 - 요약하면 볼츠만 분포는 다음을 표현하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다: 1. 가능한 에너지 상태에 대한 분자의 분포. 2. 속도 분포. 3. 속도와 온도의 관계. 결과적으로 표현되는 표현식을 맥스웰 볼츠만 속도 분포라고 합니다. 따뜻한 날 공기 중 분자의 평균 속도는 추운 날 평균보다 4% 더 빠릅니다. 온도가 상승한다는 것은 점점 더 많은 분자가 더 활발하게 움직이고, 회전하거나, 진동하고 있음을 의미합니다. 분자의 평균 속도는 절대 온도의 제곱근에 따라 증가합니다. 25°C, 298K 0°C, 273K 14 - 제1법칙: 에너지는 생성되거나 파괴될 수 없습니다. 일: 반대되는 힘에 대한 운동입니다. 일은 열역학의 주요 기초이며, 특히 제1법칙의 경우 더욱 그렇습니다. D 모든 시스템은 일을 할 수 있는 능력이 있습니다. W=F.D: 일(N.m) (J) F: 힘(N) d: 변위(m) 일을 할 수 있는 시스템의 능력을 에너지라고 합니다. 스프링은 일을 생성할 수 있으므로 완전히 늘어난 스프링은 약간 늘어난 스프링보다 일을 할 수 있는 능력이 더 큽니다. Es1 Es2 (Es1) > (Es2) 15 - 제1법칙 - 상태 함수는 내부 에너지(U)와 같이 시스템의 현재 상태에만 의존하고 상태가 어떻게 준비되었는지에 관계없이 열역학적 특성입니다. 내부 에너지 = U 최종 - U 초기 열: 온도 차이로 인한 에너지의 전달입니다. 시스템에서 작업하는 방식과 고정된 끝점 사이의 상태를 변경하려면 동일한 양의 작업이 필요하다는 관찰은 동일한 고도(내부 에너지)를 초래했습니다. 열은 에너지 전달의 한 형태입니다. 이는 에너지의 한 형태나 유체가 아닙니다. 열은 온도 차이로 인한 에너지 전달입니다. 16 - 제1법칙 - 일은 주변 원자의 균일한 운동을 이용한 에너지 전달입니다. 열은 주변 원자의 무작위 운동을 이용한 에너지 전달입니다. 일을 하는 에너지 전달과 열을 하는 일을 구분하는 분자는 주변 원자의 균일한 운동을 초래하며, 가열은 원자의 무질서한 운동을 자극합니다. 일단 에너지가 주변 원자의 균일한 운동을 이용하거나 무작위로 진동하는 원자를 이용하여 시스템 내부에 들어가면 에너지가 어떻게 전달되었는지에 대한 기억이 없습니다.
The Zeroth Law- The zeroth term: It was not dignified with a name and number until early in the twentieth century. By then, the first and second laws were established and no hope of going back and numbering them again. Although the zeroth law establishes the meaning of the most familiar property, but in fact it is the most enigmatic: temperature. The system: is the part of the universe that is at the centre of attention in thermodynamics. Thermodynamics, takes terms with an everyday meaning and sharpens them, to give the exact meanings 4 • The Zeroth Law- The Surroundings: the container which circumscribes each of the system entities. The surroundings are where we stand to make observations on the system and its properties. Let us consider the surrounding is a water bath maintained at constant temperature, this will be more controllable than the true surroundings, the rest of the world. The universe: is the system and its surroundings joined to each others. For example, it might be a beaker of water (the system) immersed in a water bath (the surrounding). System surrounding Universe 5 • The Zeroth Law- A system is defined by its boundary. If matter can be added to or removed from the system, then it is said to be open. A system with a boundary that is impervious to matter is called closed. The system will always contain the same amount of matter. A system with a boundary that impervious everything in the sense that the system remains UNCHANGED regardless of anything that happens in the surrounding is called isolated. The properties of the system depend on the prevailing conditions. For instance, the pressure of a gas depends on the volume it occupies, the effect of changing the volume can be seen if the system has flexible walls. 6 • The Zeroth Law- Properties are divided into two classes. An extensive property depends on the quantity of matter in the system, such as the mass and the volume of the system. An extensive property (M1, V1) ≠ (M2, V2) M1 V1 M2 V2 An intensive property is independent of the amount of matter present, such as the temperature and the density. An intensive property (T1, ρ1) = (T2, ρ 2) T1 ρ1 T2 ρ 2 2 kg of iron occupies twice the volume of 1 kg of iron; whereas, the density of the iron is 7.8 g/cm3 regardless or whether we have a 1 kg block or 2 kg block. 7 • The Zeroth Law- Two pistons are connected to each others so as if one moves in the other will moves out. If the pin removed and one of the pistons drives the other, then we can say that the pressure is higher in the driving piston. The system is mechanically in equilibrium if the pressure is the same in both pistons. “Thermodynamicists get very excited, or at least get very interested, when nothing happens” [Page 6]. Thermal equilibrium Both have the same temperature Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If A is in thermal equilibrium with B, and B is in thermal equilibrium with C, then C will be in thermal equilibrium with A. 8 • The Zeroth Law- Two new words added to thermodynamic vocabulary: Diathermic (through) and (warm): any wall permits conducting of heat. T1 T2 T T Adiabatic (impassable): if no change occurs and the temperatures are still the same on both sides of the wall. T1 T2 T1 T2 Examples: An example on diathermic system is the copper wall. Whereas, the adiabatic system is represented as if the system is embedded in foamed polystyrene. 9 • The Zeroth Law- Simply, the zeroth law basis can be observed in the thermometer used to measure the temperature of the room. The thermal expansion of the mercury takes place due to heat exchange between the system (thermometer) and the surrounding (the room). Thermodynamic temperatures are denoted by the scale of absolute temperature (Kelvin scale), which is the lowest possible temperature. There are different temperature scales were developed such as Celsius and Fahrenheit scales . The temporary advantage of Fahrenheit`s scale is the need for some negative values. 10 • The Zeroth Law- Classical thermodynamics is a part of thermodynamics that used before accepting the atoms. Statistical thermodynamics. We do not need to think about the behavior of individual atoms, but we need to think about the average behavior of infinite number of atoms. The pressure exerted due to the impact of the average of the storm of molecules on the wall. The statistical thermodynamics expression was derived by Boltzmann. That was no long before he committed suicide, because many oppositions who were not convinced about the reality of atoms. 11 • The Zeroth Law- To understand the nature of Boltzmann expression, imagine a series of shelves at different heights on a wall, the shelves representing the allowed energy states and their heights the allowed energy. Then one think of pelting balls at the shelves and noting where they land. The most probable distribution of the population for the large number of throws is then taken into account, this parameter is β. If the parameter β increases (throwing the balls weakly), then the relative population of a state of given energy decreases and the balls sink down to lower shelves. Because it is an exponential relationship. β=1/kT K: is Boltzmann constant 1.38x10-23 J/k 12 The precise form of the distribution of the molecules over their allowed states, or the balls over the shelves is called Boltzmann distribution. • The Zeroth Law- The molecular Significance of temperature based on Boltzmann distribution is: 1. Temperature is the parameter that tells us the most probable distribution of populations of molecules over the available states of a system at equilibrium. 2. β is a more natural parameter for expressing temperature than T itself; because of the difficulty to attain absolute zero (T=0). 3. The existence and value of the fundamental constant k. β is a parameter that expresses the equilibrium distribution of the molecules of a system over their available energy states. “Although Boltzmann’s constant k is commonly listed as a fundamental constant, it is actually only a recovery from a historical mistake. If Ludwig Boltzmann had done his work before Fahrenheit and Celsius had done theirs, then it would have been seen that β was the natural measure of temperature”. [Page 16] 13 • The Zeroth Law- In summary, Boltzmann distribution can be used to express through: 1. The distribution of the molecules over their possible energy states. 2. Their distribution of speeds. 3. Relation of distribution of speeds to the temperature. The resulting expression is called the Maxwell Boltzmann distribution of speeds. The Average speed of molecules in the air on a warm day is greater by 4% than their average on a cold day. The temperature is raised means that more and more molecules are moving, rotating, or vibrating more vigorously. The average speed of the molecules increases as the square root of the absolute temperature. 25°C, 298 K 0°C, 273 K 14 • The First Law- The first law: The energy can be neither created nor destroyed. Work: is motion against an opposing force. Work is the primary foundation of thermodynamics and in particular of the first law. d F Any system has the capacity to do work. W=F.d W: Work (N.m (J)) F: Force (N) d: Displacement (m) The capacity of a system to do work is termed as energy. The spring can produce work; therefore, the fully stretched spring has a greater capacity to do work than the slightly stretched spring. Es1 Es2 (Es1) > (Es2) 15 • The First Law- The state function is a thermodynamic property of a system that depends only on the current state of the system and independent of how the state was prepared; such as the internal energy (U). The work required which represents the initial and final values of the internal energy = U final – U initial Heat: is the transfer of energy as a result of a temperature difference. The observation that different ways of doing work on a system and thereby changing its state between fixed endpoints required the same amount of work of different paths resulted in the same altitude (Internal energy). heat is a mode of transfer of energy. It is not a form of energy, or a fluid of some kind. Heat is the transfer of energy by virtue of a temperature difference. 16 • The First Law- Work is the transfer of energy that makes use of the uniform motion of atoms in the surrounding. Heat is the transfer of energy that makes use of the random motion of atoms in the surrounding. The molecular distinguish between the transfer of energy as work and heat Doing work results in the uniform motion of atoms in the surroundings; heating stimulates their disorderly motion. Once the energy is inside the system, either by making use of the uniform motion of atoms in the surroundings or of randomly oscillating atoms, there is no memory of how it was transferred. 17 • The First Law- A reversible process is one that is reversed by infinitesimal modification of the condition in the surroundings. No greater work can be done, because if at any stage the external pressure is increased even infinitesimally, then the piston will move in rather than out If a piston is in equilibrium within the environment, then any infinitesimal change will affect the piston motion, either expands or retracts to compensate for the amount of the exerted change. By ensuring that at every stage the expansion is reversible in the thermodynamic sense, the system does the maximum work. 18 When the fuel burns in a certain container. The generated energy will drive the piston. This expansion requires work. • The First Law- Enthalpy: it is a Greek word means “heat inside”. H = U +pV H: is the enthalpy U: is the internal energy p: is the pressure V: is the volume The differences between changes in internal energy and enthalpy must always be borne in mind. In fact, if the combustion occurs in an open container, the change in enthalpy (ΔH) is used through thermodynamics to denote the change in a quantity. In combustion, the system has to do about 130 kJ of work to make room for the gases that are generated, but that energy is not available to us as heat. 19 The enthalpy is the basis of a kind of accounting trick, which keeps track invisibly of the work that is done by the system, and reveals the amount of energy that is released only as heat, provided the system is free to expand in an atmosphere that exerts a constant pressure on the system. The 130 kJ, which is enough to heat about half a litre of water from room temperature to its boiling point, if we prevent the gases from expanding so that all the energy released in the combustion is liberated as heat. • The First Law- Substances with a high heat capacity (water is an example) require a larger amount of heat to bring about a given rise in temperature than those with a small heat capacity (air is an example). Latent heat (Enthalpy of vaporization), is the amount of heat required to separate the molecules from one another. 20 The difference between heat capacities of a system at constant volume and at constant pressure is of most practical significance for gases, which undergo large changes in volume as they are heated in vessels that are able to expand. The enthalpy of vaporization of 1gm of water is close to 2kJ. Then the condensation of 1gm of steam will release 2kJ. Enthalpy of fusion, is the amount of heat required to melt a solid. Enthalpy of fusion << Enthalpy of vaporization Heat Capacity (C), is the slope of a graph of the value of the internal energy plotted against temperature. C= zero when T=0 • The First Law- When all the molecules of a system are in a single state, there is no spread of populations and the ‘fluctuation’ in population is zero; correspondingly the heat capacity of the system is zero. At higher temperatures, the populations are spread over a range of states and hence the heat capacity is non-zero, as is observed. Substances with a high heat capacity (water is an example) require a larger amount of heat to bring about a given rise in temperature than those with a small heat capacity (air is an example). 21 Water has a very high heat capacity, which means that to raise its temperature takes a lot of energy. Conversely, hot water stores a lot of energy, which is why it is such a good medium for central heating systems (as well as being cheap), and why the oceans are slow to heat and slow to cool, with important implications for our climate • The second law is of central importance in the whole of science, and hence in our rational understanding of the universe, because it provides a foundation for understanding why any change occurs. • Thus, not only is it a basis for understanding why engines run and chemical reactions occur, but it is also a foundation for understanding those most exquisite consequences of chemical reactions, the acts of literary, artistic, and musical creativity that enhance our culture 22 • Steam engine En erg y piston A young French engineer Sadi Carnot (1796–1832) analysing the constraints on the efficiency of a steam engine found that heat was a kind of imponderable fluid that, as it flowed from hot to cold, was able to do work, just as water flowing down a gradient can turn a water mill that the efficiency of a perfect steam engine is independent of the working substance and depends only on the temperatures at which heat is supplied from the hot source and discarded into the cold sink. Efficiency(ε) = 1 − Tsink/Tsource 23 • Kelvin realized that to take away the surroundings would stop the heat engine in its tracks. To be more precise, the Kelvin statement of the second law of thermodynamics is as follows: no cyclic process is possible in which heat is taken from a hot source and converted completely into work. • Clausius went on to realize that although energy has a tendency to migrate as heat from hot to cold, the reverse migration is not spontaneous. He formulated into what is now known as the Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics: heat does not pass from a body at low temperature to one at high temperature without an accompanying change elsewhere. 24 • Entropy (S) Clausius defined a change in entropy of a system as the result of dividing the energy transferred as heat by the (absolute, thermodynamic) temperature at which the transfer took place: Clausius’s definition of the change in entropy is that of sneezing in a busy street or in a quiet library. A quiet library is the metaphor for a system at low temperature, with little disorderly thermal motion. Busy street is a metaphor for a system at high temperature, with a lot of thermal motion. The entropy of the universe increases in the course of any spontaneous change. 25 absolute entropy of any system could be calculated from a very simple formula: Boltzmann’s formula can be used to calculate both the absolute entropies of substances, especially if they have simple structures, like a gas, and changes in entropy that accompany various changes, such as expansion and heating. 26 The concept of entropy is the foundation of the operation of heat engines, heat pumps, and refrigerators. A refrigerator is a device for removing heat from an object and transferring that heat to the surroundings. This process does not occur spontaneously because it corresponds to a reduction in total entropy. Thus, when a given quantity of heat is removed from a cool body, there is a large decrease in entropy. When that heat is released into warmer surroundings, there is an increase in entropy, but the increase is smaller than the original decrease because the temperature is higher. Therefore, overall there is a net decrease in entropy. Refrigerators don’t work unless you turn them on. 27 Our body is also like “steam engine”, an increase in entropy is the metabolism of the food and the dispersal of energy and matter that metabolism releases. Thus, as we eat, so we grow. Moreover, the greatest steam engine is in the sky, the Sun. We all live off the spontaneous dissipation of its energy, and as we live so we spread disorder into our surroundings: we could not survive without our surroundings. John Donne’s unknowingly expression of second law (two centuries before Carnot, Joule, Kelvin, and Clausius): no man is an island 28 The third law: Unattainability of zero • The temperature, the internal energy, and the entropy have been introduced as previous laws. Essentially the whole of thermodynamics can be expressed in terms of these three quantities. • The third law of thermodynamics is not really in the same league as the first three, For one thing, it does not inspire the introduction of a new thermodynamic function. However, it does make possible their application. • Definition of Entropy: • The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator depends on the temperature of the body we are seeking to cool and that of the surroundings (c=1/(Tsurronding/Tcold -1)). Tcold =0 c=0, needing to do an ever increasing, and ultimately infinite, amount of work to remove energy from the body as heat as its temperature approaches absolute zero. Clausius’s definition A system in its nondegenerate ground state has zero entropy regardless of the chemical composition of the substance Statistical expressed by Boltzmann’s formula Entropy has a value other than zero at T = 0 and different substances have different entropies at that temperature 29 The third law: Unattainability of zero • Classical thermodynamics, observations made outside the system. Classical thermodynamics 1. wholly phenomenologically Original version of properties in the very low temperatures, superconductivity & superfluidity Challenges !!? cooling matter to absolute zero 2. cool matter to temperatures below absolute zero Experiments to cool matter to absolute zero proved to be very difficult. It is impossible to attain absolute zero using a conventional thermal technique (a refrigerator based on the heat engine design). This empirical observation is the content of the phenomenological version of the third law of thermodynamics 30 No finite sequence of cyclic processes can succeed in cooling a body to absolute zero. The third law: Unattainability of zero • To consider how the third law impinges on the thermodynamic definition of entropy, we need to think about how low temperatures are achieved .. • System, molecules, electron having the property of spin Spins states: • At room temperature there will be slightly more lower energy ↓ spins than higher energy ↑ spins. If somehow (using magnetic field) we could contrive to convert some of the ↑ into ↓ spins, then the population difference will correspond to a lower temperature, and we shall have cooled the sample. If we could contrive to make all the spins ↓, then we shall have reached absolute zero. So, we can reach absolute zero !!? 31 The third law: Unattainability of zero 1. 2. 3. 4. A matter at room temperature and in the absence of magnetic field, ↓↓↑↓↑↑↓↓↑↓ (random distribution of ↓ and ↑ spins) Increasing the magnetic field with the sample in thermal contact with its surroundings. The sample becomes ↑↓↓↑↓↓↓↓↑↓↓ with a small preponderance of ↓ spins over ↑ spins. Isolating the sample thermally from its surroundings and gradually reduce the applied field to zero, adiabatic demagnetization. (Same as step 2 ↑↓↓↑↓↓↓↓↑↓↓), constant entropy lower temperature Repeat the process Other cyclic process to reach absolute zero: compress a gas isothermally, expand adiabatically to its initial volume and repeat this process to reach T=0 using a reactant A to form a product B, finding an adiabatic path to recreate A, and continuing this cycle. All Failed !! 32 The third law: Unattainability of zero • The common feature of this collective failure is traced to the convergence of the substances entropies to a common value as T approaches zero. So, we can replace the phenomenological statement of the third law with a slightly more sophisticated version expressed in terms of the entropy: The entropy of every pure, perfectly crystalline substance approaches the same value as the temperature approaches zero. • Note that the experimental evidence and the third law do not tell us the absolute value of the entropy of a substance at T = 0. All the law implies is that all substances have the same entropy at T = 0 provided they have nondegenerate ground states. However, it is expedient and sensible to choose the common value for the entropy of all perfectly crystalline substances as zero, and thus we arrive at the conventional ‘entropy’ statement of the third law: The entropy of all perfectly crystalline substances is zero at T = 0. So, entropy can be expressed on an absolute scale. 33 34 • At first sight, the law would seem to be irrelevant to the everyday world, unlike the other three laws of thermodynamics. As a matter of fact, there are serious consequences of third law for those who inhabit laboratories. 1. It eliminates one of science’s most cherished idealizations, that of a perfect gas. However, a perfect gas is taken to be the starting point for many discussions and theoretical formulations in thermodynamics, the third law rules out its existence at T = 0. 2. One major application of thermodynamics to chemistry lies in the use of thermal data, specifically heat capacities measured over range of temperatures, to calculate the equilibrium composition of reactions and thus to decide whether a reaction is likely to be successful or not and to optimize the conditions for its using in industry. The third law provides the key to this application of , which could not be done if the entropies of substances were different at absolute zero. The third law: Unattainability of zero The third law: Unattainability of zero • Intriguing consequential question, Its possible to contrive special technique to take a sample at negative temperature !? -∞ More entropy & ratio of ↑ : ↓ More entropy & ratio of ↓ : ↑ +∞ Ratio of ↑ : ↓ = 1 Maximum population of upper state (↑) T Maximum population of lower state (↓) Ratio of ↓ : ↑= 1 35 The third law: Unattainability of zero • The big question is whether the inversion of a thermal equilibrium population can be contrived. It can, but not by thermodynamic procedures. There are a variety of experimental techniques available for polarizing, as it is called, a collection of electron or nuclear spins that use pulses of radiofrequency energy. • In fact, there is an everyday device that makes use of negative temperatures: the laser. All the laser-equipped devices we use around the home, as in CD and DVD players, operate at temperatures below zero. 36 The third law: Unattainability of zero • The first law is independent of how populations are distributed. So, in a region of negative temperature, energy is conserved and the internal energy may be changed by doing work or making use of a temperature difference. • The second law survives because the definition of entropy survives, but its implications are different. One system with negative temperature and one system with positive temperature, there is an overall increase in entropy when heat is transferred from a region of negative temperature to one of positive temperature. The only difference between this discussion and the conventional one is that, the heat flows from the system with the lower (negative) temperature to the one with the higher (positive) temperature. If both systems have a negative temperature, heat flows spontaneously from the system with the higher (less negative) temperature to the system with the lower (more negative) temperature. 37 The third law: Unattainability of zero • The efficiency of a heat engine, direct consequence of the second law, is defined by the Carnot expression. (ε = 1 − Tsink/Tsource) • However, if the temperature of the cold reservoir is negative, the efficiency of the engine may be greater than 1 !! • Example: Extracting heat (q) from a source at a temperature 300 K, the entropy decreases by q/(300 K). Also withdraw heat (qʹ) from the sink at −200 K, its entropy increases by qʹ /(200 K). The total change is positive provided that qʹ /(200 K) is at least equal to q/(300 K). Both contributions can be converted into work without changing the entropy, so the work we can get is equal to q + qʹ. The efficiency is (work done)/(heat absorbed from the hot source), or (q + qʹ)/q = 1 + (200 K/300 K) = 1.67. • If both the source and the sink of a heat engine are at negative temperatures, the efficiency is less than 1, and the work done is the conversion of the energy withdrawn as heat from the ‘warmer’, less negative, sink. 38 The third law: Unattainability of zero • The third law requires a slight amendment on account of the discontinuity of the thermal properties of a system across T = 0. On the ‘normal’ side of zero, we simply have to change the law to read ‘it is impossible in a finite number of cycles to cool any system down to zero’. On the other side of zero, the law takes the form that ‘it is impossible in a finite number of cycles to heat any system up to zero.’ The writer suspects anyone would wish to try ! 39 Thank you 40
전거: Enthalpy of metastable phase