아침 실전 r/c수업을 듣고있는 전혜연입니다.
숙제장을 어디에 올려야 할지 고민하다가... 기본반은 아니었는데...
숙제를 올립니다.
먼저 단어는 단어의 뜻과 동의어를 찾았구요.
두번째 과제는 관련된 배경지식을 영문으로 찾아보았습니다.
한글로 번역되어 있는 것도 도움이 되지만... 영문으로 되어있는 것도 좀 여유를 가지고 먼저 읽어두는 것도 도움이 될 듯해서요....
내용이 길어서 죄송합니다....
8월 방학과제
단어의 뜻과 동의어
1. abruptly 갑자기 suddenly unexpectedly
2. accumulation 축적, 이식, 축적물 amassment
3. agile 기민한 재빠른 민첩한 shrewd, nimble, alert
4. allocated 할당 배분하다. 간직하다 allot, allocate, apportion, divide, distribute
5. apparent 명백한 clear, plain, obvious
6. ardently 불타는 듯한, 열렬한, 열심인 fervent, passionate
7. assume 책임을 떠맡다 take on, undertake, take charge of
8. attribute 돌리다, ~탓으로 하다 ascribe, refer, assign
9. bold 대담한, 용감한 courageous, intrepid, dauntless, undaunted
10. bombard 포격하다 cannonade, shell, fire on
11. breakthrough 비약적인 진보 a great sudden advance
12. bulk 크기, 용적, 부피 size, volume
13. cardinal 기본적인, 주요한 fundamental, central, primal
14. chronic 만성의, 병이 오래 끄는 permanent, persistent
15. cohesion 점착, 결합 viscosity, adhesion
16. collectively 일괄해서, 하나로 묶어서 all together, as a group
17. collide with 충돌하다 strike, crash
18. consequence 결과, 결말 result, outcome
19. constellation 별자리 asterism
20. cope with 대처하다, 극복하다 manage, overcome
21. critically 비평적으로, 위태롭게 critical
22. discarded 버리다 dispose of, cast away, toss away, throw away
23. dissemination 씨 뿌리기, 보급 diffusion
24. divert 전환하다 convert, change, turn
25. eliminate 제거하다, 삭제하다 exclude, remove, cancel
26. embed 새겨넣다 fix, fasten
27. emergent 떠오르는, 신흥의 emerging, nascent
28. enable 가능하게 하다, ~할 수 있게 하다 empower, facilitate
29. encompass 둘러싸다, 포위하다 surround, encircle
30. engrossed 집중시키다, 몰두하다 concentrate, centralize, converge
31. essential 본질적인, 필수적인 necessary
32. evolve 발달시키다, 진화하다 develop,
33. exhausted 다 써버린, 소모된, 고갈된 wasteful, marasmic, dissipative
34. expediency 편의, 형편 좋음 convenience
35. fame 명성, 명예 renown, reputation
36. fashioned ~풍의, ~형의 designed, intentional
37. flake 파편 piece, bit, strip, slice, scrap
38. groundless 기초가 없는, 사실무근의 unfounded
39. grounds 기초 basis, underpinning, base
40. harness 마구 horse equipment, saddlery
41. hence 그러므로, 따라서 therefore, on that account, consequently
42. identical 동일한, 꼭 같은 the same, equal
43. incredible, fabulousinconceivable 상상할 수도 없는, 믿을수 없는
44. indispensable 없어서는 안 되는, 불가결의 necessary, essential, inherent
45. inert 활동하지 않는, 비활성의 motionless, stationary
46. inevitable 부득이한, 피할수 없는 unavoidable, necessary
47. infrastructure 기반 foundation, base
48. innovative 혁신적인 reformatory
49. insufficient 불충분한, 부족한 inadequate, not enough
50. intertwined 뒤얽히다,서로 얽히게 하다 entangle, interlace, mix
51. intrigue 음모 plot, conspiracy, machination
52.irreparable 돌이킬수없는,불치의 incurable, irrecoverable, irretrievable, irremediable
53. loading, shipping, shipmentladings 적재, 선적
54. lavish 사치스런 generous, luxurious, extravagant
55. magnitude 크기, 대소, 거대함 size, dimensions, magnitude, bulk, volume
56. mandatory 명령의, 위임의 obligatory, directive
57. manifest 명백한 obvious, evident, manifest
58. maturity 성숙, 완성 perfection, consummation, rmaturation, growth
59. imitative, mockmimic 흉내내는, 모조의
60. mode 방법, 양식 way, method, process,manner, system
61. note 기록, 각서 record, document,
62. obscure 분명치 않은, 불명료한 ambiguous
63. onset 습격, 공격 attack, assault, raid, storm, charge
64. outrageous 난폭한, 포학한, 사악한 violent
65. oversee 감독하다, 목격하다 supervise, superintend, observe
66. paradoxical 역설의, 자기 모순의 opposing, contrary, contradictory
67. patch (of forest) 수선하다 mend, repair, fix
68. perforate 구멍을 내다 go through, pierce, permeate
69. perishable 썩기 쉬운, 깨지기 쉬운 spoilable, able to decay
70. perpetual 영속하는, 영구의 everlasting, lasting, permanent, continual
71. plumage 깃털, 깃 feather, plume
72. preeminent 걸출한, 뛰어난 prominent, outstanding, distinguished
73. prerequisite 미리 필요한, 필수의 requisite, necessary, indispensable
74. acquire, obtain, get, win 얻다. 획득하다 procure
75. prolong 늘이다, 길게 하다 lengthen, extend, stretch, make longer
76. prominently 현저한, 두드러진 outstandingly, obviously
77. propel 추진하다 drive forward, promote
78. prototype 원형, 견본 archetype,model, pattern, specimen
79. protrude 내밀다, 튀어나오다 jut out, project, beetle, shoot out
80. provided 준비된, 공급된, 예비의 preparative, ready
81. proximity 근접, 접근 nearness, approximation, contiguity
82. realm 왕국, 국토 kingdom, territory, domain
83. relevant 관련된, 적절한 relational
84. render ~을 표현하다 주다 represent, afford, give
85. fill up, replace, supplement 보충하다 replenish
86. strict, severe, austererigorous 준엄한, 엄격한
87. base onrooted in ~에 근거를 두다
88. scant 부족한, 빈약한 deficient, scarce
89. seize 잡다, 붙들다 hold, take hold of, grasp, grip
90. sole 오직하나, 유일한, 독점적인 only, single, exclusive
91. spawn(물고기,개구리,조개 등의) 알 roe, caviar,fish eggs
92. occasionally sporadically 이따금, 드문드문
93. staggering 비틀거리는, 망설이는 tottery
94. staunch 견고한, 튼튼한 strong, firm, solid
95. suggest 암시하다, 시사하다 allude, imply, insinuate
96. surge 쇄도하다 roll, swell
97. doctrinetenet 주의, 교의
98. ultimately 최후로, 결국, 마침내 finally, eventually
99. versatile 다재다능한, 재주가 많은 talented, gifted
100. vigorously 정력적인, 원기 왕성한 energetically
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Jean Piaget was born in Neuchtel (Switzerland) on August 9, 1896. He died in Geneva on September 16, 1980. He was the oldest child of Arthur Piaget, professor of medieval literature at the University, and of Rebecca Jackson. At age 11, while he was a pupil at Neuchtel Latin high school, he wrote a short notice on an albino sparrow.This short paper is generally considered as the start of a brilliant scientific career made of over sixty books and several hundred articles.
His interest for mollusks was developed during his late adolescence to the point that he became a well-known malacologist by finishing school. He published many papers in the field that remained of interest for him all along his life.
After high school graduation, he studied natural sciences at the University of Neuchtel where he obtained a Ph.D. During this period, he published two philosophical essays which he considered as "adolescence work" but were important for the general orientation of his thinking.
After a semester spent at the University of Zrich where he developed an interest for psychoanalysis, he left Switzerland for France. He spent one year working at the Ecole de la rue de la Grange-aux-Belles a boys' institution created by Alfred Binet and then directed by De Simon who had developed with Binet a test for the measurement of intelligence. There, he standardized Burt's test of intelligence and did his first experimental studies of the growing mind.
In 1921, he became director of studies at the J.-J. Rousseau Institute in Geneva at the request of Sir Ed. Claparde and P. Bovet.
In 1923, he and Valentine Chtenay were married. The couple had three children, Jacqueline, Lucienne and Laurent whose intellectual development from infancy to language was studied by Piaget.
Successively or simultaneously, Piaget occupied several chairs: psychology, sociology and history of science at Neuchtel from 1925 to 1929; history of scientific thinking at Geneva from 1929 to 1939; the International Bureau of Education from 1929 to 1967; psychology and sociology at Lausanne from 1938 to 1951; sociology at Geneva from 1939 to 1952, then genetic and experimental psychology from 1940 to 1971. He was, reportedly, the only Swiss to be invited at the Sorbonne from 1952 to 1963. In 1955, he created and directed until his death the International Center for Genetic Epistemology.
His researches in developmental psychology and genetic epistemology had one unique goal: how does knowledge grow? His answer is that the growth of knowledge is a progressive construction of logically embedded structures superseding one another by a process of inclusion of lower less powerful logical means into higher and more powerful ones up to adulthood. Therefore, children's logic and modes of thinking are initially entirely different from those of adults.
Piaget's oeuvre is known all over the world and is still an inspiration in fields like psychology, sociology, education, epistemology, economics and law as witnessed in the annual catalogues of the Jean Piaget Archives. He was awarded numerous prizes and honorary degrees all over the world.
OVERVIEW AND THE PRINT MEDIA
By Fredric A. Emmert
SUMMARY: This is the first in a series of three articles exploring the media of the United States in the 1990s. This first installment includes an overview plus a more detailed discussion of American newspapers and magazines. Subsequent installments treat the broadcast media and the interplay between the media and society.
NOTE: This article is in the public domain. Credit to the author should appear on the title page of any reprint.
U.S. MEDIA IN THE 1990s: I. OVERVIEW AND THE PRINT MEDIABy Fredric A. Emmert
The print and electronic media in the United States of the 1990s offer the widest news and entertainment options available anywhere in the world. The media are a pervasive element in American society: the average American worker, according to a study by Veronis, Suhler & Associates, devotes about nine hours a day to the media. This figure includes four hours and nine minutes for television and three hours listening to radio, mainly in a car. Recorded music accounts for 36 minutes, and reading of a daily newspaper consumes an average of 28 minutes. In 1991, the adult consumers of all this amusement and information spent some $108.8 billion -- about $353 a person. Advertisers spent an additional $80 billion to bring their products to the attention of the American public through the media. This is big business, America's ninth largest, ranking just below aerospace and just above electronic equipment and its components.
Americans' lives and economy are affected in many ways. The media are a great engine in the consumer society. They provide jobs for hundreds of thousands of technicians, writers, artists, performers and intellectuals. They shape attitudes and beliefs and put pictures of the world into people's minds. The press, or "Fourth Estate," also plays a vital role as guardian of U.S. democracy. That role is guaranteed by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, adopted in 1789, stipulating that Congress will not enact any laws abridging freedom of the press.
U.S. media have traveled a long road since readers in Boston, Massachusetts, glimpsed the first American newspaper in 1690. Within 50 years magazines also began appearing in several major American cities. The advent of commercial radio at the beginning of the 20th century ended print's monopoly of the media in America, giving nationwide and, later, global audiences unprecedented access to live audio programs. An even more powerful medium, television, entered the scene shortly after World War II, quickly conquering the American public. Defying predictions of their decline, the other media have diversified to confront television's dominant appeal.
The launching of USA Today in 1982, for instance, aided by satellite technology, represented a bold experiment by the Gannett chain to produce a newspaper for the television generation. Although the number of independent U.S. newspapers has declined substantially in the last two decades with increasing concentration of ownership by large chains, overall newspaper circulation has remained remarkably constant over the last two decades. American mass magazines have fared poorly in the same period, but publications targeted for distinct segments of the population have proliferated.
By the late 1980s, FM radio stations had supplanted AM stations for music formats, with AM turning more to "talk radio" and news formats. The birth of Ted Turner's Cable News Network (CNN) all-news TV network began a trend that has seen cable TV rise to be a major competitor with the formerly dominant "Big Three" commercial networks -- the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), and the National Broadcasting Company (NBC). A fourth broadcast network, Fox, also started challenging the "Big Three" in 1986, and 1995 saw the entry of two more national broadcast networks: Warner Brothers (WB) and Paramount (UPN).
Investigative journalism, a trend at its heyday during the "Watergate Scandal" in the early 1970s, gave way a few years later to increased attention to "journalism ethics." Faced with polls showing decreasing credibility for the media, newspapers and other media throughout the 1980s placed renewed emphasis on improved ethics, including vehicles such as codes, news councils and ombudsmen. As media choices increased during the 1980s, the Federal Communications Commission, the main government "watchdog," began to relax regulations on U.S. broadcast media, expanding the number of outlets one owner could possess and announcing it would no longer enforce the "Fairness Doctrine" (the assuring of equal air time to contending political views). To further increase competition and access to the burgeoning "Information Superhighway," the Clinton administration in January 1994 proposed eliminating restrictions on cable TV and telephone companies from entering each other's markets.
In the 1990s, the media have continued to play an important role in the U.S. electoral process, with cable networks exerting ever greater influence.
Satellite technology has allowed U.S. TV networks, especially cable networks, to reach overseas audiences anywhere on the globe. Newspapers have also used satellite technology to print international editions, and The New York Times even beganprinting in 1992 a special edition in Russian in 1992. Foreign participation in U.S. media has been increasing over the last decade, and ethnic publications, especially in Spanish, and Spanish-language television and radio grew rapidly throughout the 1980s and early 1990s.
Interactive media, fueled by the advance of digital technology and the growing convergence of the computer, telephone and cable television, represent the principal trend of the early 1990s. Exemplifying this trend is the fiber-optic cable system being installed throughout the U.S. by TCI, the largest American cable TV operator, which plans to offer 500 channels and a variety of interactive services to its customers. The $11 billion 1994 merger between the Viacom Cable Company and Paramount is the kind of new alliance between formerly separate media companies that will increasingly shape the emerging multi-media market of the late 1990s. MCI's May 1995 announcement that it was investing $2 billion in Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation typifies recent efforts by U.S. telephone companies to enter the lucrative multi-media sphere. This growing market offers promising job opportunities to journalists, and, consequently, journalism education has continued to attract large numbers of American and foreign students in the United States.
U.S. government media efforts overseas, carried out since the 1950s mainly through the United States Information Agency (USIA) and the Board for Foreign Broadcasting, have placed renewed emphasis on democracy-building in the wake of the Cold War's demise. The fall of the Soviet Union and budgetary restraints prompted the Clinton administration in mid-1993 to propose a consolidation of all U.S. Government international broadcasting programs under a single board of governors within the USIA. On April 30, 1994, President Clinton signed a law which put those provisions into effect and called for the creation of a new Radio Free Asia.
NEWSPAPERS
In 1990, the U.S. press celebrated its 300th anniversary as an institution and guardian of democracy. The first U.S. newspaper, Publick Occurrences: Both Foreign and Domestick, lasted only one day -- September 25, 1690 -- before it was suppressed by British colonial authorities. However, other newspapers quickly sprang up in the American colonies, and by 1730, the colonial press had gained sufficient stature to seriously challenge British governors. In that year, the governor of New York brought a seditious libel suit against Peter Zenger, publisher of the New York Weekly Journal. The verdict in this trial, the acquittal of Zenger, significantly shaped the course of press development in America, bolstering the principle of press freedom without censorship. After the Revolutionary War (1775-1783), this concept found a home in the Billof Rights, the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution. The First Amendment states: "Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech or of the press . . . ." These 14 words made it possible for a free press to develop over the next two centuries as one of America's strongest watchdogs over government actions and protectors of individual rights.
By the 1820s, about 25 dailies and more than 400 weeklies were being published in the United States. Horace Greeley founded the New York Tribune in 1841, and it quickly became the most influential newspaper in America. Other important dailies, such as The New York Times, Baltimore Sun, and Chicago Tribune were founded in the 1850s. Two media giants, Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst,began building their newspaper empires after the Civil War (1861-1865). Their fierce competition produced "yellow journalism" -- sensational and often inaccurate reporting aimed at attracting readers. "Chain" newspapers under the same ownership became a dominant feature in the early 20th century. In addition to the front-running Hearst chain, the Scripps-Howard and Cowles chains grew following World War I. That trend accelerated after World War II, and in 1990, a total of 135 groups owned 1,228 daily newspapers, accounting for about 75 percent of all U.S. dailies. In 1971, there had been 66 cities with two or more dailies owned by separate companies, while in 1995 there were only 36. The top five U.S. newspaper groups in terms of circulation in 1994 were the Gannett Company, Knight-Ridder, Newhouse Newspapers, Times Mirror Company, and the New York Times Company. In mid-1993, the New York Times Company added another major newspaper, The Boston Globe, to its chain in a $1.08 billion purchase, the largest in U.S. newspaper history. Under the purchase agreement, The New York Times agreed to allow The Boston Globe full editorial freedom through 1998.
In spite of the serious competition from television after World War II, the number of dailies dropped only slightly, from 1,763 in 1946 to 1,534 in 1994. However, the number of Sunday papers rose from 497 in 1946 to 889 in 1994, bringing total daily and Sunday papers to 2,423. This figure represents the highest number of newspapers with the highest total circulation -- 135 million -- for any country in the world.
More than two-thirds of American adults read a daily newspaper on an average weekday. The top five daily newspapers by circulation in 1995 were: The Wall Street Journal (1,823,207), USA Today (1,570,624), The New York Times (1,170,869), Los Angeles Times (1,053,498), and The Washington Post (840,232). In all, there are 41 newspapers with more than 250,000 daily circulation, and 68 medium-size regional dailies with circulations of 100,000 to 250,000. Sunday circulation has been a bright spot, climbing from 49.2 million in 1970 to 62.4 million in 1994. At the same time, afternoon papers have dwindled steadily in number: from 1,429 in 1970 to 947 in 1994.
The newest of the top five daily newspapers, USA Today, was launched in 1982, after extensive market research by the Gannett chain. It marked a bold experiment to create a truly national newspaper aimed at a mobile urban population interested in short news "bites" rather than traditional news analyses. Nicknamed"McPaper," USA Today has prospered by adopting successful television techniques in a newspaper format -- accentuating visual images with lavish color photos, drawings and graphs. USA Today vending machines even look like television sets.
Space Age technology made USA Today possible and is helping U.S. newspapers to expand their national and international audiences. USA Today, for instance, is completely edited and composed in Arlington, Virginia, then transmitted via satellite to 32 printing plants serving major market clusters around the country and to two printing plants serving Europe and Asia. The Wall Street Journal began transmitting its daily edition by satellite as early as 1975, and currently transmits four U.S. regional editions, and European and Asian editions. The New York Times transmits a national daily edition, and The Washington Post transmits a national weekly edition.
The International Herald Tribune, owned by The New York Times and The Washington Post, is truly a global newspaper, printed via satellite in 11 cities around the world and distributed in 164 countries. Aided by satellite technology, The New York Times began publishing in April 1992 a biweekly Russian edition in Moscow with an initial circulation of 100,000. We, a U.S.-Russianjoint venture newspaper with 50 percent ownership by Russia's Izvestia Publishing Group and 50 percent by the Hearst media organization, began in February 1992 with a print run of 350,000 in Russian and 100,000 in English. We carries both hard news and feature articles and has attracted such international advertisers as Estee Lauder and McDonald's.
Newspapers' share of 1992 advertising revenue in the United States still outstripped all other media by a substantial percentage, but American newspapers in the 1990s face competition not only from network TV, but from a whole spectrum of targeted and specialized media, including personalized computer information services, local cable programming, movies on demand, special-interest publications, catalogs and other direct-mail pieces.
Newspapers are relying on new technology to meet the challenge. More than 600 daily American newspapers, for instance, offer a variety of voice information services, from voice mail enhanced ads that let advertisers and readers talkto each other, to 24-hour free call services offering consumers information on everything from stock prices to local calendars of events. These services have become very popular. The Seattle Times' "Infoline" handled more than 5.5 million calls and generated more than 8 million information requests in 1991.
New offset technology has led many newspapers to increase the use of color in their editions. Even The New York Times, one of the most traditional black-and-white newspapers, began for the first time printing colored ads in 1993. Also in 1993, a group of 17 companies announced the formation of a consortium, "News of the Future," to conduct research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology on new ways to use computers and telecommunications to transmit news. Members of the consortium, which estimated its investment at $1.5 to 2 billion a year over a period of five years, include Gannett, Knight Ridder, Times Mirror, Tribune Company, Hearst, IBM, Capital Cities/ABC, and Bell South.
The consortium willexplore the creation of electronic newspapers transmitted to hand-held computers and the printing of more personalized newspapers on customers' Pcs (personal computers). Such on-line services, including "Compuserv" and "Prodigy," have proliferated in the 1990s. In 1995, eight newspapers -- Gannett, Knight Ridder, Advance Publications (Newhouse Newspapers), Times Mirror, Tribune Company, Cox Newspapers, Hearst, and the Washington Post Company -- collectively owning 185 dailies with combined circulation in the neighborhood of 20 million -- announced formation of a company to create a national network of on-line newspapers. Founders of the New Century Network say it will allow affiliate papers across the country to share information.
The network aims to act as a clearinghouse for transfer of information and fees between providers and users. The network will help newspapers get online as fast as possible, and advise them on everything from hardware marketing to programming. The theory is that member papers will be able to offer subscribers access to a variety of information -- including news, features, sports, electronic mail and home shopping -- from leading news outlets.
In 1992, the Chicago Sun-Times began offering articles via modem over the "America On Line" computer network, and in 1993, the San Jose Mercury News began distributing most of its complete daily text, minus photos and illustrations, to subscribers of "America On Line." The first multi-media news service in the U.S., "News in Motion," made its debut in the summer of 1993 with a weekly edition specializing in international coverage, with color photos, graphics and sound. In 1994, the Los Angeles Times-Washington Post News Service began distributing news to its newspaper customers via computer before their morning editions arrived, and The Washington Post has created a "Digital Ink" subsidiary, providing an electronic newspaper research service for clients, who can buy custom-made reports on subjects of their choice.
The "Baby Bell" regional telephone networks were allowed to enter this lucrative field for the first time as the result of a 1992 judicial decision. However, the Newspaper Association of America (NAA), the largest lobbying group for the newspaper industry, appealed the judicial decision almost immediately, and three bills were introduced in Congress to try to modify it. The NAA carries considerable weight, since it represents more than 1,400 member newspapers, accounting for 90 percent of total U.S. daily circulation. It was founded in 1887 as the American Newspaper Publishers' Association, and changed names in 1992 when it merged with the Newspaper Advertising Bureau. The American Society of Newspaper Editors (ASNE) is one of several other important trade associations representing newspaper industry interests.
첫댓글 VERY GOOD~!!!