노트 2와 연관해서 좀 더 구체적인 내용으로 연결할 수 있어서 함께 올립니다.
Chapter 3 언어분석 | |
1 | Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis : based on behaviorism and structuralism CAH assumes that the principal barrier to second language acquisition is the interference of the learners' native language. Thus, CAH attempts to identify the differences between the target language and the learners' first language through a scientific and structural analysis focusing on discrete items in language and prevent learners from making errors. CAH is based on behaviorism, so it claims to break the habits of L1 and form the new habit of L2. CAH became the theoretical foundation of ALM. This hypothesis predicts that second or foreign language learners are likely to make pronunciation errors when they attempt to articulate a phoneme that is different from its counterpart in their first language or completely absent in their mother tongue. It helps students avoid making the expected errors. CAH has a weakness in that it considers the intereference of L1 as the only cause of errors in L2. However, most of the errors in L2 are not attributed to the difference between L1 and L2. Besides, learners, even when they have a different native language, go through similar stages in the second language. Thus, CAH is not an accurate predictor of errors in L2. |
3 | Transfer :the positive and negative effects of old language habits affecting new ones ① positive transfer: when the same structure is appropriate in both L1 and L2. ② negative transfer=interference: when the L1 structure is used inappropriately in the L2. |
4 | Error analysis: The systematic investigation of second language learners' errors. The language produced by learners begain to be seen as a linguistic system in its own right, worthy of description. Unlike CAH's argument, many of learners' errors are caused by their developing knowledge of the target language, namely interlanguage, rather than transfer from their first language. This finding led to 'error analysis'. Error analysis is an approach based on the description and the analysis of details and the kinds of errors L2 learners actually make. It believes that errors reflect learners' interlanguage (learners' process to make their interlanguage closer to a target language) and thus studying errors helps to identify what difficulties learners face and what strategies they use. |
5 | Interlanguage: intermediate system located somewhere between the learner's native language and the target language, but governed by its own unique and coherent internalized rule system that rarely becomes totally congruent with the system of the second language. According to cognitivism, language learning is developing a language system governed by a set of rules. This language is called interlanguage. Since interlanguage is not a perfect system, it produces errors. Error analysis aims to study errors generated by interlanguage. To prevent errors from recurring, a teacher should provide feedback(error treatment) to learners so that they can notice and self correct them. |
6 | Interlanguage 특징 1) systematic: has its own coherent system governed by some set of internalized rules 2) variable: unstable, learners' utterances seem to vary from moment to moment :switch between a range of correct and incorrect form over lengthy(extended) periods of time. Although interlanguage is systematic, differences in context result in different patterns of language use. 3) dynamic: the interim system is constantly revised to accommodate new hypothesis about a target languageas as learners are exposed to more input. |
7 | Interlanguage 발달 단계 1) pesystematic stage : random errors ex) John can sng, I can to sing 2 ) emergent stage : begin to internalize the rules, but cannot correct their errors when a teacher points them out. This stage is also characterized by backsliding and avoidance of phrases and topics. *backsliding: learners revert to using the incorrect forms after they learned and used the correct ones. 3) systematic stage : internalized the rules and can reformulate their erroneous utterances when a teacher points them out. 4) stabilization = postsystematic stage : speak a target language fluently and rarely make errors. If they make one, they can self correct it. Learners at this stage tend to have fossilization. In order to prevent fossilization, a teacher should give a negative feedback to students so that they can notice their errors and correct them. * fossilization : a special state of permanent non-target like ultimate attainment that was due to a change in an individual's underlying capacity for SLA. It occurs when there is 1)lack of negative feedback on errors in the form of self monitoring, 2)insensitivity to negative feedback, 3)provision of postive feedback on successful communication despite error and 4)lack of access to various components of Universal Grammar. |
Error 원인 1) Interlingual transfer : errors caused by interference from a learner's native language. ex) see an exam 2) Intralingual transfer: errors caused by intereference within a target language, ex) overgeneralization * overgeneralization : a process that occurs as the L2 learners act within the target language, generalizing a particular rule or item in the second language beyond legitimate bounds. 3) Context of learning : errors caused by errors from a teacher or from learning materials. ex) confusing instruction on 'point out' and 'point on' 4) Communication strategies : errors resulting from communication strategies that learners use to compensate for the limitation in their target language. | |
10 | Error analysis 단계 1) Identifying ① over error : grammatical error ex) Does John can sing? ②cover error : grammatically acceptable, but inapproriate in context ex) It was stopped : if it means 'rain', it is grammatical, but it cannot be interpreted as 'rain' in context 2) Categorizing ① overt(according to superficial features) a) addition b) omission c) substitution d) misordering ② covert(according to communicative flow) a) global error : interfere(impair) communication, thus need to be corrected b) local error : erroneous, but successfully convey message, thus need not to be corrected 3) Roles of errors and range of error correction * Role of error correction : appropriate feedback given by a teacher helps learners develop their interlanguage to the next level. * Error correction according to learning point, lesson goal 1) fluency focused : take global errors more seriously than local errors and the former should be corrected. 2) accuracy focused : correct not only global errors, but also local errors. (without error correction on the learners' repeated errors, those errors may be fossilized * Factors to consider when correcting errors : students' cognitive level and affective level. * accuracy practice, fluency practice의 두 가지 교실 상황을 보여주면서 활동을 accuracy focused, fluency focused로 나누고 정의, 각 특징 규명하기 이런 식으로도 출제 가능하다고 하셨어요. * 과거에는 fluency만 강조하면서 accuracy가 떨어지자 이제는 둘 다 중시해야 하는 흐름으로 바뀌면서 fluency랑 accuracy 둘 다 키울 수 있는 문법, 어휘, 4스킬 활동 위주로 정리해놓으라고 하셨어요. * high intermediate 수준 학생의 발화에서 fossilization이 나타나고 이 때 교사의 반응이 positive feedback이 주어지는 상황이 제시되고 여기에 대해 문제점을 제시하고 이 문제점을 막기 위해 교사는 어떻게 해야 하는가, 학습자 오류는 어떤 유형인가, 오류 막기 위해 교사가 어떻게 해야 하는지(error를 directly notice하도록 explicit feedback 주기, 학습자가 self correct하게 하기, 반복된 오류 잡아서 form focused instruction해서 오류 treat해주기 등등)에 대해 생각해 보랬어요. |
11 | Feedback : what teachers tell students about how well they have done in terms of the language they have used or a task they have performed. can involve correction, praise/ information give to learners which they can use to revise they interlanguage. |
12 | ①Affective feedback : to be encoded in terms of kinetic mechanism such as gestures, tone of voice and facial expressions, affects the maintenance of the communication, positive(encourage learners to continue attempts to communicate)/neutral/negative(result in the abortion of the communication) ②Cognitive feedback : to be conveyed by means of linguistic devices(sounds, phrases, structures, discourse), invites learners to judge and examine their utterance objectively(determine the degree of internalization), important for teachers to discern the optimal tension between positive and negative cognitive feedback, positive/neutral/negative *Cognitive negative feedback = Corrective feedback : information that indicates an utterance is incorrect a) Explicit correction : explicit provision to the correct form/an utterance that provides the learner with the correct form while at the same time indicating an error was committed b) Recast : the teacher's reformulation of all or part of a students' utterance, minus the error. implicit feedback, focus on meaning, intended to maintain the communicative flow c) Clarification request : indication given by a teacher to students that their utterance has been misunderstood by the teacher or that the utterance is ill formed in some way and that a repetition or a reformulation is required. ex) pardon me?, Repeat please?, what do you mean by ~?(include a repetition of the error) d) Metalinguistic feedback : an utterance that provides comments, information or questions related to the well-formedness of the students' utterance, without explicitly providing the correct form. e) Elicitation : techniques that teachers use to directly elicit the correct form from the students by 1) Using incomplete sentences(it is a ...), 2)question to elicit correct forms(how do you say x in French?), 3)asking students to reformulate their utterance/ a question aimed at eliciting the correct from after a learner has produced an erroneous utterance f) Repetition : the teacher's repetition, in isolation of the student's erroneous utterance, with their intonation adjusted so as to highlight the error. * students cannot acquire a language form until they are developmentally ready. * students' attention to meaning can block their recognition of forms |
13 | Cross linguistic influence : generic term for different ways in which different language systems in the mind interact and affect either the linguistic performance or the linguistic development (or both) of the individual concerned. |
14 | Bilinguals:1)compound : learn a target language based on leaners' first language -> trigger errors due to interlingual transfer 2) coordinate: different meaning systems for L1 and L2 |
15 | Contribution of Error analysis : Error is regarded as the evidence that learners actively participate in their 2nd language learning rather than as an undesirable phenomenon. Limitation of Error analysis : focusing on errors only is not sufficient to gain an overall understanding of second language learning. (communication?) |
16 | Focus on form : communication in context the cognitive process by which learners attend to form when comprehending or producing communicative messages. Long uses the term to refer to instruction that engages leaners' attention to form while they are primarily focused on message content Focus on forms : linguistic forms are isolated Long uses this term to refer to instruction directed at teaching preselected linguistic items in activities where the students' primary focus of attention is on form rather than meaning. *positive evidence ≠ positive feedback *negative evidence = negative feedback |
17 | Discourse analysis : the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which it is used. Its focus is on the function of individual utterances and how these utterances combine to form larger discoursal units. Discourse analysis is important to teach function because function of an utterance changes depending on which discourse it is located in. *In order to be a discourse, a text should have cohesion and coherence. -Cohesion: grammatical and lexical relationships between the different elements of a text.(the explicit linguistic signalling of relationships within a text) -Coherence: the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentence in a text. |
18 | Speech act theory speech act : the action performed by the use of an utterance to communicate locutionary act : the act of simply saying something/uttering illoucutionary act : the act of doing something by saying something(ex making a request/what a speaker intends to achieve by uttering perlocutionary act : response from the listener by speaker's uttering/effect on audience brought about by the utterance |
19 | Conversional Maxim : conversational convention -Quantity: Speakers should be as informative as is required. Say neither more nor less thatn the discourse requires -Quality: To say something that they believe corresponds to the reality. Do not say things that are false or for which you lack adequate evidence. -Relevance: To say something that is relevant to what has been said before. -Manner: Speakers should be brief and orderly, and avoid obscurity and ambiguity. * Unless speakers are being deliberately uncooperative, they adhere to these maxims and to other conversational principles and assume others do to * Conversational conventions allow the various sentence meanings to be sensibly combined into discourse meaning and integrated with context * Implicature : a proposition implied by an utterance but not part of that utterance or a necessary consequence of that utterance. deductions that are not made strictly on the basis on the content expressed in the discourse. Rather, they are made in accordance with the conversational maxim, taking into account both the linguistic meaning of the utterance as well as the particular circumstances in which the utterance is made. * Pragmatics : the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. This study is concerned with what people mean by the language they use, how they actualize it meaning potential as a communicative resource. |
20 | Functional approach to language 1) instrumental function 2) regulatory function 3) representational function 4) interactional function : phatic communion(communication between people which is not intended to seek or convey information but has the social function of establishing or maintaining social contact. Examples of phatic communion in English include such expressions as How are you? and Nice day, isn't it? 5) personal function 6) heuristic function : clarification request 7) imaginative function => 7 functions : basis of notional functional syllabus |
20 | Conversation analysis 1) attention getting : linguistic (excuse me, sorry sir), non-linguistic 2) topic nomination 3) topic development: turn taking, topic clarification, topic shifting, topic avoidance 4) topic termination : linguistic, non-linguistic ① teaching conversation directly : gambit ② teaching conversation indirectly |
21 | Discourse in classroom IRF(IFE) : a three-part discourse pattern frequently observed in classroom. It consists of a teacher initiation(question), a student response, and teacher feedback. Initiating : teacher's question Responding : student's response Follow up : focus on meaning(authentic communication, extended discourse) : assisting question in order to extend natural communication, focus on contents and meaning, similar to discourse outside the classroom Initiating : teacher's question Responding : student's response Evaluation : evaluation : assessing question(questions requiring a single correct and predictable answer) in order to check how learners internalize grammar and vocabulary, evaluation on students' utterance, not similar to discourse outside the classroom * 말해주신 서술 토픽중 하나가 T/S 혹은 S/S의 turn taking하는 거 보여주고 A와 B 중 어느 수업이 더 successful한지, 왜 그런지 특징, 이유 쓰기(학생들이 얼마나 잘 turn taking하느냐, even participation 하느냐, topic이 얼마나 interesting하느냐 등), 덜 성공적인 수업은 관찰을 토대로 문제점이 무엇이고 어떻게 개선할 수 있는지 쓰기. 주로 teaching training(4 skill 더 잘 가르치는 training)에서 나온 것으로 교실 수업을 관찰하고 개선점 찾고 토론하는 게 teacher training course에 있다고 하네요. 재작년에도 수준별 학습에 대한 관찰과 관련해서 문제가 나오기도 했다고 말씀해주셨어요 |