|
sciencedirect에 가입
아디: donggeunpark 비번: east99
http://www.sciencedirect.com- The Arts in Psychotherapy: Poetry therapy as a tool of cognitively based practice
Poetry therapy as a tool of cognitively based practice
| ||||
|
| |||||||||||||||||||||
|
Poetry therapy as a tool of cognitively based practice
Kathryn S. Collins MSW, PhDa,
, Assistant Professor, Rich Furman MSW, PhDb,
,
, Associate Professor, BSW Program Coordinator and Carol L. Langer MSW, PhDc, Assistant Professor
aSchool of Social Work, University of Pittsburgh, 2217J Cathedral of Learning, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
bDepartment of Social Work, University of North Carolina Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd., Charlotte, NC 28223-0001, USA
cDepartment of Social Work, Arizona State University West, USA
Available online 2 February 2006.
This paper illustrates the potential uses of poetry therapy for practitioners interested in cognitively based psychotherapies. Separate brief discussions of cognitive therapy and the uses of poetry and poetry therapy are presented. The congruence between these two approaches is addressed. Sample exercises and poems as illustrations are presented that demonstrate this congruence.
Keywords: Poetry therapy; Cognitive therapy
Cognitive therapy and poetry therapy are therapeutic methods that have become increasingly important within social work and other clinical professions. Both are used to resolve multiple client problems within multiple treatment contexts. In many ways, the two methods are highly compatible and can be used creatively together. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the potential uses of poetry and poetry therapy when working from a cognitively based model. Separate brief discussions of cognitive therapy and the uses of poetry and poetry therapy are presented. Next, the congruence between these two approaches is explored. Sample exercises are presented that illustrate this congruence as they occur within actual practice situations. Limitations of this approach are also briefly discussed.
The scope of this section is to present the main precepts of cognitive therapy so that the reader can understand the connections made between cognitive interventions and poetry therapy. Kelly (1955) proposed a perspective of psychopathology that was based entirely on the cognitive processing of individuals. He pioneered the idea of “constructive alternativism,” which asserts that individuals differ in their projections of cognitions about alternatives and options in their lives. Traditionally noted for contemporary contributions to the cognitive therapy model are Aaron Beck and his associates (Beck, 1976; Beck & Emery, 1985). He used Kelly's perspective on constructive alternativism in his work on client's feelings of worthlessness (Leahy, 1996). Beck's models of cognitive therapy have been empirically studied in over 325 clinical trials and have found to be effective for disorders such as depression, anxiety, panic, substance abuse, and personality disorders (Beck Institute, 2000).
The umbrella of cognitive therapy also includes tenets from many theorists and disciplines (Mahrer, 1989, Payne, 1997 and Werner, 1986). For example, cognitive theory includes Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) (DiGiuseppe, 1981, Ellis, 1958, Ellis, 1973 and Ellis, 1976); Cognitive Behavioral Modification (Meichenbaum, 1977); cognitive restructuring (Mahoney, 1991); constructivist approaches to psychotherapy (Gergen, 1985) and reality therapy (Glasser, 1965). The differences among these approaches seem to be more superficial than some theorists postulate. For example, while Beck's cognitive therapy tends to focus more on the processes of cognition, and Ellis's REBT tends to be more concerned with the actual content of belief, both approaches focus considerable attention on both process and content. Often, the differences in focus stem from philosophical and personal preferences and fade at the level of actual practice.
The central notion in cognitive therapy is that the manner in which clients perceive their life situations and challenges is the most significant cause of emotion and behavior. Cognitive interventions tend to be time-limited, focused on the present situations, and are based on a problem-solving approach. It is the hope of cognitive therapists that their clients will be able to carry newly acquired skills and thinking patterns with them throughout the rest of their lives (Beck Institute, 2000). Stoic philosophers are often cited as the earliest thinkers who influenced the development of the cognitive approach. Epictetus, quoted in Walen, DiGuiseppe, and Wessler (1980), stated: “Men are not influenced by events, but by the views they hold of these events” (p. 23). That is, beliefs, attitudes, and patterns of thinking are largely responsible for the other realms of being. How one sees his or her world will impact their relationships to it, his or her feelings about it, and the manner in which he or she lives. Individuals learn about their worlds through their families and through social institutions. These lessons are subsequently interpreted by the individual based upon their idiosyncratic differences in temperament and biology. The interaction of these differences is what subsequently leads to differences in cognitive and belief (Leahy, 1996). Clearly then, cognition is not the only influence upon human functioning, but is conceptualized as the most directly accessible in the therapeutic process (Beck, 1995 and Ellis, 1994), the change of which will lead to long-term symptom amelioration. Techniques that focus on behavioral and emotional systems are utilized to help change cognition. Modern cognitive theorists do not limit themselves to only cognitively based techniques, yet remain focused on the importance of cognitive change for the short- and long-term well-being of the client (Sharf, 1996).
In Beck's system of cognitive therapy, cognition is divided into three areas: (1) automatic thoughts; (2) intermediate beliefs; and (3) core beliefs. Automatic thoughts, the primary target of intervention, consist of thoughts that occur without any deliberation or reasoning. These are the actual images or thoughts that run through one's mind. As the name implies, they seem to automatically occur in the mind. Intermediate beliefs consist of the rules, attitudes, and assumptions that a person makes about his or her world and others. Core beliefs “are the most fundamental level of belief; they are global, rigid, and overgeneralized” (Beck, 1995, p. 16).
Ellis (1958) developed REBT, which is a therapeutic intervention that encourages emotional growth by teaching clients to replace their negative or self-defeating thoughts, feelings, and actions with new ones that are more effective for growth, healing, and personal development. The “ABCDE” practice method is used by REBT clinicians. The “A” in the system represents a clients’ activating event, or the situation or context in which the client is experiencing distress. In the system, “B” represents clients’ beliefs, including images, values, and perceptions. Clients are taught a systematic method for evaluating the problems in their lives, which are represented as “C” (or consequences, either emotional or behavioral) in the paradigm. According to Ellis (1994) clinicians must disrupt (D) the irrational beliefs of the client in order for the client to enjoy (E) their newly discovered rational beliefs. Clients are helped to assess the connection between their beliefs and the difficult feelings and behavioral consequences that are transpiring in their lives (Ellis, 1958, Ellis, 1973 and Ellis, 1994).
It is important to note that one of the most common misconceptions of REBT and other cognitive approaches is that the goal of treatment is to help clients not feel, or to discount their emotions (Ellis, 1994). However, depicting REBT being anti-emotion is inaccurate. The goal of treatment is to help clients experience feelings in a deep and personal manner, and to modify intermediate and core beliefs that eliminate affective states that interfere with a client's realistic appraisal of the situation, and their capacity to maximize their strengths and meet their goals. For example, sadness and grief are understood to be healthy human emotions that stem from upset and loss. According to Ellis (1994) depression occurs when patterns of thinking associated with sadness and loss become exaggerated, magnified, and globalized. In such cases it is essential that the therapist use his/her skills to “argue with the client” and challenge their belief system to help the client learn ways to alter these cognitive processes and content.
Narrative and constructivist approaches also may often draw from cognitive therapy. While certainly some key differences do exist, many interventions focus on a client's cognitive processes or content. As the authors shall explore later in this paper, the cognitive aspects of narrative therapy lend themselves particularly well to poetry therapy.
Poetry has been a means of exploring the human condition for perhaps as long as human language has existed (Silverman, 1993). In early societies, poets were relied upon to document and interpret the human experience and to share these insights with the community through public performance, as well as through the written word. Before the scientific revolution, literature and the humanities were seen as the fundamental means of learning about the human condition (Postman, 1992). The curative power of the healer and shaman in many societies may not have been entirely due largely to the prescription, but the written word (Harrower, 1972). While the acceptance of poetic insights into the human condition may have diminished over the last several centuries due to the acceptance of logical positivism and the dominant epistemological position, even Freud (1963) states that the poets were the first, and perhaps the best, at tapping into the mysteries of the human psyche. While the influence of poetry and the poem may have decreased, the power of the poem as tool for healing and human growth continues to be recognized. Even in the medical profession, the power of poetry is recognized as a means of helping patients make sense of their medical conditions and the associated life changes with which they are forced to cope (Shelton, 1999).
While the discipline of poetry therapy can largely trace its history to the last 30 years, poetry had been utilized in therapy since the early and middle of the last century (Blanton, 1960, Leedy, 1969, Prescott, 1922 and Shrodes, 1949). The therapeutic value of poetry has been recognized by parishioners from diverse disciplines, including nursing, social work (Houlding & Holland, 1988; Mazza, 1996), psychology (McLoughlin, 2000), and psychiatry (Langosch, 1987), as well as community organizers (Holman, 1996) and academics in the humanities. With the advent of the National Association of Poetry Therapy, and the establishment of credentials from this organization, poetry therapy has become an established member of the creative arts therapies. The discipline even has its own academic journal, the Journal of Poetry Therapy, dedicated to the practice, teaching and research regarding the therapeutic potential of poetry.
In perhaps the clearest formulation of poetry therapy, Mazza (1999) discusses three basic domains of poetry therapy:
1. The receptive/prescriptive component, involving the introduction of literature into therapy.
2. The expressive/creative component involving the use of client writing in therapy.
3. The symbolic/ceremonial component involving the use of metaphors, rituals, and storytelling (p. 17).
Reiter (1997), in testimony submitted to the National Coalition of Arts, posits many factors which are clearly congruent with cognitive theory. The goals that are most congruent with cognitive therapy are:
1. To encourage realistic thinking and problem solving.
2. To develop creativity, self-expression and greater self-esteem.
3. To strengthen communication, particularly listening and speaking skills.
4. To find new meaning through new ideas, insights, and/or information.
Poems are not the only tool of the poetry therapist. Journal writing, myths, fables, and personal metaphors can all be incorporated into treatment. Some authors do differ as to what constitutes a poem in poetry therapy. For instance, Wadeson (1981) draws the distinction between poetry and other forms of writing through asserting the literary qualities of the poem, including reliance on metaphor, imagery, sound, rhythm, and economy of expression. Other poetry therapists are less concerned with the technical aspects of poetry, but use any client expression for the purpose of helping a client make sense of their lives. Regardless of the philosophy to which one subscribes to as to the importance of technical or artistic issues, the focus in poetry therapy must be the person and not the poem. It is our contention that helping clients understand the power of metaphor, and the compressed nature of a good poem, can help clients focus on what is “core” about their experiences. However, it is also essential that therapists demystify the process of writing for clients. Many clients who have had poor educational experiences can be intimidated by the very thought of writing poetry. Indeed, some clients are so deficient in basic writing skills that they will need the therapist to transcribe their poem from their conversations. This can be a powerful collaborative experience that can help facilitate the development of the helping relationships.
In order to best understand how these two therapies can be combined to effectively assist clients to better know themselves, their relationships with others, and to begin to effect change in their lives, it is necessary to identify some central assumptions of cognitive therapy and relate these assumptions to poetry.
First, cognitive therapy focuses on thoughts that are so powerful that they can control emotions, behaviors, and world views. Since these thoughts are largely outside the awareness of the client, it is the goal of therapy to bring them into awareness. Poetry has the capacity to do just this because while being the “poet,” the client feels free to write about a thought or an idea “as if” it either is owned by another or has a life of its own. The therapist then has the opportunity to discuss with the client how this thought that appears in a poem actually impacts the client him/herself. Sometimes these thoughts can be perceived as taboo by the client, but once engaged in the web of words, the client feels safer to address them.
Once into the client's awareness, a second goal of cognitive therapy is to discover to what extent these faulty or irrational cognitions affect the world of the client. The use of the metaphor assists the client to describe their reality, which may be shaped by just such faulty or irrational cognitions. Using metaphor allows the client to distance the self and engage in a dialogue with the self that has the potential to demonstrate the irrational nature of the belief and the potential for change.
Finally, cognitive therapy helps the clients to understand that they do not have to react to the whims of their irrational schemas, which might have been with them since childhood. Clients can learn through poetry that they can create their lives. They have the capacity to sift away the disabling tapes that might have run through their heads for many, many years and replace them with powerful, compact phrases and words through poetry. These phrases and words provide a way for clients to think about things differently, to begin to see them differently, to feel them differently, and to therefore, behave differently.
Since one of the central assumptions of cognitive therapy is that cognitions interplay with emotions and behaviors, but it is the cognitions that are the target of change, poetry therapy, which taps into thoughts and emotions, is a logical fit with cognitive restructuring, logical analysis, and other forms of interventions. Using few words to express the self, using metaphors to name the un-nameable, and being fully engaged in this process are poetic techniques that lead to the opportunity for client and therapist to discuss the role of cognition in shaping the client's reality and to then make effective change through changing the cognitions.
In the following section, poetry therapy exercises are presented that are congruent with cognitive therapy goals. The uses and procedures for each exercise are discussed, and examples are provided.
This exercise is useful for teaching clients a process for identifying and assessing the validity of their beliefs. It should be utilized only after the therapist has engaged in a fair amount of didactic and interpersonal work with the client, in helping him or her recognize the differences between rational and irrational beliefs. In this exercise, the client is asked to write a poem that specifically explores their irrational or unhelpful beliefs. The client is asked to write about his or her situation or personal story from the perspective of his or her irrational belief. That is, they take on the voice or persona of their irrational belief. After they complete this exercise, the client is asked to explore their beliefs in more detail. This allows the therapist and the client to dialogue about the client's current understanding of their problem from a cognitive perspective. Sometimes clinicians overestimate a client's understanding of the process of cognitive change and restructuring. Too often, clients will agree with the clinician's conceptualization of the problem as a means of gaining approval. Also, clients who have been historically disempowered must be helped to take ownership for their own therapy. This exercise allows the therapist to listen to the client responding to their own beliefs, and can help the therapist plan new cognitive restructuring experiences collaboratively with the client.
The following passage was written by a 27-year-old man suffering from depression. While medication had somewhat mitigated his symptoms and his self-downing cogitations, depression still remained a powerful part of his life. Traditional cognitive techniques were not able to dislodge his depressogenic beliefs. The technique described above helped the client begin to look at his beliefs from in a more detached manner; “from this outside looking in.” This helped him to be less defensive in therapy, and more open to exploring the relationship between his beliefs and his depression. He decided to write this in the form of a letter.
Dear Bob,
I hate you. You know that, right. The funny thing is, you think that it is you that hate you. I have you tricked. When I speak, you listen, you confuse us. That is cool, huh? Well, here is the think. I really hate you. I don’t really know why I hate you, but I do. And Bob, I am really good at getting you to believe what a loser you are. You see, I have good timing. I wait until you make mistakes, and I beat you up for them. And you listen sucker! You listen every time. For example, remember last week when you could not find your keys? I told you that only a worthless loser does that. I had you convinced to go to bed and call in sick. And then, for calling in sick, I had you convinced that that made you worthless. I want to thank you Bob for listening to me. I want to thank you for listening more to me than yourself.
In this exercise, clients are asked to write a poem that greatly exaggerates the force, intensity, and nature of their irrational beliefs. This exercise has much in common with paradoxical directives, which can be found in many family-oriented practices that utilize cognitive methods. Further, such use of paradox is also common within REBT practice. The procedures for this poem are as follows: First, the clinician asks the client to think about the event in his or her life that is causing them the most distress (usually the identifying problem, or a problem that the therapist and the clients are currently working on). Then, the clinician asks the client to consider the thoughts that are associated with this event (these events should have been previously explored in therapy). Next, the clinician has the client imagine that he or she actually is the belief. They have them imagine what it must be like, and what these beliefs would say if they were alive. Finally, clients write a poem from the perspective of the beliefs in the most forceful, exaggerated manner possible. After this is completed, the poem can serve as an effective catalyst for dialogue about the content of the beliefs. Often, by writing from this exaggerated perspective, clients will start to question the veracity of their beliefs without prompting from their therapist. This exercise also helps the client externalize the problem (White & Epston, 1990). Adopted from narrative therapy, but congruent with cognitive practice, this intervention helps clients challenge their problems by looking at them in a more detached, objective manner (Epston, 1994).
The following poem, in the form of a Haiku, was written by a middle-aged gentlemen struggling with the impact schizophrenia. For years, he believed that he was worthless due to his illness. Externalizing his beliefs in an exaggerated, compressed form helped him to recognize them when they occurred. Note, it is important that therapists help their clients use poems such as this in service of their own growth, and not to reinforce the negative cognitions.
You, always nothing. A worm. Dung. Nothing. Worm. Dung. Your fault. You, nothing.
In cognitively oriented practice, it is important for clients to truly believe their newfound or developing rational beliefs. Belief is a matter of degrees. A client may believe something to be true theoretically or intellectually, but may not believe it to be true on an emotional level. A client may have a sense that something is true, but may not trust new, unfamiliar beliefs. For example, a client may realize in therapy that they have personal value and worth, but may doggedly stick to more familiar notions or cognitive scripts of their own worthlessness. All too often, beginning clinicians do not spend enough time helping clients integrate new beliefs into their repertoire of cognitive processing. Lazarus (1981) explores how various emotionally evocative techniques can help clients integrate new beliefs into their schema, their core beliefs. Writing poems can be useful in this regard, as emotionally evocative language can help clients develop a deeper sense of belief.
In this exercise, clients are to write a poem in which they work hard at convincing themselves as to the veracity of their new belief. They are asked to write a poem with as much passion and emotion as possible. Their goal is to convince themselves of the genuineness, rationality, and importance of their newfound belief. This poem can also be written as a narrative or a speech. For example, they can visualize writing to an important group of people, such as Congress, further visualizing that the fate of the nation depends upon the degree to which they are convincing. The point is to help them work towards developing a sense of trust and true belief about newly adopted healthy cognitions.
After they write the poem, clinicians should ask the client to read the poem three times out loud, each time with increasing force and emotion. The clinician may also ask the client to read the poem several times daily as a means of helping integrate their new belief. The clinician may also read the poem to the client. The second author of this article has utilized this technique by performing the client's poem in a highly dramatic, performance-oriented manner.
The following poems was written by a young man attempting to remain drug-free. As he has failed many times, he only partially believes that he has the capacity to live free of his drug of choice, heroin.
Hey Keith! You can be a man! You can withstand! Ok, in the past you fell, you have seen the pits of hell, But man, you can do this! You can find other joys, New toys, and not a boy! I can do this! I know I can. My heart so wants to live And that needle drains it Like a sieve. You can be a man, Keith! You can do this!
The cognitive therapies are concerned with the bottom line of therapy; helping people make positive, healthy changes in their lives. This emphasis has increased currency given the realities of managed care. Therefore, cognitive therapists usually focus considerable attention on helping people reach concise and measurable goals (Beck Institute, 2000). In this poetry intervention, the client is asked to write about a goal that they have, and what has gotten in their way of achieving this goal. The clinician should make certain that the client includes not only environmental or situational impediments, but distortions in their thinking as well. After the client has written about barriers or situations that deter their well-being, they are asked to write a second poem in which they imagine ways they can overcome these obstacles. The clinician explores with the client different ways to view their obstacles. Further, carefully considering shifts in attitude, a discussion on what thoughts may help them get closer to meeting their goals may be beneficial.
This exercise is particularly useful for cognitively oriented practice with groups. The intervention starts with the poem “The Road Not Taken” (Frost, 1920) read out loud to the group members. In exercises in which a poem is read audibly, it is useful to read the poem multiple times. Members should also be provided with a copy of the poem. Multiple readings seem to help clients experience a poem on multiple levels. Group members begin to immerse themselves and find self-meaning of the poem.
Frost's (1920) poem, which is widely used in poetry therapy, presents the metaphor of a traveler making decisions about which path to take on a road, just as our clients make important life choices in their own journey. After the reading, clients are asked to discuss their paths and how they would go about achieving their aims. The clinician may generate discussion about taking the more difficult path in life versus taking what appears to be an easier one. Clients are able to explore what they think may get in the way of choosing the path that would be most satisfying. Often, clients will recognize cognitions associated with fear, low frustration tolerance, or self-doubt. After these beliefs are exposed, group members may help each other develop goals to challenge negative thoughts.
This simple poem was written by a teenage girl in a therapy group at a residential treatment facility. Through her poem she honestly explores her fear of an uncertain future, and despairs about how she views her potential outcomes, based upon her troubled past. One can also see the impact of cognitive therapy, as she recognizes the role that her own cognitions now play in perpetuating her fear. After writing this poem, she read it to the group, and gained valuable support from members who had similar experiences and feelings.
I don’t know about any roads less traveled. Every day I see drugs and thugs. They pretend to do good, but they all crooks. This is where I come from. I don’t know anything else? How can I dream, When I lived too many nightmares. You think this ’ant real? Its real, and this is what I have ta get out of my mind. Ok, so its only real in my mind. It feels real to me, so how do I see it as a lie? Why can’t I make it go away?
One key aspect of both therapies and their synthesis is their reliance upon higher-order linguistic skills. Practitioners working with the severe and persistently mentally ill must watch for signs of frustration and disorganization when practicing these techniques. The cognitive introspection that is stimulated by these techniques can overwhelm clients prone to disorganized patterns of thinking, and may at times be counterindicated. The same may be true with extremely anxious clients. Also, it is important to realize that the primary symptoms of thought disorders should not be the target of cognitively based interventions. Hallucinations and delusions are usually biologically based, and are more effectively treated with psychopharmacological interventions. However, secondary symptoms often can be treated using these techniques. For example, a client may feel less about him/herself due to his or her diagnosis. Self-downing cognitions that lead to depression and self-loathing may certainly be targeted by these techniques.
Lastly, Furman (2003) warns that regardless of what theory or technique that is used, practitioners must be sure that their practice is guided by clear adherence to their professional values and ethics, and by a concern for social issues such as discrimination and oppression. By continually paying attention to the role of values and ethics in treatment, therapists can avoid the tendency to blame clients for the problems they seek help with. A clear distinction must be maintained between blame and responsibility.
Cognitive therapies have been gaining influence in the psychological and helping professions. One of the main criticisms of working from this perspective is that therapy can feel mechanistic to clients and clinicians alike, or can lack depth. Integrating poetry and poetry therapy into cognitive practice can go a long way toward resolving this problem. Hirshfield (1997) stated that the goal of poetry is the “magnification and clarification of being” (p. 5). This is the goal not only of cognitive, but most types of psychotherapy concerned with human potential. The goal of therapy is to help clients develop the ability to live their lives more successfully. One of the most important things that a client can gain from treatment is the ability to resolve their own dilemmas without professional intervention. By helping clients use poetry and written exercises to explore and resolve their distorted and maladaptive thoughts, therapists empower clients with the tools to improve health and well-being. For some clients, poetry can become a source of fulfillment that stems beyond its use as a tool for growth. As a means of exploring what it means to be human, writing poetry can add depth to human lives.
Beck, 1976 A.T. Beck, Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders, Grune & Stratton, New York (1976).
Beck and Emery, 1985 A.T. Beck and G. Emery, Anxiety disorders and phobias, Basic Books, New York (1985).
Beck, 1995 J.S. Beck, Cognitive therapy: Basics and beyond, The Guilford Press, New York (1995).
Beck Institute, 2000 Beck Institute (2000). The Beck Institute for cognitive therapy and research. [on-line] http://www.beckinstitute.org/about.htm.
Blanton, 1960 S. Blanton, The healing power of poetry, Thomas Crowell, New York (1960).
DiGiuseppe, 1981 R. DiGiuseppe, Using rational-emotive therapy effectively, Plenum Publishing, New York (1981).
Ellis, 1958 A. Ellis, Rational psychotherapy, Journal of General Psychology 59 (1958), pp. 37–47.
Ellis, 1973 A. Ellis, My philosophy of psychotherapy, Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy 6 (1973), pp. 13–18. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (3)
Ellis, 1976 A. Ellis, Conquering low frustration tolerance (cassette recording), Institute for Rationale-Emotive Therapy, New York (1976).
Ellis, 1994 A. Ellis, The essence of rational emotive therapy, Institute for Rational Emotive Therapy, New York (1994).
Epston, 1994 D. Epston, Extending the conversation, Family Therapy Networker 18 (1994) (6), pp. 31–37.
Freud, 1963 S. Freud In: P. Rieff, Editor, General psychological theory: papers on metapsychology, Collier Books, New York (1963) With an Introduction.
Furman, 2003 R. Furman, Cognitive and existential theories in social work practice, The Social Work Forum 36 (2003), pp. 59–68. View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (1)
Gergen, 1985 K. Gergen, The social constructionist movement in modern psychology, American Psychologist 40 (1985), pp. 266–275. Abstract | PDF (916 K) | Full Text via CrossRef
Glasser, 1965 W. Glasser, Reality therapy: A new approach to psychiatry, Harper & Row, New York (1965).
Harrower, 1972 Harrower, M. (1972). The therapy of poetry. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Hirshfield, 1997 J. Hirshfield, Nine gates: Entering the mind of poetry, Harper Collins, New York (1997).
Holman, 1996 W.D. Holman, The power of poetry: Validating ethnic identity through a bibliotherapeutic intervention with a Puerto Rican adolescent, Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 13 (1996) (5), pp. 371–383. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (3)
Houlding and Holland, 1988 S. Houlding and P. Holland, Contributions of a poetry writing group to the treatment of severely disturbed psychiatric inpatients, Clinical Social Work Journal 16 (1988) (2), pp. 194–200. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (2)
Kelly, 1955 Kelly, G. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs. New York: Norton.
Langosch, 1987 D. Langosch, The use of poetry therapy with emotionally disturbed children, The American Journal of Social Psychiatry 7 (1987) (2), pp. 97–100.
Lazarus, 1981 A.A. Lazarus, The practice of multimodal therapy, McGraw-Hill, New York (1981).
Leahy, 1996 R.L. Leahy, Cognitive-behavioral therapy: Basic principles and applications, Jason Aronson Publishers, New York (1996).
Leedy, 1969 In: J.J. Leedy, Editor, Poetry therapy: The use of poetry in the treatment of emotional disorders, Lippincott, Philadelphia, PA (1969).
Mahoney, 1991 M. Mahoney, Human change processes, Basic Books, New York (1991).
Mahrer, 1989 A.R. Mahrer, The integration of psychotherapies: A guide for practicing therapists, Human Sciences Press, New York (1989).
Mazza, 1996 N. Mazza, Poetry therapy: A framework and synthesis of techniques for family social work, Journal of Family Social Work 1 (1996) (3), pp. 3–18. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (4)
Mazza, 1999 M. Mazza, Poetry therapy: Interface of the arts and psychology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (1999).
McLoughlin, 2000 D. McLoughlin, Transition, transformation, and the art of losing: Some uses of poetry in hospice care for the terminally ill, Psychodynamic Counseling 6 (2000) (2), pp. 215–234. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (4)
Meichenbaum, 1977 D. Meichenbaum, Cognitive-behavior modification: An integrative approach, Plenum, New York (1977).
Payne, 1997 M. Payne, Modern social work theory (second ed.), Lyceum, Chicago (1997).
Postman, 1992 N. Postman, Technopoly: The surrender of culture to technology, Random House Inc., New York (1992).
Prescott, 1922 F. Prescott, The poetic mind, Macmillan, New York (1922).
Reiter, 1997 S. Reiter, Poetry therapy: Testimony on Capitol Hill, Journal of Poetry Therapy 10 (1997) (3), pp. 169–178.
Sharf, 1996 Sharf, R. S. (1996). Theories of psychotherapy and counseling. Pacific Grove: Books Cole.
Shelton, 1999 Shelton, D. L. (1999). Healing words. Washington, DC: AMA Staff News. Taken from the World Wide Web on April 25, 2003. http://ama-assn.org/scipubs/amnews/pick_99/feat0517.htm.
Shrodes, 1949 Shrodes, C. (1949). Bibliotherapy. A theoretical and clinical experimental study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
Silverman, 1993 H.L. Silverman, Poetry as a psychotherapeutic intervention. In: R. Kapnick and A.A. Kelly, Editors, Thinking on the edge, Agamemnon Press, Burbank, CA (1993), pp. 33–50.
Wadeson, 1981 H. Wadeson, Self-exploration and integration through poetry writing, The Arts in Psychotherapy 8 (1981) (3).
Walen et al., 1980 W.R. Walen, R. DiGuiseppe and R.L. Wessler, A practitioner's guide to rational emotive therapy, Oxford University Press, New York (1980).
Werner, 1986 H.D. Werner, Cognitive theory. In: F.J. Turner, Editor, Social work treatment, The Free Press, New York (1986), pp. 91–129.
White and Epston, 1990 M. White and D. Epston, Narrative means to therapeutic ends, Norton, New York (1990).
The Arts in Psychotherapy Volume 33, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 180-187 |
|