하늘소 솔수염하늘소 (Monochamus alternatus Hope)에 대한 외국에서의 정보입니다.

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IDENTITY
Name: Monochamus alternatus
Pest Authorities: Hope
Taxonomic Position: Insecta: Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Sub-specific Taxon:
Pest Type: Insect
Common Name(s):
Japanese pine sawyer (English)
Pine sawyer beetle (English)
Synonym(s):

RISK RATING SUMMARY
Numerical Score: 9
Relative Risk Rating: Very High Risk
Uncertainty: Very Uncertain
Uncertainty in this assessment results from: Uncertainty in this assessment results from the questionable pathogenicity of Asian species of pinewood nematodes, Bursaphelenchus spp., to North American conifers that this insect may vector. In addition, its ability to compete with the complex of North American species of Monochamus is unknown.

RISK RATING DETAILS
Establishment Potential Is High Risk
The relevant criteria chosen for this organism are:
Organism has successfully established in location(s) outside its native distribution
Suitable climatic conditions and suitable host material coincide with ports of entry or major destinations.
Organism has demonstrated ability to utilize new hosts
Organism has active, directed host searching capability or is vectored by an organism with directed, host searching capability.
Organism has high inoculum potential or high likelihood of reproducing after entry.

Justification: Monochamus alternatus has been intercepted in the USA on at least one occasion, when several adults emerged from wooden crating used to pack a 17th century house imported from China (U. Mass n.d.). Should this insect be introduced into North America, it would find climatic conditions and an abundance of host material favorable for its establishment, especially in the more humid regions of the southeastern USA. However, M. alternatus would have to successfully compete with the indigenous complex of Monochamus and other wood boring insects.

Spread Potential Is High Risk
The relevant criteria chosen for this organism are:
Organism has demonstrated the ability for redistribution through human-assisted transport.
Organism has a high reproductive potential
Potential hosts have contiguous distribution.
Newly established populations may go undetected for many years due to cyptic nature, concealed activity, slow development of damage symptoms, or misdiagnosis.
Eradication techniques are unknown, infeasible, or expected to be ineffective.
Organism has broad host range.

Justification: Adult Monochamus spp. tend to be strong fliers and capable of traveling several km in search of suitable host material. Immature stages (eggs, larvae, and pupae) are subject to human assisted dispersal via international transport of wood products including unprocessed logs, wooden crating, pallets and dunnage. M. alternatus has a high reproductive capability and since conifer forests have more or less continuous distributions in many parts of North America, it would have an abundance of host material, allowing for rapid spread. This insect occurs in wood during much of its life cycle. Furthermore, adults are similar in appearance to indigenous species of Monochamus. Consequently, infestations would be difficult to detect, especially at low levels. Attempts to contain or eradicate infestations would be logistically difficult.

Economic Potential Is High Risk
The relevant criteria chosen for this organism are:
Organism attacks hosts or products with significant commercial value (such as for timber, pulp, or wood products.
Organism directly causes tree mortality or prediposes host to mortality by other organisms.
Damage by organism causes a decrease in value of the host affected, for instance, by lowering its market price, increasing cost of production, maintenance, or mitigation, or reducing value of property where it is located.
Organism may cause loss of markets (domestic or foreign) due to presence and quarantine significant status.
Organism has potential to be a more efficient vector of a native or introduced pest.

Justification: Several species of conifer infesting Monochamus (e.g. M. caroliniensis, M. marmorator, M. notatus, M. titillator, M. scutellatus) are indigenous to North America. All are woodborers in recently killed or severely stressed trees. If introduced and established in North America, M. alternatus is expected to cause the same type of injury that is already being caused by these indigenous species of Monochamus.
Monochamus alternatus is a vector of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, a pathogen native to North America. Since native North American conifers are not damaged by the pinewood nematode and several North American species of Monochamus have already been determined to be vectors of this pathogen, little economic damage is expected from the introduction and establishment of another species of Monochamus. However, should an introduction of M. alternatus be accompanied by an introduction of one or more species of Bursaphelenchus indigenous to Asia, and should these nematodes be pathogenic to North American conifers, the resultant impact could be severe.


Environmental Potential Is High Risk
The relevant criteria chosen for this organism are:
Organism is expected to have indirect impacts on species listed by Federal, Provincial, or State agencies as endangered, threatened, or candidate. This may include disruption of sensitive or critical habitat.
Organism has demonstrated ability to develop more virulent strains or damaging biotypes.

Justification: If introduced and established, and assuming that Monochamus alternatus would behave in the same manner that it does in its native range, it would become another of a complex of insects involved in the decomposition of dead conifers.


HOSTS
Seventeen species of Pinus, including Japanese red pine, Pinus densiflora; Japanese black pine, Pinus thunbergiana, luchu pine, Pinus luchensis (Japan) and Mason pine, Pinus massoniana (China), three species of spruce, Picea spp. and one species each of fir, Abies sp.; true cedar, Cedrus sp. and larch, Larix sp. have been reported as hosts (Kobiashi et al. 1984).
Under laboratory conditions, adults preferred to feed on pines, Cedrus deodara and Larix leptolepis. Metasequoia, Cryptomeria, Gingko biloba and Fagus were accepted to a much lesser degree (Kobiashi et al. 1984). Fresh logs of the North American slash pine, Pinus elliottii, were preferred over the native Japanese Pinus densiflora for oviposition but larval survival was significantly higher in Pinus densiflora (Kobiashi et al. 1984).



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Asia:
Indigenous to China, including Taiwan, Korea, Laos and Japan. This insect is widely distributed in Japan except in Hokkaido and northernmost Honshu. Its occurrence in both the Ryuku and Ogasawara Islands of Japan is believed to be the result of recent introductions of pine logs (Kobiashi et al. 1984). In China, it is reported from Hebei, Henan, Shaanxi, Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangi, Fujian, Sechuan, Guizhou, Yunan and Xizang Provinces (U. Mass n.d.)

BIOLOGY
The genus Monochamus is comprised of 150 known species distributed across Asia, Africa, Europe and North America (USDA APHIS 1999). Twenty-four species of Monochamus have been recorded from China and about 10 species are native to North America (Drooz 1985, Furniss and Carolin 1977, USDA APHIS 1999). All species indigenous to temperate regions attack various species of Pinaceae and confine their attacks to trees that are stressed or recently killed by bark beetles, lightening, disease or climatic and site related factors. Some species can be damaging to windthrow or recently felled pulpwood or sawlogs. Several African species are pests of broadleaf trees and some (e.g. M. scabiosus) have a tendency to attack healthy trees (Browne 1968)
Monochamus alternatus can complete one generation per year. Larvae overwinter in galleries in the wood of infested trees. The larvae undergo five instars. The early instar larvae feed in the cambium and the third to fifth instars tunnel into the heartwood (Speight and Wainhouse 1989, U Mass n.d.). Pupation occurs in late March.

Adults emerge beginning in mid-April and produce rounded exit holes in infested trees. Peak of adult activity occurs in May, when maturation feeding occurs on two-year old shoots of host plants. Mating and egg laying occurs in the evening and females oviposit by carving a narrow slit into the bark of a host tree and depositing a single egg. A female adult is capable of laying 100-200 eggs. Weakened or newly felled trees are preferred for oviposition.




PEST SIGNIFICANCE
Economic Impact: Monochamus alternatus is a member of an important wood-boring group of Cerambycidae. They damage wood of recently dead and downed conifers, causing degradation and loss of structural integrity of lumber. In southern China, they often attack pines weakened from defoliation by the pine caterpillar, Dendrolimus punctatus.
Monochamus alternatus, is the primary vector of pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, in China and Japan and is known to be capable of carrying an average of 18,000 individual nematodes (USDA APHIS 1999). This nematode is native to North America and has been introduced into Japan and portions of China, where it causes a wilt disease of indigenous pines (Pinus densiflora, Pinus massoniana etc.) Native North American conifers are not damaged by this nematode. The nematode larvae emerge from the spiracles of adult beetle, drop onto the twigs and penetrate the woody tissue through the feeding wounds (Speight and Wainhouse 1989).

Two species of Bursaphelenchus, B. mucronatus and B. kolymensis occur Asia on Abies, Larix and Pinus. These are not known to cause widespread mortality of their native hosts (USDA Forest Service 1991). However a potential exists that they could be pathogenic to some North American conifers if introduced.


Environmental Impact: In its native habitat, and in the absence of the pinewood nematode, the environmental impact of Monochamus alternatus by itself is probably beneficial. It is part a complex of insects that play a role in the breakdown of dead conifer wood. However, the pinewood nematode, which this insect can spread from tree to tree, kills large numbers of pines and can cause major ecological disruption.

Control: A number of microbes, parasitic nematodes, predaceous arthropods and birds are natural enemies of Monochamus alternatus (Kobayashi et al. 1984).
Recommended pest management measures for various species of Monochamus emphasize prevention of attacks. These include avoiding storage of recently felled sawtimber and pulpwood in forested areas during the adult flight period, which is usually from May to September, prompt salvage and utilization of windthrow and/or trees killed by bark beetles, lightening or disease and storage of logs under a water spray at sawmill sites (Drooz 1985, Furniss and Carolin 1977).

In Mexico, avoiding the planting of pine on poor growing sites is recommended to prevent attacks by M. clamator rubigineus (Tovar et al. 1995).

Heat treatment at 140 or 158 degrees F (60 or 70 degrees C) for 1 hour kills all stages of Monochamus urussovi. This could be accomplished in a kiln or with steam or hot water treatment (USDA APHIS 1991). This treatment should also be effective for M. alternatus.



DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION
Symptoms: Symptoms of infestation by Monochamus alternatus are identical to those caused by indigenous species of Monochamus.
Infested trees contain narrow slits in the bark indicative of oviposition sites, boring tunnels filled with frass that superficially resembles straw or coarse wood shavings and adult exit holes that are round to slightly oval.

Adult maturation feeding consists of removal of the bark from shoots of host trees. The shoots eventually die leaving dead tips on the trees.


Morphology: Adults are 15-28 mm in length and range from 4.5-9.5 mm wide. Females are larger than males but males have longer antennae. Males have antennae 2x the body length and females have antennae 1.3x the body length. The base part of the first, second and third antennal segments have grayish hairs. There are two orange stripes on the protergum, interlaced with three narrower black stripes. The elytra have five longitudinal bands of black and gray rectangular spots.
Eggs are about 4 mm long, milk white in color and sickle shaped.

Larvae are white, opaque legless grubs, averaging 43 mm in length when mature with an amber colored head capsule and black mouthparts.

Pupae are white, opaque and cylindrical, 20-26 mm long (U Mass n.d.).


Testing Methods for Identification: Identification of Cerambycidae to species must be done from adults. Positive identification of insects suspected of being Monochamus alternatus should be done by an insect taxonomist with expertise in family Cerambycidae. This is especially true since at least two species of Monochamus indigenous to North America: M. caroliniensis and M. tittilator, superficially resemble this species.


MEANS OF MOVEMENT AND DISPERSAL
Studies conducted in Japan indicate that, although the adults are strong fliers and some individuals have been known to fly up to 3.3 km, most adults fly less than 200 m (Kobiashi et al. 1984, USDA APHIS 1999).
Larvae can survive in lumber cut from infested logs and develop into adults. Therefore, lumber, wooden crating, pallets and dunnage used in international trade is a potential source of introduction of Monochamus alternatus. Records from USDA APHIS indicate that between 1985 and 1998, insects believed to be Monochamus spp. were intercepted on over 250 occasions in US Ports of Entry. A single adult of Monochamus sutor, a European species, was recently intercepted from wooden crating arriving at the airport in Curitiba, Brazil from Italy (Iede 2001).



BIBLIOGRAPHY
Browne, F.G. 1968. Pests and diseases of forest plantation trees - An annotated list of the principal species occurring in the British Commonwealth. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1330 pp.
Cibrian Tovar, D.; Tulio Mendez Montiel, J.; Campos Bolanos, R.; Yates III, H.O.; Flores Lara, J. 1995. Insectos forestales de Mexico/Forest Insects of Mexico. FAO, North American Forestry Commission, 453 pp.
Drooz, A.T. 1985. Insects of eastern forests. USDA Forest Service, Miscellaneous Publication 1339, 654 pp.
Furniss, R.L.; V.M. Carolin. 1977. Western forest insects. USDA Forest Service, Miscellaneous Publication 1339, 654 pp.
Iede, E.T. 2001. E-mail message from Edson Tadeau Iede, entomologist, EMBRAPA, Colombo, Parana, Brazil to William M. Ciesla dated May 25, 2001.
Kobayashi, F.; Yamane, A.; Ikeda, T. 1984. The Japanese pine sawyer beetle as the vector of pinewood nematode disease. Annual Review of Entomology 29:115-135.
Speight, M.R.; Wainhouse, D. 1989. Ecology and management of forest insects. Oxford, U.K., Clarendon Press, 374 pp.
U. Mass (University of Massachusetts). n.d.. Monochamus alternatus Hope (Coleo: Cerambycidae, the pine sawyer. On line: http://www.unix.oit.umass.edu/~baodew/monochamusA.htm.
USDA APHIS (Animal Plant Health Inspection Service). 1991. An efficacy review of control measures for potential pests of imported Soviet timber. Miscellaneous Publication 1496, 28 pp.
USDA APHIS (Animal Plant Health Inspection Service). 1999. Report on risk analysis of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus in the wooden package imported from the United States of America and Japan. Plant Inspection and Quarantine Experimental Institution, On line: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/chinaswp/pra/html.
USDA Forest Service. 1991. Pest risk assessment of the importation of larch from Siberia and the Soviet Far East. Miscellaeous Publication 1495.

AUTHOR(s)
Name(s):
William M. Ciesla


Name and Address of the First Author:
William M. Ciesla
Forest Health Management International
2248 Shawnee Court
Fort Collins, CO
USA 80525



CREATION DATE: 07/12/01
MODIFICATION DATE:

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