PARADOX, PRAXIS AND HARMONY
A Methodological Study of Christian Moral Judgment with Special Reference to Reinhold Niebuhr, Clodovis Boff, and Yin/Yang Hermeneutics
(Dissertation Proposal)
By
Kyung H. Jang
Theology, Ethics, and Culture (Claremont Graduate University)
September 23, 2002
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1 A Method of Christian Moral Judgment
1.1 Human Beings and Judgments
1.2 Christian Morality
1.3 A Method of Christian Moral Judgment
2 PARADOX-Hermeneutics
2.1 Reinhold Niebuhr and Christian Realism
2.2 The Context of Paradox
2.3 Power Politics of Justice toward Agape
3 PRAXIS-Hermeneutics
3.1 Clodovis Boff and Latin American Theology of Liberation
3.2 The Context of Oppression
3.3 Praxis of Liberation toward the Kingdom of God
4 HARMONY (和)-Hermeneutics
4.1 A Theology of Yin
4.2 The Context of Distorted Yin/Yang
4.3 Yin/Yang toward EQUILIBRIUM (中)
5 Case Studies from Korean Context
5.1 The Conflict from Gender (Sex-ism)
5.2 The Conflict from Class (Class-ism)
5.3 The Conflict from Religion (Religion-ism)
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this dissertation is to establish a method of Christian moral judgment in a Far East Asian perspective and to apply it to Far East Asian context of conflicts, for example, from genders, classes, and religions. For constructing the method, I will discuss Christian realism as articulated by Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr and Latin American theology of liberation by Clodovis Boff.
Christian realism and Latin American theology of liberation are some of the main theological paradigms in modern and post-modern theological discourse. The former is concerned with ameliorating reality by pointing out the impossibility of identifying an ideal moral horizon, Agape, with reality. The latter is concerned with revolutionizing reality by pointing out the possibility of identifying an ideal moral horizon, the Kingdom of God,[1] with reality.[2] In this sense, Christian realism and Latin American theology of liberation are standing at the antipodal site.[3] In spite of that, both are evaluated as practical theologies. Maintaining the merits and supplementing the demerits of these two theological paradigms, I will establish a method of Christian moral judgment in the Far East Asian perspective. For this, I will construct an Asian theology of liberation that I will call “a theology of yin” with yin/yang hermeneutics.
In general, a moral judgment is reached after dialogue between an ideal moral horizon that can be applied to the context of conflicts and the context of conflicts where an ideal moral horizon is to be applied. Here, one who is an agent engaged in a moral judgment in a particular context of conflict, reflects on an ideal moral horizon and constructs such and such concrete moral norms that I will call “the form of social ideal.” That agent also analyzes the context of conflicts and gets such and such understandings of the context of conflicts that I will call “the matter of context.”[4] In short, the method of moral judgment is a dialogue between the matter of context that results from analyzing the context of conflicts, and the form of social ideal that comes from reflecting on an ideal moral horizon. If an ideal moral horizon is derived from a Christian theology, it is a Christian moral judgment.
This dissertation is composed of five chapters (in addition to an Introduction and Conclusion), each with three sections. In Chapter One, I will establish a method of Christian moral judgment. In Chapters Two and Three respectively, I, in accordance with the method established in Chapter One, will discuss the methods of Christian moral judgment of both Christian realism and Latin American theology of liberation. In Chapter Four, based on the argumentation of Chapters Two and Three, I will construct a method of Christian moral judgment in Far East Asian perspective based on a theology of yin. Finally, in Chapter Five, I will apply the method developed in Chapter Four to a Korean context of conflicts as an example of Far East Asia, from genders (sex-ism), classes (class-ism), and religions (religion-ism) with specific cases. Let us see each section of these five chapters in more detail.
In Chapter One, A Method of Christian Moral Judgment, I will discuss, in section one, the relationship between human beings and judgments. I will set forth the claim that judgments are an inevitable element in the life of human beings. In fact, all human beings inevitably live with judgments because the world is experienced as a personal, social, and global context of conflicts that we of necessity are forced to judge. For example, do we agree (or disagree) with suicide and euthanasia, vote for the Republican Party or the Democratic Party, support the United States’ Afghanistan attack[5] or not, and so on? Despite the teachings of the Bible that we are not to judge,[6] judgment as such is natural in human life.
In section two, I will discuss Christian morality as the principal human consciousness[7] for a Christian moral judgment. I will claim that Christian morality is constituted of the matter of context, an analyzed context of conflicts, and the form of a social ideal, an ideal moral horizon reflecting a Christian theology. In general, morality is defined as “a set of social or individual rules”[8] or as “a code or view about how we should or should not conduct ourselves.”[9] In my opinion, morality is constituted within the boundary of the matter of context and the form of social ideal. Without these two, one can hardly analyze the morality of a situation. For example, in a modern air war – the so-called button game – a moral claim can hardly be made by the bombardiers who are seated before the many buttons of an instrument panel in a plane and have no moral context such as they would have in the bitter situation of a war waged on the ground. For another example, in the computer cyber space, one can also hardly find a moral ground because the operator does not have the context of a social ideal with norms. Yet many matters of social context do exist in cyber space.
In the case of Christian morality, reflecting on the ideal moral horizon in the light of a Christian theology constitutes a form of social ideal. That is, a particular Christian morality depends a great deal on the kind of theology one embraces. For example, as we shall discuss, for Christian realism, it appears as “the morality of paradox” and for Latin American theology of liberation, as “the morality of praxis.” On the one hand, Christian realism is deontological, reformist, and universal because it emphasizes the impossibility of accomplishing an ideal moral horizon (i.e. Agape) within historical reality, which means the ideal moral horizon is not consequential, and its form of a social ideal is constructed from that. On the other hand, Latin American theology of liberation is teleological, revolutionary, and particular because it emphasizes the possibility of accomplishing an ideal moral horizon (i.e. the Kingdom of God) within historical reality, which means the ideal moral horizon is consequential, and its form of social ideal is constructed from that.
In section three, based on the discussion in section two, I will construct a method of Christian moral judgment; that is, a hermeneutic process with three basic categories—the context of conflicts, the matter of context, and the form of social ideal. Here “the context of conflicts” refers to the general context in which human beings are living, for example, as we shall discuss, the US in Christian realism, Latin America in Latin American theology of liberation, and Far East Asia in a theology of yin. “The matter of context” refers to a concrete context that is disclosed by analysis, for example, the context of paradox in Christian realism, the context of oppression in Latin American theology of liberation, and the context of distorted yin/yang in a theology of yin. “The form of social ideal” refers to an ideal moral horizon discerned and adopted by reflection that should apply to the context of conflicts, for example, power politics of justice toward Agape in Christian realism, praxis of liberation toward the Kingdom of God in Latin American theology of liberation, and yin/yang toward EQUILIBRIUM in a theology of yin. Dealing with dialogues between them, I will present the hermeneutic circularity of the moral judgment: from the context of conflicts to the matter of context by analyzing, from the matter of context to the form of social ideal by reflecting, and from the form of social ideal to the context of conflicts by applying/doing. In short, the context of conflicts, the matter of context, and the form of social ideal make a hermeneutic circle for constructing a moral judgment.
In this hermeneutic circle, these questions will be discussed: how to analyze the context of conflicts (analyzing), how to reflect on an ideal moral horizon and to produce the form of social ideal in the matter of context (reflecting), and how to apply/do the form of social ideal to the context of conflicts (applying/doing). In the process of applying/doing, the issues of universality and particularity, and of deontology and teleology will be discussed. The hermeneutic circle for constructing a moral judgment would look like this:
Analyzing à
|
The Matter of Context |
à Reflecting |
|
Morality
|
¯ |
The Context of Conflicts
|
ß Applying/Doing |
ß The Form of Social Ideal |
Table 1. A Hermeneutic Circle for Making a Moral Judgment
Chapter Two, PARADOX-Hermeneutics, is composed of three sections. In section one, I will research the different stages of Reinhold Niebuhr’s career and discuss the general shapes of Christian realism. Reinhold Niebuhr, who is considered to be one of the very significant figures of 20th century theology, is not only a theologian and philosopher but also “an ethical teacher, a religious politician, and a prophetic preacher,”[10] and is best known for his study of the task of relating the Christian faith to the reality of modern politics and diplomacy. He was a thinker, always analyzing the historical events of his time with his socio-economic, political, theological, and ethical insights. Therefore, for him, theology is “a mode of reflection based on his sense of contemporary events.”[11] Chronologically, he was thought of as four different stages—the liberal, the socialist, the Christian realist, and the pragmatic liberal.[12] The most important figure among them is, in my view, a Christian realist based on Christian realism. Even though he was not the founder of Christian realism,[13] he was surely its most important voice.
Christian realism that appeared against certain elements of the liberal Protestant tradition is based on the “acceptance of facts and ... the analysis of their consequences” and accepts the “irresistible strength of existing forces and the inevitable character of existing tendencies.”[14] Thus, Christian realism points to “the principles of equal power, a just distribution of society’s resources and opportunities, an order that guarantees the social fabric will not be torn by conflicting interests, and a freedom to control that order and release its human potential.”[15] Because of this, the goal of Christian realism is the realization of the lesser evil rather than of the absolute good by sustaining proximate peace and justice[16] in the structure of democracy. Here, what I see as the principal theme of Christian realism is its conviction that an ideal moral horizon such as Agape cannot be established perfectly in the context of conflicts. In this sense, it is realistic, deontological, and universal. In sections two and three, I will deal with the method of Christian moral judgment within Christian realism that I will call “Paradox-hermeneutics.”
In section two, I will research the context of conflicts of the US (and world affairs) when Reinhold Niebuhr was living. From that framework, I will discuss how he analyzed the context in his time; that is, how he regarded the matter of context. I will claim that it was “the context of paradox,” which resulted from the process of his analysis of the context of conflicts of the US (and world affairs) between utopianism and realism.
I will discuss Reinhold Niebuhr’s view of human nature because his two critical views of utopianism and realism are based upon his Biblical view of human nature. According to him, there are two elements of human nature. He was writing,
The essential nature of man contains two elements; and there are correspondingly two elements in the original perfection of man. To the essential nature of man belong, on the one hand, all his natural endowments, and determinations, his physical and social impulses, his sexual and racial differentiations, in short his character as a creature imbedded in the natural order. On the other hand, his essential nature also includes the freedom of his spirit, his transcendence over natural process and finally his self-transcendence.[17]
In short, human beings have two key elements, one as a creature and the other as a creator who has freedom of spirit.[18] From these two elements, Niebuhr reads the context of conflicts of the US (and world affairs). For example, Social Gospel, optimism, idealism, utopianism, socialism, and so on arise from the human tendency as a “creator.” Pragmatism, pessimism, naturalism, and so on arise from the human tendency as a “creature.” Here, he denies on the one hand and accepts on the other hand both perspectives, for example, utopianists and realists, optimists and pessimists, idealists and naturalists, vitalists and romanticists, and laissez-faire and collectivists. Here the former seems to lack a sense of the relative and the latter a sense of the absolute. It is a “paradox” that he identifies the relationship between the two, that is, he regards the context of conflicts as “the context of paradox” at which one cannot stand completely.
In section three, I will discuss how to reflect an ideal moral horizon in the matter of context, that is, what determines the form of a social ideal. It is “power politics of justice toward Agape,” which results from the process of determining how to reflect an ideal moral horizon, Agape.
Reinhold Niebuhr thinks of an ideal moral horizon as sacrificial love, Agape. He is constructing the form of social ideal by reflecting on Agape in relation to justice. He identifies two ideal moral norms: Agape as the final norm and justice as the intermediate norm. For him, it is not possible to identify the final norm of Agape in historical reality without the intermediate norm of justice. Niebuhr said, “The intermediate norm of justice is particularly important in the institutional and collective relationships of mankind. But even in individual and personal relations the ultimate level of sacrificial self-giving is not reached without an intermediate level of justice.”[19] In this sense, for Niebuhr, the method of reflecting an ideal moral horizon is the dialectic of Agape and justice, which comes from the concrete struggle in historical reality for a society based on justice.
For example, after watching the Montgomery boycott for the Afro-American’s human rights, Niebuhr said, “Love is a motive and not a method. Love must always be intent on justice, and the boycott on one of the methods of establishing justice. It is justice, rather than love, which becomes relevant whenever one has to deal with conflicting wills and interests.”[20] He said, “Love must be regarded as the final flower and fruit of justice. When it is substituted for justice it degenerates into sentimentality and may become the accomplice of tyranny.”[21]
For Niebuhr, to construct a better society is to maintain a balance between power and the decentralization of power. In Reflections on the End of An Era, he has written, “It must be radical not only in the realistic nature of its analysis but in its willingness to challenge the injustice of a given social system by setting power against power until a more balanced equilibrium of power is achieved.”[22] For this reason, “power politics of justice toward Agape” is processed in the structures of democracy that involve those elements. His famous axiom that “Man’s capacity for justice makes democracy possible; but man’s inclination to injustice makes democracy necessary”[23] clearly shows his conviction on the necessity of democracy. Applying “power politics of justice toward Agape” to the context of conflicts, I will discuss the issue of teleology and deontology, and of particularity and universality; and claim it is deontological and universal.
Based on the argumentation in this Chapter, I will construct a circle of Paradox-hermeneutics with basic categories of Christian realism. Its basic categories are the US (and world affairs) as the context of conflicts, the context of paradox as the matter of context, and power politics of justice toward Agape as the form of social ideal. Here “the context of paradox” is demonstrated by analyzing the US (and world affairs) and “power politics of justice toward Agape” by reflecting Agape in the context of paradox; consequently, it is applied to the US (and world affairs) again with universal and deontological tendencies. It would look like this:
Utopianism/Realism à (analyzing) |
The Context of Paradox (the matter of context) |
à Agape/Justice(reflecting)
|
|
Morality of Paradox
|
¯ |
The US & (World Affairs) (the context of conflicts) |
ß Universal & Deontological (applying/doing) |
ß Power Politics of Justice toward Agape (the form of social ideal) |
Table 2. A Circle of Paradox-hermeneutics in Christian Realism
Chapter Three, PRAXIS-Hermeneutics, is composed of three sections. In section one, I will research the features of Clodovis Boff and discuss the general themes of Latin American theology of liberation. Clodovis Boff, born in Concordia, Brazil, is a theologian and pastor. As a theologian, he wrote Theology and Praxis: Epistemological Foundations, which formed a milestone in the epistemology of Latin American theology of liberation. I will discuss the method of Christian moral judgment in Latin American theology of liberation which depends on this book. As a pastor, he wrote Feet-on-the-Ground-Theology: A Brazilian Journey, which is a report of his five-month missionary journey among the people of Western Brazil. It shows his sense of “praxis” by depicting the real life of Brazil’s poor and powerless.
One of the most important themes of Latin American theology of liberation is that it does not deal with “the non-Christian” in the sense of traditional Christian mission but with “the non-human” situation of oppression, which resulted from, for example, the class-oppression (class-ism), the racial oppression (race-ism), the gender oppression (sex-ism), and similar kinds of oppressions. Facing this “non-human” situation of oppression, the liberation theologians of Latin America have the conviction that an ideal moral horizon such as the Kingdom of God must and can be established even in the non-human situation of oppression at least up to a point.
With this conviction, they involve themselves in this movement of liberation, that is, they do “praxis” at the side of the oppressed.[24] For this reason, it is called “an ortho-praxis theology” and “a doing theology.” In addition, I will discuss the elements of this inductive way of thinking, preferential option for the poor, particularity, and so on. In sections two and three, I will deal with the method of Christian moral judgment of Latin American theology of liberation that I will call “Praxis-hermeneutics.”
In section two, using Clodovis Boff’s concept of “socio-analytic mediation,”[25] I will research the context of conflicts of Latin America and I will discuss the process of how it is analyzed. In this regard I will discuss Marxism and the theory of dependency, which are the principal tools for analyzing the context of conflicts in Latin America.
Liberation theologians of Latin America think that theology, like other sciences, has need of a series of theoretical instruments. In this sense, Marxism, as a theoretical instrument, is adopted for analyzing the context of conflicts. Boff said, “we must give Marx credit for enabling us to see that a theology (or, antecedently, even a faith) that fails objectively to recognize a given real historical situation and do it justice, necessarily spins out a vacuous discourse [devoid of] any credibility—a ‘mystifying discourse.’”[26] By the same token, the theory of dependency is adopted for analyzing the context of conflicts. It was “more than a new idea”[27] for reading the context of conflicts of Latin America even though it can now be evaluated as an inadequate tool.[28]
After analyzing the context of conflicts of Latin America more deeply with tools such as Marxism and the theory of dependency, one can recognize that the context of conflicts of Latin America is “the context of oppression” which resulted from “the product of economic, social, and political situations and structures.”[29]
In section three, with Clodovis Boff’s concept of “hermeneutic mediation,” I will discuss the process of how to reflect on an ideal moral horizon and to construct the form of a social ideal. Here, “the Kingdom of God” that is an ideal moral horizon of Latin American theology of liberation will be reflected on and a “praxis of liberation toward the Kingdom of God” will be identified as the form of social ideal.
For the Latin American theology of liberation, the Kingdom of God means that “God will rule through dynamic act,” and “God’s purpose will be to modify and establish a determinate order of things.[30]” This conviction leads to participate in a praxis of liberation for and with the oppressed. Out of this social ideal of Latin American theology of liberation emerges what I will call “the praxis of liberation toward the Kingdom of God.”
Moreover, in discussing Boff’s “dialectic of theory and praxis,” I will discuss how “praxis of liberation toward the Kingdom of God” is applied to the context of conflicts of Latin America. Here I, in contrast with Christian realism, will discuss its utopian,[31] teleological and particular tendencies.
Based on the argumentation in this Chapter, I will construct a circle of Praxis-hermeneutics: Latin America as the context of conflicts, the context of oppression as the matter of context, and “praxis of liberation toward the Kingdom of God” as the form of social ideal. Each element is discerned by analyzing, reflecting, and applying/doing. It would look like this:
Marxism/ A Theory of Dependency à (analyzing) |
The Context of Oppression (the matter of context) |
à The Kingdom of God(reflecting) |
|
Morality of Praxis
|
¯ |
Latin America (the context of conflicts) |
ß Particular/Teleological (applying/doing) |
ß Praxis of Liberation toward the Kingdom of God (the form of social ideal) |
Table 3. A Circle of Praxis-hermeneutics in Latin American Theology of Liberation
So far, we have discussed the methods of Christian moral judgment of both Christian realism and the Latin American theology of liberation. The former is universal, deontological, reformist and realistic, and the latter is particular, teleological, revolutionary and utopian. Reflecting on the tendencies of these two theological paradigms, I will construct a method of Christian moral judgment in Far East Asian perspective in Chapter Four.
Chapter Four, HARMONY (和)-Hermeneutics is composed of three sections. In section one, I will construct “a theology of yin” as Far East Asian theology of liberation, from which I will elicit an ideal moral horizon, EQUILIBRIUM (中).
In general, when one comes to speak of liberation theology, there are three kinds of liberation theology, that is, “the black theology” for African-Americans who are oppressed by race-ism, “womanist/feminist theology” for women who are oppressed by sex-ism, and “Latin American theology of liberation” for Latin Americans who are oppressed by class-ism. Three liberation theologies have been developed by sharing and discussing their contexts of oppression, their theological methods of liberation, and their spiritual powers for liberation.
However, the context of Asia has been faraway from the academic alliance with liberation theology despite the fact that race-ism, sex-ism, and class-ism have oppressed most Asians. This is because Asian theologians have focused more on the abstract investigation of Asian religions and less on the dynamic hermeneutics of liberation among them; therefore, there have been few studies of Asian liberation theology.[32] This fact leads me to construct “a theology of yin” as a model of Far East Asian theology of liberation. I will call it “a theology of yin” because it is based on the movement of yin-ness in yin/yang-hermeneutics. Actually, I have no map I can depend on to locate an Asian theology of liberation; therefore, constructing a theology of yin is the result of my own struggle to create such a theological Far East Asian model.
There are three reasons why I think of the symbol of yin/yang[33] as the hermeneutic model for a Far East Asian theology of liberation. The first reason is that yin/yang hermeneutics shows “ceaseless change,” that is, a living hermeneutics. No change is dead. The society in which we are living, and which is an important object of liberation theology, is so vigorous that one cannot theologize it with a rigorous (status quo) hermeneutics. Only a living hermeneutics can deal with the living society, that is, the symbol of yin/yang, which shows ceaseless change. This ceaseless change in yin/yang can be interpreted as the dynamic movement of liberation, that is, the movement from yin-ness to yang-ness and the return from yang-ness to yin-ness.
The second reason is that the yin/yang hermeneutics is mostly embedded in Far East Asian people’s lifestyles.[34] Without the understandings and sharings of the people in the real context, liberation theology can never be liberation theology because liberation as such deals with real people’s lives in a real context. Here, yin/yang can be a good symbol for expressing the traditional, cultural, and philosophical background of Far East Asians.
The third reason is, in my view, that the symbol of yin/yang regards the absolute as EQUILIBRIUM (中) and always moves toward it. Because theology is a discourse about God, the absolute, God reinterpreted by yin/yang-hermeneutics is very understandable for Christians who are living in Far East Asia. The nature of EQUILIBRIUM (中), which is the absolute in a theology of yin, has many spaces to share with the nature of God, the absolute in Christianity.
Why, then, do I make “a theology of yin,” not “a theology of yin/yang?” This is because to say “yin/yang” simultaneously means to stand objective and neutral to both, but to say “yin” or “yang” means to stand on the side of the chosen one. I think despite the fact that the harmony of yin/yang is the objective goal in yin/yang-hermeneutics, nobody can stand at the neutral or objective side but the absolute, EQUILIBRIUM (中). One has to choose one side. Of course, the movement of yin-ness is relatively a movement of yang-ness and vice versa; however, to take one of them is the inevitable nature of human beings. Here I will take in “yin,” not “yin/yang” and construct a theology of “yin,” not of “yin/yang.”
I will develop a theology of yin by reinterpreting the first chapter of the book of Chungyung (中庸)[35] in the light of yin/yang hermeneutics. In Chungyung, the state that is not revealed in yin/yang is called EQUILIBRIUM (中), that is, “while there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind is said to be in the state of EQUILIBRIUM (中).”[36] The EQUILIBRIUM (中) is the great root from which grow all the human acts in the world. In a theology of yin, God will be interpreted as EQUILIBRIUM (中) who/which is the Being/the State beyond yin/yang.
If this EQUILIBRIUM (中) is revealed in the universe perfectly, it is called the HARMONY (和).[37] That is, “When those feelings (pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy) have been stirred, and they act in their due degree, there ensues what may be called the state of HARMONY (和).” This is the perfect harmony of yin/yang. Jesus will be reinterpreted as the HARMONY (和).
The establishment of this HARMONY (和) is called INSTRUCTION (敎), which means to follow the HARMONY (和) of the whole. This means to establish this HARMONY (和) in the world. The Holy Spirit, in a theology of yin, will be reinterpreted as the INSTRUCTION (敎), which is to establish the HARMONY (和; Jesus) and because the HARMONY (和) comes from the EQUILIBRIUM (中; God), the INSTRUCTION (敎) also means to establish the EQUILIBRIUM (中; God), too.
In short, in a theology of yin, God will be reinterpreted as the EQUILIBRIUM (中), which is the Being/the State not revealed in yin/yang, Jesus Christ as the HARMONY (和), which is the perfect harmony of yin/yang, and the Holy Spirit as the INSTRUCTION (敎), which is to follow the HARMONY (和), that is, to follow the perfect harmony of yin/yang.
In sections two and three, I will deal with the method of Christian moral judgment in a theology of yin that I will call “HARMONY (和)-hermeneutics.” As I have argued, the method of Christian moral judgment is a dialogue between the matter of context, an analyzed context of conflicts, and the form of social ideal, a reflected ideal moral horizon based on a Christian theology. For a theology of yin, the matter of context is thought of as “the context of distorted yin/yang,” which is revealed by analyzing the context of conflicts of Far East Asia as the context of conflicts with the symbol of yin/yang; and also, the form of social ideal is thought of as “yin/yang toward EQUILIBRIUM (中),” which is revealed by reflecting an ideal moral horizon, EQUILIBRIUM (中).
In section two, I will analyze the context of conflicts of Far East Asia by using the symbol of yin/yang. Regarding this, I will discuss symbolism focusing on the meaning and power of symbol. I will examine how to analyze a context of conflicts with symbol and construct a method with the symbol of yin/yang. Consequently, I will apply it to the context of conflicts of Far East Asia. Through this, the context of conflicts of Far East Asia will be revealed as the context of distorted yin/yang.
In section three, I will discuss the process of how to construct “yin/yang toward EQUILIBRIUM (中)” as the form of social ideal by reflecting an ideal horizon, EQUILIBRIUM (中). Facing the distorted yin/yang, one can reflect the ideal moral horizon, which comes from the Absolute. Here, the Absolute of the theology of yin is considered as EQUILIBRIUM (中); therefore, I will reflect on the EQUILIBRIUM (中) in the context of distorted yin/yang. Through this reflection the form of social ideal will be revealed, that is, “yin/yang toward EQUILIBRIUM (中).”
Applying/doing it to the context of conflicts of the Far East Asia, I will discuss the issues of teleology and deontology, universality and particularity, and utopianism and realism. Comparing Christian realism and Latin American theology of liberation, I will claim that it has a tendency of teleological deontology, universal particularity, and utopian realism.
Here, based on the argumentation in this Chapter, I will construct a circle of HARMONY (和)-hermeneutics: Far East Asia as the context of conflicts, the context of distorted yin/yang as the matter of context, and yin/yang toward EQUILIBRIUM (中) as the form of social ideal. Here each of them is discerned by analyzing, reflecting, and applying/doing. It would look like this:
Symbolism: Yin/Yang à (analyzing) |
The Context of Distorted Yin/Yang (the matter of context) |
à EQUILIBRIUM (中)(reflecting)
|
|
Morality of Harmony (和)
|
¯ |
The Far East Asia (the context of conflicts)
|
ß Universal Particularity/ Teleological Deontology (applying/doing) |
ß Yin/Yang toward EQUILIBRIUM (中) (the form of social ideal) |
Table 4. A Circle of HARMONY (和)-hermeneutics in a Theology of Yin
In Chapter Five, I will do case studies in accordance with HARMONY (和)-hermeneutics constructed in Chapter Four. Here I will deal with three specific cases of the Korean context of conflicts from genders, classes, and religions; those are sex-ism, class-ism, and religion-ism. In the Conclusion, with a brief summary, I will close with some comments on what I have discussed in this dissertation.
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Habermas, Jürgen. The Theory of Communicative Action Volume One: Reason and the Rationalization of Society. Boston: Beacon Press 1984.
Happern, Diane F. Thought & Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1996.
Hick, John., & Knitter, Paul F. eds. The Myth of Christian Uniqueness: Toward a Pluralistic Theology of Religions. New York: Orbis Books, 1994.
Hinze, Christine Firer. Comprehending Power in Christian Social Ethics. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1995.
Holm, Jean. ed. Making Moral Decision. New York: Pinter Publishers, 1994.
Ingram, David., & Ingram, Julia Simon. eds. Critical Theory: The Essential Readings. New York: Paragon House, 1991.
Johnson, James T. Johnson, & Smith, David H. eds. Love and Society: Essays in the Ethics of Paul Ramsey. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1974.
Johnson, James T., & Smith, David H. eds. Love and Society: Essays in the Ethics of Paul Ramey. Missoula, Montana: American Academy of Religion and Scholars Press, 1974.
Kaufmann, Gordon D. An Essay on Theological Method. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1975.
Kaufmann, Gordon D. In Face of Mistery: A Constructive Theology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1993.
Knitter, Paul F. ed. Pluralism and Oppression: Theology in World Perspective. (Lanham, New York: University Press of America, 1988.
Lee, Sang Hun. Fundamentals of Unification Thought. Tokyo, Japan: Unification Thought Institution, 1991.
Lehmann, Paul L. Ethics in a Christian Context. New York and Evanston: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1963.
McCormick, Richard A. S. J., & Ramsey, Paul. eds. Doing Evils to Achieve Good: Moral Choice in Conflict Situations. Chicago, Illinois: Loyola University Pres, 1978.
McFague, Sallie. Models of God: Theology for an Ecological, Nuclear Age. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987.
McGrath, Patrick. The Nature of Moral Judgment: A Study in Contemporary Moral Philosophy. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1967.
Mouw, Richard J., & Griffioen, Sander. Pluralism & Horizons: An Essay in Christian Public Philosophy. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1994.
Niebuhr, Reinhold. An Interpretation of Christian Ethics. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1963.
Niebuhr, Reinhold. Moral Man and Immoral Society. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1960.
Niebuhr, Reinhold. The Nature and Destiny of Man: A Christian Interpretation Volume I. Human Nature. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1964.
Niebuhr, Reinhold. The Nature and Destiny of Man: A Christian Interpretation Volume II. Human Destiny. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1964.
Outka, Gene H., & Ramsey, Paul. eds. Norm and Context in Christian Ethics. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1968.
Parratt, John. A Guide to Doing Theology. London: SPCK, 1996.
Ramsey, Paul. (with an Epilogue by Stanley Hauerwas). Speak Up for Just War or Pacifism A Critique of the United Methodist Bishops Pastoral Letter "In Defense of Creation." University Park and London: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1988.
Ramsey, Paul. Christian Ethics and the Sit-In. New York: Association Press, 1961.
Ramsey, Paul. Deeds and Rules in Christian Ethics. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1967.
Ramsey, Paul. ed. Faith and Ethics: The Theology of H. Richard Niebuhr. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1957.
Ramsey, Paul. Nine Modern Moralists. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
Ramsey, Paul. The Truth of Value: A Defense of Moral and Literary Judgment. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1985.
Raschke, Carl. Theological Thinking: An In-quiry. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1988.
Ritschl, Dietrich. The Logic of Theology: A Brief account of the relationship between basic concepts in theology. London: SCM Press, 1986.
Scharlemann, Robert P. ed. Theology at the End of the Century: A Dialogue on the Postmodern with Thomas J. J. Altizer, Mark C. Taylor, Charles E. Winquist and Robert P. Scharlemann. Charlottesville and London: University Press of Virginia, 1990.
Schwartz, Kaplan. Human Judgment and Decision Processes in Applied Settings. New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1977)
Sellers, Wilfrid. & Hospers, John. eds. Readings in Ethical Theory. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970.
Siker, Jeffrey S. Scripture and Ethics: Twentieth-Century Portraits. New York Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Silverman, Hugh J., & Welton, Donn. eds. Postmodernism and Continental Philosophy. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1988.
Sontag, Jones Frederick., Beckner, Morton O., & Fogelin, Robert J. eds. Approaches to Ethics: Representative Selections from Classical Times to the Present. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1962.
Stivers, Robert L., Gudorf, Christine E., Evans, Alice Frazer., & Evans, Robert A. eds. Christian Ethics: A Case Method Approach. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1994.
Taylor, Mark C. About Religion: Economies of Faith in Virtual Culture. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1999.
Taylor, Mark C., & Saarinen, Esa. iMAGOLOGIES: Media Philosophy. New York: Routledge, 1994.
Taylor, Paul W. ed. The Moral Judgment: Readings in Contemporary Meta-Ethics. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963.
Taylor. Mark C. Erring: A Postmodern A/theology. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1984.
Thiselton, Anthony C. Interpreting God and the Postmodern Self: On Meaning, Manipulation and Promise. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1995.
Tilley, Terrence W. Postmodern Theologies. (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1995.
Varela, Francisco J. Ethical Know-How: Action, Wisdom, and Cognition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999.
Viladesau, Richard. Theological Aesthetics: God in Imagination, Beauty, and Art. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Wogaman, J. Phillip. Christian Ethics: A Historical Introduction. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993.
Wogaman, J. Phillip. Christian Moral Judgment. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1989.
Wogaman, J. Phillip. Christian Perspectives on Politics. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1988.
Wogaman, J. Phillip. Economics and Ethics: A Christian Inquiry. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986.
Wogaman, J. Phillip. Faith and Fragmentation: Christianity for a New Age. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985.
Wogaman, J. Phillip. Methodism"s Challenge in Race Relations: A Study of Strategy. Washington D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1960.
Wogaman, J. Phillip. Protestant Faith and Religious Liberty. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1967.
Wogaman, J. Phillip. The Great Economic Debate: An Ethical Analysis. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1977.
2. The Theology of Liberation in Latin America
Aquino, Maria Pilar. Our Cry for Life: Feminist Theology from Latin America. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1993.
Batstone, David., Mendieta, Eduardo., Lorentzen, Lois Ann., & Hopkins, Dwight N. eds. Liberation Theologies, Postmodernity, and the Americas. London and New York: Routledge, 1997.
Berryman, Phillip. Liberation Theology: The Essential Facts About the Revolutionary Movement in Latin America and Beyond. New York: Pantheon Books, 1987.
Beverley, John., Oviedo, Jose., & Aronna, Michael. eds. The Postmodernism Debate in Latin America. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1995.
Boff, Clodovis. Theology and Praxis: Epistemological Foundations. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1987.
Boff, Leonardo. & Boff, Clodovis. Introducing Liberation Theology. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1987.
Boff, Leonardo. Church: Charism and Power: Liberation Theology and the Institutional Church. New York: Crossroad, 1985.
Boff, Leonardo. Ecclesiogenesis: The Base Communities Reinvent the Church. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1986.
Boff, Leonardo. Trinity and Society. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1988.
Brown, Robert McAfee. Theology in a New Key: Responding to Liberation Themes. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1978.
Dussel, Enrique. Ethics and Community. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1986.
Dussel, Enrique. Ethics and the Theology of Liberation. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1978.
Dussel, Enrique. Philosophy of Liberation. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1985.
Dussel, Enrique. The Invention of the Americas: Eclipse of "the Other" and the Myth of Modernity. New York: Continuum, 1995.
Dussel, Enrique. The Underside of Modernity: Apel, Ricoeur, Rorty, Taylor, and the Philosophy of Liberation. New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1996.
Ellacuria, Ignacio S. J. & Sobrino, Jon S.J. eds. Mysterium Liberationis: Fundamental Concepts of Liberation Theology. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1993.
Ferm, Dean W. ed. Third World Liberation Theologies. New York: Orbis Books, 1986.
Gutierrez, Gustavo. A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1988.
Gutierrez, Gustavo. The God of Life. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1989.
Gutierrez, Gustavo. We Drink from Our Own Wells: The Spiritual Journey of a People. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1984.
King, Ursula. ed. Feminist Theology from the Third World: A Reader. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1994.
Min, Anselm Kyongsuk. Dialectic of Salvation: Issues in Theology of Liberation. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989.
Min, Anselm Kyungsuk. Praxis and Liberation: Toward a Theology of Concrete Totality. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI, 1989.
Nagle, Robin. Claiming the Virgin: The Broken Promise of Liberation Theology in Brazil. New York & London: Routledge, 1997.
Rowland, Christopher. ed. The Cambridge Companion to Liberation Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Schubeck, Thomas L. S.J. Liberation Ethics: Sources, Models, and Norms. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.
Segundo, Juan Luis. Faith and Ideologies. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1984.
Segundo, Juan Luis. The Liberation of Theology. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1979.
Sobrino, Jon. Jesus in Latin America. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Book, 1982.
Tamez, Elsa. ed. Through Her Eyes: Women"s Theology from Latin America. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1989.
Tesfai, Yacob. Liberation and Orthodoxy: The Promise and Failures of Interconfessional Dialogue. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1996.
3. African (Afro-American), Womanist, & Cultural Studies
Ayvazian, Andrea. & Tatum, Beverly Daniel. Work in Progress: Woman, Race and Racism: A Dialogue in Black and White. Wellesly, MA: Wellesley College, 1994.
Baker-Fletcher, Garth Kasimu. Xodus: An African American Male Journey. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996.
Baker-Fletcher, Garth Kasimu. ed. Black Religion after the Million Man March: Voices on the Future. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1998.
Baker-Fletcher, Karen. & Baker-Fletcher, Garth KASIMU. My Sister, My Brother: Womanist and Xodus God-Talk. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1997.
Baker-Fletcher, Karen. Sisters of Dust, Sisters of Spirit: Womanist Wordings on God and Creation. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998.
Barnes, Michael. Christian Identity and Religious Pluralism: Religions in Conversation. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1989.
Cailliet, Emile. The Christian Approach to Culture. Nashville: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1953.
Cannon, Katie G. & Heyward, Carter. Work in Progress: Alienation and Anger: A Black and a White Woman"s Struggle for Mutuality in an Unjust World. Wellesley, MA: The Stone Center, Wellesley College, 1992.
Cannon, Katie G. Black Womanist Ethics. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1988.
Cannon, Katie G. Katie"s Canon: Womanism and the Soul of the Black Community. New York: Continuum, 1995.
Cannon, Katie G., Harrison, Beverly W., Heyward, Carter., Isasi-Diaz, Ada Maria., Johnson, Bess B., Pellauer, Mary D., & Richardson, Nancy D. eds, God"s Fierce Whimsy: Christian Feminism and Theological Education. New York: The Pilgrim Press, 1985.
Carson, D. A. & Woodbridge, John D. eds. God and Culture: Essays in Honor of Carl F. H. Henry. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1993.
Cell, Edward. ed. Religion and Contemporary Western Culture. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1967.
Collins, Patricia Hill. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge, 1991.
Collins, Patricia Hill. Fighting words: Black Women & the Search for Justice. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998.
Cone, James H. & Wilmore, Gayraud S. eds. Black Theology: A Documentary History Volume I 1966-1979. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1993.
Cone, James H. & Wilmore, Gayraud S. eds. Black Theology: A Documentary History Volume II 1980-1992. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1993.
Dines, Gail & Humez, Jean M. eds. Gender, Race and Class in Media: A Text-Reader. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 1995.
Elliot. Notes toward the Definition of Culture. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1949.
English, Parker. & Malumba, Kibujjo M. African Philosophy: A Classical Approach. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996.
Eze, Emmanuel Chukwudi. ed. Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1997.
Fadner, Donald E. The Responsible God: A Study of the Christian Philosophy of H. Richard Niebuhr. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1975.
Fenow, Mary Margaret. & Cook, Judith A. eds. Beyond Methodology: Feminist Scholarship as Lived Research. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Pres, 1991.
Fowler, James W. To See The Kingdom: The Theological Vision of H. Richard Niebuhr. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1974.
Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. United States of America: BasicBooks, 1973.
Godsey, John D. The Promise of H. Richard Niebuhr. Philadelphia and New York: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1970.
Golden, Marita. & Shreve, Susan Richards. eds. Skin Deep: Black Women & White Women Write About Race. New York: Doubleday, 1995.
Grant, C. David. God The Center of Value: Value Theory in the Theology of H. Richard Niebuhr. Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1984.
Grant, Jacquelyn. ed. Perspectives on Womanist Theology. Black Church Scholars Series Volume VII.
Greinacher, Norbert. and Mette, Nobert. eds. Christianity and Cultures. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1994.
Hoedemaker, Libertus A. ed. The Theology of H. Richard Niebuhr. New York City, New York: The Pilgrim Press, 1970.
Hooks, Bell. & West, Cornel. Breaking Bread: Insurgent Black Intellectual Life. Boston, MA: South End Prress, 1991.
Hooks, Bell. Ain"t I A Woman: black women and feminism. Boston, MA: South End Press, 1981.
Hooks, Bell. Black Looks. Boston, MA: South End Press, 1992.
Hooks, Bell. Feminist Theory: from margin to center. Boston, MA: South End Press, 1984.
Hooks, Bell. Reel to Real: Race, Sex, and Class at the Movies. New York: Routledge, 1996.
Hooks, Bell. Sisters of the Yam: black women and self-recovery. Boston, MA: South End Press, 1993.
Hooks, Bell. Talking Back: thinking feminist, thinking black. Boston, MA: South End Press, 1989.
Hooks, Bell. Wounds of Passion: A Writing Life. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1997.
Hooks, Bell. Yearning: race, gender, and cultural politics. Boston, MA: South End Press, 1990.
Hopkins, Dwight N. & Davaney, Sheila Greeve. eds., Changing Convesations: Religious Reflection and Cultural Analysis. New York and London: Routledge, 1996.
Hountondji, Paulin Jesus. African Philosophy: Myth and Reality. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1983.
Irish, Jerry A. The Religious Thought of H. Richard Niebuhr. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1983.
James, George G. M. Stolen Legacy: Greek Philosophy Is Stolen Egyptian Philosophy. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press, 1992.
Johnson, William Stacy. ed. H. Richard Niebuhr: Theology, History, and Culture: Major Unpublished Writings. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996.
Karenga, Maulana. & Carruthers, Jacob. eds. Kemet and the African Worldview: Research, Rescue and Restoration. Los Angeles: University of Sankore Press, 1986.
Karenga, Maulana. Introduction to Black Studies. Los Angeles, California: Kawaida Publications, 1982.
Karenga, Maulana. Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community and Culture. Los Angeles: University of Sankore Press, 1998.
Karenga, Maulana. The Book of Coming Forth By Day: The Ethics of the Declarations of Innocence. Los Angeles, California: University of Sankore Press, 1990.
Kimmerle, Heinz. & Wimmer, Franz M. eds. Philosophy and Democracy in Intercultural Perspective. Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1997.
Kraft, Charles H. Christianity in Culture: A Study in Dynamic Biblical Theolozing in Cross-Cultural Perspective. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1979.
Langer, Susanne K. Philosophy in a New Key: A Study in the Symbolism of Reason, Rite, and Art. Cambridge, Massachusetts: HArvard University Press, 1996.
Malson, Micheline Ramsey., Mudimbe-Boyi, Elisabeth., O'Barr, Jean F., & Wyer, Mary. eds. Black Women in America: Social Science Perspective. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Masolo, African Philosophy in Search of Identity. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1994.
McCurdy, David W. & Spradley, James P. Issues in Cultural Anthropology: Selected Readings. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1979.
McDonald, Trevy. & Ford-Ahmed, F. Nature of a Sistuh: Black Women"s Lived Experiences in Contemporary Culture. Durham, North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press, 1999.
McGuigan, Jim. ed. Cultural Methodologies. London: Sage Publications, 1997.
Mosley, Albert G. ed. African Philosophy: Selected Reading. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995.
Mosley, Walter., Diawara, Manthia., Taylor, Clyde., & Austin, Regina. eds. Black Genius: African American Solutions to African American Problems. New York/ London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1999.
Mudimbe. The Idea of Africa. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1994.
Mudimbe. The Invention of Africa. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1988.
Nicholls, Bruce J. Contextualization: A Theology of Gospel and Culture. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 1979.
Niebuhr, H. Richard. Christ and Culture. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1951.
Niebuhr, H. Richard. Radical Monotheism and Western Culture: With Supplementary Essays. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1960.
Niebuhr, H. Richard. The Meaning of Revelation. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1941.
Niebuhr, H. Richard. The Responsible Self: An Essay in Christian Moral Philosophy. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1963.
Niebuhr, R. Richard. ed., Faith on Earth: An Inquiry into the Structure of Human Faith by H. Richard Niebuhr. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1989.
Ogbonnaya, Okechukwu. On Communitarian Divinity: An African Interpretation of the Trinity. New York: Paragon House, 1994.
Palma, Robert J. Karl Barth"s Theology of Culture: The Freedom of Culture for the Praise of God. Allison, Pennsylvania, 1983.
Panikkar, Raimundo. Myth, Faith, and Hermeneutics: A Cross-Cultural Studies. New York: Paulist Press, 1979.
Pobee, John S. Toward African Theology. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1979.
Prokhovinik, Raia. Rational Woman: A Feminist Critique of Dichotomy. London and New York: Routledge, 1999.
Riggs, Marcia Y. Awake, Arise, & Act: A Womanist Call for Black Liberation. Cleveland, Ohio: The Pilgrim Press, 1994.
Riley, Dorothy Winbusg. ed. The Complete KWANZAA: Celebrating Our Cultural Harvest. New York: HarperCollins, 1995.
Roberts, Deotis. The Prophethood of Black Believers: An African American Political Theology for Ministry. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994.
Saunders, George R. ed. Culture and Christianity: The Dialectics of Transformation. New York: Greenwood Press, 1988.
Scriven, Charles. The Transformation of Culture: Christian Social Ethics after H. Richard Niebuhr. Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Herald Press, 1988.
Serequeberhan, Tsenay. The Hermeneutics of African Philosophy: Horizon and Discourse. New York, London: Routledge, 1994.
Serequeberhan, Tsenay. ed. African Philosophy: The Essential Readings. New York: Paragon House, 1991.
Shorter, Aylward. Toward a Theology of Inculturation. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1988.
Slevin, Kethleen F. & Wingrove, C. Ray. From Stumbling Blocks to Stepping Stones: The Life Experiences of Fifty Professional African American Women. New York & London: New York University Press, 1998.
Storey, John. An Introductory Guide to Cultural Theory and Popular Culture. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1993.
Taylor, Mark Kline. Remembering Esperanza: A Cultural-Political Theology for North American Praxis. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1990.
Thiemann, Ronald F. ed. The Legacy of H. Richard Niebuhr. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991.
Thompson, John B. Ideology and Modern Culture. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1990.
Tillich, Paul. Theology of Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959.
Townes, Emilie M. In a Blaze of Glory: Womanist Spirituality as Social Social Witness. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995.
Townes, Emilie M. Womanist Judgment, Womanist Hope. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1993.
Townes, Emilie M. ed. A Troubling in My Soul: Womanist Perspectives on Evil & Suffering. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1995.
Vaz, Kim Marie. ed. Black Women in America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 1995.
Wallace, Michele. Invisibility Blues: From Pop to Theory. London & New York: Verso, 1990.
Williams, Delores S. Sisters in the Wilderness: The Challenge of Womanist God-Talk. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1993.
Wiredu, Kwasi. Cultural Universals and Particulars: An African Perspective. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1996.
Witt, Doris. Black Hunger: Food and the Politics of U.S. Identity. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Young, Joshia Ulysses III. A Pan-African Theology: Providence and the Legacies of the Ancestors. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press, 1992.
Walker Alice. In Search of Our Mother"s Garden. New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1983
4. Asian Thought--Taoism, Yin/yang Hermeneutics, Chungyung, & Minjung
Anthony, Carol K. The Philosophy of the I Ching. Stow, Massachusetts: Anthony Publishing Company, 1981.
Chan, Po-tuan. The Inner Teachings of Taoism. Boston & London: Shambhala, 1986.
Chang, Chung-Yuan. Creativity & Taoism : A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art, & Poetry. New York: The Julian Press, 1963.
Cheng, Man-jan. Lao-Tzu: "My Words are very easy to understand." (淚子易知解). Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books, 1981.
Creel, Herrlee G. What Is Taoism? and Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1970.
Dawson, Miles Menander. The Ethics of Confucius:The Sayings of the Master and His Disciple Upon the Conduct of "The Superior Man. New York & London: The Knickerbocker /press, 1915.
The Doctrine of the Mean in Four Books. Shanghai, China: The Chinese Book Company, 1930.
Dow, Tsung-I. Confucianism vs. Marxism: An Analytical Comparison of the Confucian and Marxian Theories of Knowledge--Dialectical Materialism. Washington: University Press of America, 1977.
Fung, Yu-lan & Bodde, Derk. eds. A Short History of Chinese Philosophy. New York: The Free Press, 1966.
Girardot. Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism: The Theme of Chaos (hun-tun). Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1983.
Gotshalk, Richard. The Beginnings of Philosophy in China. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1999.
Hall, David L. & Ames, Roger T. Thinking Through Confucius. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1987.
Hsu, Leonard Shihlien. The Political Philosophy of Confucianism: An Interpretation of the Social and Political Ideas of Confucius, His Forerunners, and His Early Disciples. London: George Routledge & sons, Ltd., 1932.
Kaltenmark, Max. Lao Tzu and Taoism. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1969.
Kim, Chiha. Bop (밥). Seoul: Bundo Press, 1984.
Kim, Chiha. Mo-Ro Nu-Un Dol-Bu-Chyeo (모로 누운 돌부처). Seoul: Nanam Press, 1992.
Kim, Chiha. Nam-Nyuk-Tang Bet-No-Rae (남녘땅 뱃노래). Seoul: Doore Press, 1985.
Kim, Chiha. Ong-Chi-Kyuk (옹치격). Seoul: Sol Press, 1993.
Kim, Chiha. Saeng-Myung (생명). Seoul: Sol Press, 1995.
Kim, Chiha. Saeng-Myung-Kwa Ja-Chi: Saeng-Myung-Sa-Sang. Saeng-Myung-Un-Dong-I-Ran Mu-Eot-In-Ka (생명과 자치: 생명사상.생명운동이란 무엇인가). Seoul: Sol Press, 1996.
Kim, Chiha. Sal-Rim (살림). Seoul: Dongkwang Press, 1987.
Kim, Chiha. Ta-Nun Mok-Ma-RumEo-Suh Saeng-Myung-Eui Ba-Da-Ro (타는 목마름에서 생명의 바다로) Seoul: Dongkwang Press, 1991
Kohn, Livia. & LaFargue, Michael. eds. Lao-tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1998.
Kohn, Livia. God of the Dao: Lord Lao in History and Myth. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, 1998.
Kohn, Livia. Taoist Mystical Philosophy: The Scripture of Western Ascension. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1991.
Koyama, Kosuke. Mount Fuji and Mount Sinai: A Critique of Idols. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1985.
Lee, Jung Young. Marginality: The Key to Multicultural Theology. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995.
Lee, Jung Young. Patterns of Inner Process. Secaucus N.J.: The Citadel Press, 1976.
Lee, Jung Young. The Theology of Change: A Christian Concept of God in an Eastern Perspective. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1979.
Lee, Jung Young. The Trinity in Asian Perspective. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996.
Li, Chenyang. The Tao Encounters the West: Explorations in Comparative Philosophy. Albany: State University of New York, 1999.
McNaughton, William. ed. The Confucian Vision. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1974.
Moon, Cyris H.S. A Korean Minjung Theology: An Old Testament Perspective. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1985.
Moore, Charles A. ed. The Chinese Mind: Essentials of Chinese Philosophy and Culture. Honolulu: East-West Center Press, University of Hawaii, 1967.
Park, Andrew Sung. Racial Conflict & Healing: An Asian-American Theological Perspective. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1996.
Park, Andrew Sung. The Wounded Heart of God: The Asian Concept of Han and the Christian Doctrine of Sin. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1993.
Pieris, Aloysius S.J. An Asian Theology of Liberation. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1988.
Song, Choan-Seng. & Wilmore, Gayraud. Asians & Blacks. Bangkok, Thailand: East Asia Christian Conference, 1973.
Song, Choan-Seng. Christian Mission in Reconstruction: An Asian Analysis. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1977.
Song, Choan-Seng. I Confessing Our Feminist Around the World (Faith and Order Paper No. 104). Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1980.
Song, Choan-Seng. Jesus and the Reign of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.
Song, Choan-Seng. Jesus, the Crucified People. New York: Crossroad, 1990.
Song, Choan-Seng. Tell Us Our Names: Story Theology from an Asian Perspective. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1984.
Song, Choan-Seng. The Tears of Lady Meng: A Parable of People"s Political Theology. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1982.
Song, Choan-Seng. Theology from the Womb of Asia. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1986.
Song, Choan-Seng. Third-Eye Theology. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1979.
Song, Choan-Seng. ed. Doing Theology Today. Mysore: The Christian Literature Society, 1976.
Starr, Frederick. Confucianism: Ethics. Philosophy. Religion. New York: Covici Friede Publishers, 1930.
Surgirtharajah ed. Asian Faces of Jesus. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1993.
Weber, Max. The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1951.
Welch, Holmes. Taoism: The Parting of the Way. Boston: Beacon Press, 1965.
Wilhelm, Hellmut. Change: Eight Lectures on the I Ching. New York & Evanston: Harper Torchbooks, 1960.
Wong, Eva. Lieh-Tzu: A Taoist Guide to Practical Living. Boston & London: Shambhala, 1995.
5. Articles
1) Modernism/Postmodernism, Judgment, & General Ethics
[Modernism/Postmodernism]
Greg Johnson, "Process Philosophy as Postmodern?: A Reading of David Griffin," in American Journal of Theology & Philosophy Vol. 19, No. 3, September 1998: 255-73
John B. Cobb, "Two Types of Postmodernism: Deconstruction and Process," in Theology Today Volume XLVII Number 2 July 1990: 149-58
John D. Vogelsang, "Doing the Right Thing in a Postmodern Society," in Quarterly Review: A Journal of Theological Resources for Ministry Volume 12 Number 4 Winter 1992: 3-14
Joseph Grunfeld, "Derrida's Deconstruction," in Science et Esprit Volume XLV Fascicule 2 Mai-Septembre 1993: 213-224
Leonard I. Sweet, "Straddling Modernism and Postmodernism," in Theology Today Volume XLVII Number 2 July 1990: 159-64
Lloyd Steffen, "A Postmodern Ethic?: The Case of Deconstruction," in Religious Humanism Volume XXVII Number 1 Winter 1993: 3-11, & 25
Nancey Murphy and James Wm. McClendon, Jr., "Distinguishing Modern and Postmodern Theologies," in Modern Theology Volume 5 Number 3 April 1989: 191-214
Paul Lorenzen, "Enlightenment and Reason," in Continuum Volume Eight Number 1 Spring-Summer 1970: 3-11
Robert Detweiler, "No Place to Start: Introducing Deconstruction," in Religion & Intellectual Life Volume V Number 2 Winter 1988: 7-21
Theodore A. Turnau III, "Speaking in a Broken Tongue: Postmodernism, Principled Pluralism, and the Rehabilitation of Public Moral Discourse," in The Westminster Theological Journal Volume 56 Number 2 Fall 1994: 345-77
[Judgment ]
Bruce Russell, "The Persistent Problem of Evil," in Faith and Philosophy Volume 6 Number 2 April 1989: 121-39
David O'Connor, "Swinburne On Natural Evil," in Religious Studies Volume 19 Number 1 March 1983: 65-73
Dermot J. Archer, "Tolstoy's God Sees the Truth, But Waits: A Reflection," in Religious Studies Volume 21 Number 1 March 1985: 75-89
Dom Illtyd Trethowan, "Ethics and Religion," in The Downside Review Volume 86 Number 283 April 1968: 105-20
Durwood Foster, Jr., "The Problem of Understanding Evil," in Religion in Life Volume XXXVIII Number 4 Winter 1969: 555-69
Edward Collins Vacek, "Divorce: Making Moral Decision," in Anglican Theological Review Volume LXX Number 4 October 1988: 310-26
Eleonore Stump, "Knowledge, Freedom and the Problem of Evil," in Philosophy of Religion Volume 14 Number 1 1983: 49-58
Eleonore Stump, "The Problem of Evil," in Faith and Philosophy Volume 2 Number 4 October 1985: 392-423
Frederick Sontag, "God and Evil," in Religion in Life Volume XXXIV Number 2 Spring 1965: 215-223
Gerald M. Gillmore and John E. Hunter, "Legalism, Antinomianism, Situationism: Three Moral Decision-Making Orientations," in Review of Religious Research Volume 16 Number 1 Fall 1974: 2-9
Harold Netland, "Exclusivism, Tolerance, and Truth," in Missiology, Volume XV Number 2 April 1987: 77-95
Jeffrey Wattles, "Levels of Meaning in the Golden Rule," in The Journal of Religious Ethics Volume 15 Number 1 Spring 1987: 106-32
John F. Harvey, "Law and Personalism," in Communio Volume II Number 1 Spring 1975: 54-72
John Stoudenmire, "Situation Ethics and Transactional Analysis," in Journal of Religion and Health Volume 15 Number 4 October 1976: 297-300
Joseph J. Blau, "Evil in Popular Medieval Judaism," in Union Seminary Quarterly Review Volume XXXVII Numbers 1-2 Fall/Winter 1981-1982: 115-24
Michael J. Coughlan, "The Free Will Defence and Natural Evil," in Philosophy of Religion Vol. 20, Nos. 2-3, 1986: 93-108
Michael Levine "Swinburne's Heaven: One Hell of a Place," in Religious Studies Volume 29 Number 4 December 1993: 519-31
Peter Geach, "The Moral Law and the Law of God," in God and the Soul, Peter Grach, (New York: Schocken Books, 1969): 117-29
Quentin Smith, "An Atheological Argument from Natural Evil," in Philosophy of Religion Volume 29 Number 3 1991: 159-74
Ray, "Rendering Judgment on Wittgenstein's 'Last Judgment,'" in Encounter Volume 51 Number 3 Summer 1990: 209-25
Robert J. Richman, "The Argument from Evil," in Religious Studies Volume 4 Number 2 April 1969: 203-11
Sidney Callahan, "Does Gender Make a Difference in Moral Decision Making?," in Second Opinion Volume 17 Number 2 October 1991: 67-77
Stephen J. Wykstra, "The Humean Obstacle to Evidential Arguments from Suffering: On Avoiding the Evils of 'Appearance,'" in Philosophy of Religion Volume 16 Number 2 1984: 73-93
Stephen Palmquist, "Four Perspectives on Moral Judgement: The Rational Principles of Jesus and Kant," in The Heythrop Journal Volume XXXII Number 2 April 1991: 216-232
Terence R. Anderson, "The Use of the Bible in Moral Decision-Making," in Touchstone Volume 6 Number 3 September 1988: 18-28
Terrence W. Tilley, "The Use and Abuse of Theodicy," in Horizons Volume 11 Number 2 Fall 1984: 304-19
Vincent Brummer, "Moral Sensitivity and the Free Will Defence," in Zeitschriftenschau 29 Heft 1 Band 1987: 86-100
William Strawson, "Moral Freedom and the Reality of Moral Judgement," in The London Quarterly & Holborn Review April 1962: 85-9
[General Ethics]
Alvin Pitcher & Gibson Winter, "Perspectives in Religious Social Ethics," in The Journal of Religious Ethics Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 1977: 69-89
Bruce J. Malina, "Wealth and Poverty in the New Testament and Its World," in Interpretation Volume XLI Number 4 October 1987: 354-67
Charles E. Harris, Jr., "Love as the Basic Moral Principle in Paul Ramsey's Ethics," in The Journal of Religious Ethics Volume Four, Fall 1976: 239-58
Christine Firer Hinze, "Power in Christian Ethics: Resources and Frontiers for Scholarly Exploration," in The Annual: of the Society of Christian Ethics, 1992: 277-90
Dan W. Dodson, "The Church, Power, and Saul Alinsky," in Religion in Life Volume XXXVI Number 1 Spring 1967: (108-18)
Donald E. Gowan, "Wealth and Poverty in the Old Testament: The Case of the Widow, the Orphan, and the Sojourner," in Interpretation Volume XLI Number 4 October 1987: 341-53
J. Philip Wogaman, "Acting from Theological Roots: An appraisal of the church influence in technological society," in Engage/Social Action Volume 1 Number 11 November 1973: 44-53
Laura Shanner, "Power-Over and Power-To: Human Reproduction and Insights from Taoism," in Second Opinion Volume 20 Number 3 January 1995: 11-21
M.P. Joseph, "An Ethical Critique of the Concepts of Wealth and Poverty in the Bible," in The Asia Journal of Theology Volume 9 Number 1 April 1995: 123-32
Max L. Stackhouse, "What Then Shall We Do?: On Using Scripture in Economic Ethics," in Interpretation Volume XLI Number 4 October 1987: 382-97
Michael Lessnoff, "Weber's Two Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism," in The Scottish Journal of Religious Studies Volume IV Number 2 Autumn 1983: 77-106
Per Frostin, "The Hermeneutics of the Poor--The Epistemological 'Break' in Third World Theologies," in Studia Theologica Vol 39 No. 2 (1985): 127-150
Philip Wogaman, "Religion and 'Culture War,'" in Christian Social Action Vol. 9 No. 1 January 1996: 34
Rebecca H. Weaver, "Wealth and Poverty in the Early Church," in Interpretation Volume XLI Number 4 October 1987: 368-81
Roland Robertson, "The Economization of Religion? Reflections on the Promise and Limitations of the Economic Approach," in Social Compass Volume 39 Number 1 1992: 147-57
Wilfred Tooley, "Stewards of God," in Scottish Journal of Theology Volume 19 Number 1 March 1966: 74-86
William R. O'Neill, S.J., "No Amnesty for Sorrow: The Privilege of the Poor in Christian Social Ethics," in Theological Studies Volume 55 Number 4 December 1994: 638-656
2. The Theology of Liberation of Latin America
Carnegie Samuel Calian, "Marxist Means and Christian Ends: Toward a Philosophical Theology of Hope," in Religion in Life Volume XXXVIII Number 3 Autumn 1969: 427-39
Emmette Weir, "The Bible and Marx: A Discussion of the Hermeneutics of Liberation Theology," in Scottish Journal of Theology, Number 4 August 1982: 337-350
Henri J. M. Nouwen, "'We Drink From Our Own Wells,'" in America, October 15, 1983: 205-8
James G. O'Donnell, "The Influence of Freud's Hermeneutic of Suspicion on the Writings of Juan Segundo," in Journal of Psychology and Theology, Spring 1982, Volume 10. Number 1: 28-34
Larry D. Pettegrew, "Liberation Theology and Hermeneutical Preunderstanding," in Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. 148 Number 591 July-September 1991: 274-287
3. African (Afro-American), Womanism (and Feminism), & Cultural Studies
[African (Afro-American)]
Anthony B. Pinn, "Rethinking the Nature and Tasks of African American Theology: A Pragmatic Perspective," in American Journal of Theology & Philosophy Vol. 19, No. 2, May 1998: 191-208
Caleb Rosado, "Black and African Theologies of Liberation: Marxism and Weberian Perspectives," in The Journal of Religious Thought, Volume 42 No. 1 Spring-Summer 1985: 22-37
Eddie S. Glaude, Jr., "Pragmatic Historicism and 'the Problem of History' in Black Theology," in American Journal of Theology & Philosophy Vol. 19, No. 2, May 1998: 173-90
Major J. Jones, "Black Awareness: Theological Implications of the Concept" (389-403); William H. Becker, "Black Power in Christological Perspective" (404-14); Harold C. Relyea, "The Theology of Black Power" (415-20)" in Religion in Life: A Christian Quarterly of Opinion and Discussion, Vol. XXXVIII No. 3 Autumn, 1969: 389-420
Theophus H. Smith, "The Spirituality of Afro-American Traditions," in Christian Spirituality: Post-Reformation and Modern, Louis Dupre & Don E. Saliers eds. (New York: Crossroad, 1989): 372-414
[Womanism (Black Feminism) & Feminism]
Bell hooks, "Waking Up to Racism," (1994) in Asian Religions in America: A Documentary History, eds. Thomas A. Tweed & Stephen Prothero (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999): 277-281
Beverly W. Harrison, "Toward a Christian Feminist Liberation Hermeneutic for Demystifying Class Reality in Local Congregations," in Beyond Clericalism: The Congregation as a Focus for Theological Education," eds. Joseph C. Hough, Jr. & Barbara G. Wheeler (Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1988: 137-51)
Chandra Taylor Smith, "Pragmatism and Womanist Theology: Interpretive Possibilities," in American Journal of Theology & Philosophy Vol. 19, No. 2, May 1998: 209-23
Delores S. Williams, "Womanist/Feminist Dialogue: Problems and Possibilities," in Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, Volume 9 Number 1-2 Spring/Fall 1993: 67-74
Denise Ackermann, "Critical Theory, Communicative Actions and Liberating Praxis: Views of a Feminist Practical Theologian," in Journal of Theology for south Africa No. 82 March 1993: 21-36
Elisabeth Schusser Fiorenza, "Toward a Feminist Biblical Hermeneutics: Biblical Interpretation and Liberation Theology," in The Challenge of Liberation Theology, ed. Mahan & Richesin (1981)
Hyun Kyung Chung, "Who is Jesus for Asian Women?," in Asian Faces of Jesus, ed. R. S. Surgirtharajah (New York: Orbis Books, 1993): 223-46
Jeffrey C. Eaton, "Simon Weil and Feminist Spirituality," in Journal of the American Academy of Religion Winter 1986 Volume LIV Number Four: 691-704
Joan M. Martin, "The Notion of Difference for Emerging Womanist Ethics: The Writings of Audre Lorde and bell hooks," in Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, Volume 9 Number 1-2 Spring/Fall 1993: 39-51
Katharine Doob Sakenfeld, "Feminist Biblical Interpretation," in Theology Today, Vol. XLVI, No. 2 July 1989: 154-68
Kwok Pui-lan, "Business Ethics in the Economic Development of Asia: A Feminist Analysis," in The Asian Journal of Theology, Vol. 9 No. 1 1995: 133-45
Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, "Earthsong, Godsong: Women's Spirituality," in Theology Today, Vol. XLV, No. 4 January, 1989: 392-402
Nannerl O. Keohane, "Speaking from Silence: Women and the Science of Politics," in Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal, Vol. LXIV, No. 4, Winter 1981: 422-436
Stanley Hauerwas, "Sex and Politics: Bertrand Russell and 'Human Sexuality," in Christian Century, April 19, 1978: 417-22
[Cultural Studies]
Alan Kreider, "Christ, Culture, and Truth-telling," in The Conrad Grebel Review: A Journal of Christian Inquiry Volume 15, Number 3, Fall 1997: 207-34
Brian J. Walsh, "The Transformation of Culture: A Review Essay," in The Conrad Grebel Review: A Journal of Christian Inquiry Volume 7, Number 3, Fall 1989: 253-67
Carl F. Starkloff, S. J. "Inculturation and Cultural Systems (Part One)," in Theological Studies Vol. 55, No. 1 March 1994: 66-81
Carl F. Starkloff, S. J. "Inculturation and Cultural Systems (Part Two)," in Theological Studies Vol. 55, No. 1 March 1994: 274-94
Henry Munson, Jr., "Geertz on Religion: The Theory and Practice," in Religion Volume 16, January 1986: 19-32
Jack Boozer, "Religion and Culture: An Essay on Essays in Appreciation of Paul Tillich," The Journal of Bible and Religion Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, April, 1960: 229-34
Jack Schwandt, "Niebuhr's Christ and Culture: A Re-examination," in Word & World Volume Christ, Number 4, Fall 1990: 368-73
James R. Cochrane, "Christ and Culture: Now and Then," in Journal of Theology for South Africa No. 71, June 1990: 3-17
John . Morgan, "Clifford Geertz: An Interfacing of Anthropology and Religious Studies," in Horizons Volume 5 Fall, 1978 Number 2: 203-10
John Morgan, "Religion and Culture as Meaning Systems: A Dialogue between Geertz and Tillich," in The Journal of Religion Volume 57, Number 4, October 1977: 363-375
John Morgan, "Religion and Culture as Meaning Systems: A Dialogue between Gertz and Tillich," in The Journal of Religion, Volume 57 Number 4 October 1977: 363-75
Kelton Cobb, "Reconsidering the Status of Popular Culture in Tillich's Theology of Culture," in Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume LXIII Number One Spring 1995: 53-84
Thomas R. McFaul, "Dilemmas in H. Richard Niebuhr's Ethics," in the Journal of Religion Volume 54, Number 1, January 1974: 35-50
Victor Anderson, "The Wrestle of Christ and Culture in Pragmatic Public Theology," in American Journal of Theology & Philosophy Vol. 19, No. 2, May 1998: 135-50
Wim Hofstee, "The Interpretation of Religion: Some Remarks on the Work of Clifford Geertz," in Neue Zeitschrift f? systematische Theologie und Religionsphilosophie, 27. Band 1985 Heft 2: 145-58
4. Asian Thought--Taoism & Asian Theology
[Taoism]
Agnes Chwen-Jiuan Lee, "The Philosophy of Liberation in Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu," in Ching Feng Volume XXXIII, No. 4, December 1990: 191-204
Chung-Yuan Chang, "Tao as Inner Experience," in Zeitschrift fur Religions--Und Geistesgeschichte X. Jahrgang, Heft 1, 1958: 15-23
Herrlee God. Creel, What Is Taoism?: and Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1970), "On the Origin of Wu-wei 無爲" 48-78
Heup Young Kim, "Jen and Agape: Towards a Confucian Christology," in The Asia Journal of Theology, Vol. 8 No. 8 1994: 335-64
Jung Young Lee, "The Yin/yang Way of Thinking: A Possible Method for Ecumenical Theology," in International Review of Mission, Volume LX No. 239 July 1871: 363-70
Karen Guberman, "Cosmogony and Self-Cultivation: The Demonic and the Ethical in Two Chinese Novels," in The Journal of Religious Ethics Volume 14, Number 1, Spring 1986: 81-112
Miriam Levering, "Reading Chuang-Tzu: One Way or Many?," in Religious Studies Review Volume 10, Number 3, July 1984: 228-237
Peter K. H. Lee & Hyun-Kyung Chung, "A Cross-Cultural Dialogue on the Yin/yang Symbol," in Ching Feng, Volume XXXIII, No. 3, September 1990: 136-157
Robert E. Allinson, "The Ethics of Confucianism and Christianity: The Delicate Balance," in Ching Feng: Quarterly Notes on Christianity and Chinese Religion and Culture, Volume XXXIII, No. 3, September 1990: 158-175
Stephen S. Kim, "A Humane Theology of Community: The Asian-American Struggle for Authentic Living," in ???:1-55
[Asian Theology]
Aloysius Pieris, S.J., "Interreligious Dialogue and Theology of Religions: An Asian Paradigm," in Horizons: The Journal of the College Theology Society, Volume 20 Number 1 Spring, 1993: 106-114
Hong-jung Lee, "The Minjung Behind the Folktale: An Example of Narrative Hermeneutics," in The Asian Journal of Theology, Volume 8 Number 1 April 1994: 89-94
Jae-woong Ahn, "The Wisdom of the Minjung in Korea," in Ching Feng, Volume 38, No. 2 June 1995: 106-15
Jung Young Lee, "The Perfect Realization of Change: Jesus Christ," in Asian Faces of Jesus, ed. R. S. Surgirtharajah (New York: Orbis Books, 1993): 62-74
Kosuke Koyama, "Participation of Culture in the Transfiguration of Humanity," in The Asia Journal of Theology, Vol. 7 No.2 1993: 214-230
Kosuke Koyama, "The Theology of the Cross and the Self-consciousness of the Church," in The Asia Journal of Theology, Vol. 8 No.1 1994: 2-12
Kosuke Koyama, "The Tradition and Indigenization," in The Asia Journal of Theology, Vol. 7 No. 1 1993: 2-11
M. M. Thomas, "The Absoluteness of Jesus Christ and Christ-centered syncretism," in The Japan Christian Quarterly, Volume 52, Number 3, summer 1996: 133-142
Margaret Kane, "Minjung Theology," in Theology, Vol. xc September 1987 No. 737: (351-6)
Peter K. H. Lee, "Contextualization and Inculturation of Christianity and Confucianism in the Contemporary World," in The Asia Journal of Theology, Vol. 7 No. 1 1993: 84-91
Sook Jong Lee, "A Study of the Relationship of the Korean Church to the Indigenious Culture of Korea," in The Asian Journal of Theology, Vol. 9 No. 2 1995: 230-247
Sung Park, "Minjung and Process Hermeneutics," in Process Studies, Volume 17 Number 2 Summer 1988: 118-26
Sung Park, "The Theology of Han (The Abyss of Pain)," in Quarterly Review, Vol. 9, No. 1 Spring 1989: 48-62
Yap Kim Hao, "Inter-Contextualization: Releasing the "Theological" Frog from Underneath the Coconut Shell," in The Asian Journal of Theology, Volume 4 Number 1 April 1990: 36-44
[1] The realization of the Reign of God is the ultimate goal of Latin American theology of liberation. Juan Jose Tamayo, “Reception of the Theology of Liberation,” in Mysterium Liberationis: Fundamental Concepts of Liberation Theology, Ignacio Ellacuria, S.J., and Jon Sobrino, S.J (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1993), 37.
[2] Rubem A. Alves, a liberation theologian of Latin America, criticizes Christian realism as an “ideology of Establishment” that is merely an, “American ideology.” Dennis P. McCann, Christian Realism and Liberation Theology: Practical Theologies in Creative Conflict (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1981), 2. By contrast, Thomas G. Sanders, a Christian realist criticized liberation theology as “Christian utopianism” and a “moralistic ideology.” Thomas G. Sanders, 1973:170. Recited in Dennis P. McCann, Christian Realism and Liberation Theology, 2.
[3] One can see the acrimonious debate between Christian realism and Latin American theology of liberation in the journals of Christianity and Crisis in 1973.
[4] I will use the concepts of matter and form as cited in Greek philosophy, especially Plato and Aristotle.
[5] On October 2001, the US attacked Afghanistan against terrorism, especially against the terror on the world trade center and Washington D.C. on September 11, 2001.
[6] Matthew 7:1-2; Luke 6:37.
[7] Thomas Aquinas defines conscience as “the mind of man making moral judgments.” James F. Childress and John Macquarrie, eds., The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1986), 116.
[8] James F. Childress and John Macquarrie, The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics, 400.
[9] James F. Childress and John Macquarrie, The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics, 400.
[10] Richard Kroner, “The Historical Roots of Niebuhr's Thought,” in Reinhold Niebuhr: His Religious, Social, and Political Thought, Charles W. Kegley and Robert W. Bretall (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1956), 178.
[11] Dennis P. McCann, Christian Realism and Liberation Theology: Practical Theologies in Creative Conflict (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1981), 6.
[12] Ronald H. Stone, Reinhold Niebuhr: Prophet to Politicians (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1972), 10.
[13] According to Lovin, D. C. Macintosh and Walter Marshall Horton were those who used the term of realism first in the 1930s. And he thinks the term of “Christian realism” belongs to John Bennett as well as Reinhold Niebuhr. Robin W. Lovin, Reinhold Niebuhr and Christian Realism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 1-2.
[14] E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years Crisis 1919-1939 2nd edn. (London: Macmillan, 1981). Recited in The Political Realism of Reinhold Niebuhr, 10.
[15] Gabriel Fackre, The Promise of Reinhold Niebuhr (Philadelphia and New York: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1970), 57.
[16] Love is the final or highest goal; however, Niebuhr, points out “the impossibility of love as a wholly adequate social ethic.” D. B. Robertson, ed., Love and Justice: Selections from the Shorter Writings of Reinhold Niebuhr (Gloucester, Mass: Peter Smith, 1976), 11. He has written, “I find it impossible to envisage a society of pure love as long as man is man.” Reinhold Niebuhr, “Must We Do Nothing,” Christian Century, March 30, 1932. Recited in D. B. Robertson, Love and Justice, 12. Therefore, for him, in reality, “the common currency of the moral life is constituted by the ‘nicely calculated less and more’ of the relatively good and the relatively evil,” (D. B. Robertson, Love and Justice, 11) that is, proximate peace and justice.
[17] Reinhold Niebuhr, The Nature and Destiny of Man, vol. I, Human Nature (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1941; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1964), 270.
[18] Reinhold Niebuhr, The Nature and Destiny of Man, vol. I, Human Nature, 23.
[19] Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Christian Faith and the World Crisis,” Christianity and Crisis 1, 1 (Feb. 10, 1941), 5.
[20] Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Way of Non-violent Resistance,” Editorial Christianity and Society, a quarterly devoted to Christianity and Social Reconstruction, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Spring, 1956), 3.
[21] Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Christian Faith and the World Crisis,” 5-6.
[22] Reinhold Niebuhr, “Optimism and Utopianism,” World Tomorrow (Feb. 22, 1933); Reinhold Niebuhr, Reflections on the End of an Era (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1934), 230.
[23] Reinhold Niebuhr, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness: A Vindication of Democracy and a Critique of Its Traditional Defense (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1944; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1960), xiii.
[24] Clodovis Boff, “Epistemology and Method of the Theology of Liberation,” 65.
[25] Clodovis Boff’s book, Theology and Praxis: Epistemological Foundations, is composed of three Parts and each Part-title shows his intention to discuss—Socio-analytic Mediation, Hermeneutic Mediation, and Dialogue of Theory and Praxis.
[26] Clodovis Boff, Theology and Praxis, 13.
[27] Phillip Berryman, Liberation Theology: Essential Facts about the Revolutionary Movement in Latin America—And Beyond (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 20.
[28] Egustavo Gutierrez, “Option for the Poor,” in Mysterium Liberationis, Ignacio Ellacuria, S.J., and Jon Sobrino, S.J., 238.
[29] Puebla Final Document, nos. 29-30. Recited in Roberto Oliveros, “History of the Theology of Liberation,” in Mysterium Liberationis, Ignacio Ellacuria, S.J., and Jon Sobrino, S.J., 5.
[30] Jon Sobrino, Jesus in Latin America (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1987), 86.
[31] Clodovis Boff, “Epistemology and Method of the Theology of Liberation,” in Mysterium Liberationis: Fundamental Concepts of Liberation Theology, Ignacio Ellacuria S.J. and Jon Sobrino, S.J (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1993), 65.
[32] As far as I know, there are few Asian theologians who are interested in the issue of liberation such as Aloysius Pieris, Hyun Kyung Jung, M.M. Thomas, and Korean Minjung Theologians.
[33] The symbol of yin/yang is a hermeneutic principle of the universe in Asia.
[34] The influence of yin/yang on Asians is remarkable, for example, “seven days of a week,” “the Oriental medicine,” ”the geomancy,” and even “Oriental furniture, doors, buildings, and roof-tiles.” Jung Young Lee, The Trinity in Asian Perspective (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996), 45-49.
[35] Chung (中) means “neither more nor less or not one-sided” and yung (庸) “ordinary” (平常).
[36] The Doctrine of the Mean in Four Books (Shanghai, China: The Chinese Book Company, 1930), 349-52.
[37] The Doctrine of the Mean in Four Books, 349-52.