개과동물-사하라남쪽 아프리카

[대 박]

줄무늬 자칼의 신체측정표및 분포도입니다.

체중은 짐바으웨의 50마리 수컷 평균 9.4키로군요.

Food:

The side-striped jackal is omnivorous, and their
diet is very responsive to both seasonal and local variation
in food availability. On commercial farmland in the
Zimbabwe highveld, they eat mainly wild fruit (30%) and
small- (<1kg) to medium-sized (>1kg) mammals (27%
and 23%, respectively), with the remainder of their diet
comprising birds, invertebrates, cattle cake, grass and
carrion (Atkinson et al. 2002a). In wildlife areas of western
Zimbabwe, side-striped jackals feed largely on invertebrates
during the wet season and small mammals up to the size of
a springhare (Pedetes capensis) during the dry months of
the year. This species scavenges extensively from safari
camp rubbish dumps and occasionally from large carnivore
kills (although they are out-competed for this resource by
black-backed jackals) (Loveridge and Macdonald 2002,
2003). In the Ngorongoro Crater, Estes (1991) recorded
the species competing with black-backed jackals to catch
Grant’s gazelle (Gazella granti) fawns. Certain fruits may
be taken almost exclusively when in season (Smithers and
Wilson 1979; Atkinson et al. 2002a). The species appears
less predatory than other jackals, although Estes (1991)
states that they may be just as predatory as other jackals
when prey is highly available

Social behaviour
Side-striped jackals occur solitarily, in pairs and in family
groups of up to seven individuals (although see Foraging
behaviour above). The basis of the family unit is the mated
pair, which has been known to be stable over several years.
In game areas of western Zimbabwe, home ranges varied
seasonally from 0.2km² (hot dry season) to 1.2km² (cold
dry season), whereas in highveld farmland, they were
seasonally stable and in excess of 4.0km² (a third of the
yearly total range). Sub-adults disperse from the natal
territory, up to 12km in highveld farmland and 20km in
game areas of western Zimbabwe. In highveld farmland,
territories are configured to encompass sufficient patches
of grassland, where resources are most available, and the

structure of the habitat mosaic appears an important
factor. Home ranges overlap by about 20% in highveld
farmland and 33% in game areas. The residents use the
core territory almost exclusively (Atkinson 1997a).
The species has a wide repertoire of sounds, including
an explosive bark (“bwaa!”), growls, yaps, cackles, whines,
screams, a croaking distress call, and a hooting howl (Estes
1991; Kingdon 1997). Calling occurs all year round, but is
especially common between pair members during the mating
period. Jackals from neighbouring territories sometimes
answer each other. Captive pups have been heard calling at
eight weeks, but may start earlier (Atkinson 1997a).

줄무늬자칼은 잡식성 동물로써 짐바으웨에선
먹이군비율이 야생과일 30%, 1킬로이하,1킬로이상의 소형중형 포유류가
각각 27,23%를 치자한다 합니다. 그외 커다란 포식자들이 먹다 남긴것을
먹거나 분화구에서 검은등재칼과 그랜트가젤 새끼를 잡기위한 경쟁을 한다는군요.

줄무늬 자칼은 1~7마리정도의 규모로 산다하며
영역너비는 짐바으웨에선 더운건기에는 0.2제곱키로 시원한 건기에는 1.2제곱키로

고지대에선 4제곱키로에 달하는 영역너비를 가진다 합니다.

서로간의 의사소통은 짖기, 으르렁거리기,낄낄거리기,깽깽거리는등으로 한다는군요.
이웃들과 서로 소통하는데 생후 8주된 새끼부터 그런다는군요.

Competition
Side-striped jackals compete for food with a wide variety
of other animals, including other canids, mustelids,
viverrids, felids, primates and humans. Many of these
competitors are more specialised, and the side-striped
jackal’s survival is due to its own flexibility. An interesting
case of inter-specific, intra-generic and intra-guild
competition has been documented in wildlife areas of
western Zimbabwe. Here black-backed and side-striped
jackals occur in sympatry. Diet does not differ significantly
between the species, but there are marked differences in
habitat use. Black-backed jackals use open grassland,
while side-stripes use woodland and scrub areas.
Interestingly, and in an unusual and perhaps unique
circumstance where a larger mammalian carnivore is

displaced by a smaller one, black-backed jackals (7–9kg)
aggressively displace the larger side-striped jackal (10–
12kg) (Loveridge and Macdonald 2003).

Natural sources of mortality

Leopards (Panthera pardus) are the only regular predator of the side-striped jackal,
although they may fall prey to other large carnivores. As
noted above, pup mortality is thought to be high.

위에 말한것처럼 검은등 재칼과 사는곳은 좀 다르지만 경쟁관계인데
덩치가 작은 검은등 재칼에게 보다 덩치가 큰 줄무늬재칼이
쫒긴다는군요.

천적은 표범만이 유일한 줄무늬 재칼의 규칙적으로 포식하며
그외 커다란 포식자들에게 죽임을 당한다 합니다. 새끼의 사망률역시 높구요,

황금재칼의 신체측정표및 분포도 입니다.
인도 구자라트의 6마리 수컷 평균 8.8킬로군요.

Food

Golden jackals are omnivorous and opportunistic
foragers, and their diet varies according to season and
habitat. In East Africa, although they consume
invertebrates and fruit, over 60% of their diet comprises
rodents, lizards, snakes, birds (from quail to flamingos),
hares, and Thomson’s gazelle (Gazella thomsoni) (Wyman
1967; Moehlman 1983, 1986, 1989). In Bharatpur, India,
over 60% of the diet comprised rodents, birds and fruit
(Sankar 1988), while in Kanha, Schaller (1967) found that
over 80% of the diet consisted of rodents, reptiles and
fruit. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, India, scat analysis (n=136)
revealed that their diet comprised mainly mammals (45%
occurrence, of which 36% was rodents), vegetable matter
(20%), birds (19%), and reptiles and invertebrates (8%
each) (Mukherjee 1998). Great quantities of vegetable
matter occur in the diet of jackals and, during the fruiting
season in India, they feed intensively on the fruits of
Ziziphus sp.,

Social behaviour
The social organisation of golden jackals is extremely
flexible depending on the availability and distribution of
food resources (Macdonald 1979a; Moehlman 1983, 1986,
1989; Fuller et al. 1989; Moehlman and Hofer 1997; and
see Food and foraging behaviour). The basic social unit is
the breeding pair, which is sometimes accompanied by its
current litter of pups and/or by offspring from former
litters (Moehlman 1983, 1986, 1989). In Tanzania, golden
jackals usually form long-term pair bonds, and both
members mark and defend their territories, hunt together,
share food, and cooperatively rear the young (Moehlman
1983, 1986, 1989). Of a total of 270 recorded jackal sightings
in the Bhal and Kutch areas of Gujarat, India, 35%
consisted of two individuals, 14% of three, 20% of more
than three, and the rest of single individuals (Y. Jhala
unpubl.). Moehlman and Hofer (1997) give average group
size as 2.5 in the Serengeti, Tanzania, while average pack
size in Velavadar National Park, India, was 3.0 (n=7) (Y.
Jhala unpubl.).
Scent marking by urination and defecation is common
around denning areas and on intensively used trails. Such
scent flag posts are considered to play an important role in
territorial defence (Rosevear 1974). Although Moehlman
(1983) reports maintenance of year-round exclusive
territories in Tanzania, aggregations in Israel (Macdonald
1979a) and India (Y. Jhala pers. obs.) point towards the
flexibility of social organisation depending on available

food resources. Recent data obtained by telemetry from
the Bhal area of India suggest that most breeding pairs are
spaced well apart and likely maintain a core territory
around their dens (Y. Jhala unpubl.). Feeding ranges of
several jackals in the Bhal overlapped, as also reported by
Van Lawick and Van Lawick-Goodall (1970).

Jackals were observed to range over large distances in search of
food and suitable habitat, and linear forays of 12–15km in
a single night were not uncommon (A. Aiyadurai and Y.
Jhala unpubl.). Non-breeding members of a pack may
stay near a distant food source like a carcass for several
days prior to returning to their original range. Recorded
home range sizes vary from 1.1–20km2 (Van Lawick and
Van Lawick-Goodall 1970; Kingdon 1977; Poche et al.
1987; Y. Jhala unpubl.), depending on the distribution
and abundance of food resources.
Affiliative behaviours like greeting ceremonies,
grooming, and group vocalisations are common in jackal
social interactions (Van Lawick and Van Lawick-Goodall
1970; Golani and Keller 1975). Vocalisation consists of a
complex howl repertoire beginning with 2–3 simple, lowpitch
howls and culminating in a high-pitched staccato of
calls. Jackals are easily induced to howl and a single howl
evokes responses from several jackals in the vicinity.
Golden jackals often emit a warning call that is very
different from that of their normal howling repertoire in
the presence of large carnivores like tigers, hyaenas and
wolves (Jerdon 1874; Y. Jhala pers. obs.). In India, howling
is more frequent between December and April, a time
when pair bonds are being established and breeding occurs,
perhaps suggesting a role in territory delineation and
defence (Jaeger et al. 1996).

황금자칼역시 잡식성이며 동아프리카녀석들은
먹이군중 60%이상을 설치류,도마뱀,뱀,새,토끼,톰슨가젤이 차지한다 합니다.

인도의 바랏푸르에서는 먹이의 60%이상을 설치류,과일로 구성되며
사리스카 호랑이 보호구에선 먹이의 45%가 포유류인데 설치류는 36%라 하며
채식은 20%, 새 19% 뱀과 무척추동물이 8%를 차지한다는군요.

황금자칼의 무리구성은 먹이에 따라 유연하게 그 규모가 바뀐다 합니다.
구자라트에서 270마리의 재칼의 무리를 관찰한결과
35%가 두마리, 14%가 3마리, 3마리이상무리가 20%를 차지했다 했으며
나머지 31%는 단독구성이라는군요.

탄자니아에선 평균 2.5마리, 인도에선 평균 3마리의 무리수였으며
자칼의 영역너비는 1.1~20제곱키로미터라 합니다. 그리고 하울링은 대형포식자에 대한
경보로 쓰이는데  재칼의 서식지에
보다 큰 포식자들인 호랑이,하이에나,늑대등이 같이 있을경우엔 하울링이 잦다는군요.

Competition
The existence of three sympatric species of jackals (golden,
black-backed and side-striped) in East Africa is explained
in part by resource partitioning and the high relative
diversity of prey and predators in Africa (Fuller et al.
1989; Wayne et al. 1989).
Golden jackals have been observed to appropriate the
dens of Bengal foxes (Vulpus bengalensis) and porcupines
(Hystrix indica), and also to use abandoned grey wolf
(Canis lupus) dens (Y. Jhala pers. obs.). Jackals often
scavenge off the kills of larger predators like lion (Panthera
leo), tiger (P. tigris), leopard (P. pardus), spotted hyaena
(Crocuta crocuta), dhole (Cuon alpinus) and grey wolf
(Jerdon 1874; Schaller 1967; Van Lawick and Van Lawick-
Goodall 1970; Kruuk 1972; Moehlman 1986; Jhala 1994).
Jackals have been observed following grey wolves on a
hunt and scavenging off wolf kills without evoking any
hostile reactions from wolves (Jhala 1991, 1994).

Natural sources of mortality

In Kutch, India, jackals are predated by striped hyaenas (Hyaena hyaena), and one
hyaena maternity den had three jackal carcasses (Y. Jhala
unpubl.). Spotted hyenas also have been observed to kill
and feed on golden jackals (Kruuk 1972; Kingdon 1977),
and the same probably holds true of other large carnivores.
Singh (1983) reports that pythons (Python morulus) were
a major predator of jackals in Corbett National Park,
India. Jackals are often chased and sometimes killed by
feral dogs when they approach human habitation.

황금재칼은 벵갈여우나 호저의 굴을 도용해 살고 있는 경우도 있다하며
대개 자신보다 큰 포식자인 사자,호랑이,표범,점박이 하이에나,승냥이,늑대등이
남긴먹이를먹는다 합니다. 황금자칼은 늑대의 남긴 먹이를 먹기위해 따라다니며
늑대의 적대적인 태도때문에 하울링은 하지 않는다는군요.

인도에선 재칼의 시체 3구가 새끼를 가진 줄무늬 하이에나 굴에서 발견되었다하며
점박이 하이에나 역시 재칼을 죽이고 먹는것이 관찰되었으며
인도에서 비단뱀에게 당하는것도 목격되었고 사람주거지에 가까이 왔다가
떠돌이개에게 가끔씩 당한다는군요.

검은등 재칼의 신체측정표및 분포도입니다.
체중은 남아프리카 케이프주 59마리 수컷평균 8.1킬로군요.

Food

Black-backed jackals are generalist feeders. Diet
varies according to food availability (Skinner and Smithers
1990; Loveridge and Macdonald 2003), and, when
occurring in sympatry with other carnivores sharing the
©2003 Canid Specialist Group & Global Mammal Assessment
Figure 6.3.1. Current distribution of the blackbacked jackal.

same prey base, food resources are partitioned (Bothma et
al. 1984). Dietary items typically include small- to mediumsized
mammals (e.g., murids, springhares, young
ungulates), reptiles, birds and birds’ eggs, carrion and
human refuse (Roberts 1922; Stuart 1976, 1981; Kingdon
1977, 1997; Ferguson 1980; Rowe-Rowe 1983; Dreyer
and Nel 1990; Skinner and Smithers 1990; Kok 1996), as
well as invertebrates and plants (Bothma 1971b), beached
marine mammals, seals, fish and mussels on coasts (Nel
and Loutit 1986; Avery et al. 1987; Oosthuizen et al. 1997).
Invertebrates, such as termites and insects, are commonly
eaten (Kingdon 1997; Loveridge 1999).

Social behaviour
The monogamous mated pair is the basis of social structure
in this species. The pair bond appears to be life-long in
most cases, and if one member of a pair dies the other often
will lose its territory (Moehlman 1978, 1979; Estes 1991).
Black-backed jackals are territorial using faeces and urine
to demarcate their territorial boundaries (Kingdon 1977;
Ferguson et al. 1983; Skinner and Smithers 1990).

Territories are spatially and temporally relatively stable,
and intruders are aggressively expelled by territory holders.
In Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a mated pair of
black-backed jackals held the same territory for at least
four years (Loveridge 1999). Water sources are shared
with intruders but these perform submissive behaviour to
territory holders, and even their pups (J.A.J. Nel unpubl.).
Density and group size is dependent on food biomass and
dispersion (J.A.J. Nel et al. unpubl.).

Recorded home range sizes vary across the range of the
species. In South Africa, home range size averaged 18.2km²,
(n=14) in the Giants Castle Game Reserve in the KwaZulu-
Natal Drakensberg (Rowe-Rowe 1982). In the more arid
south-western Kalahari, ranges were smaller, with adult
ranges varying from 2.6–5.2km2, (mean 4.3km², n=7) and
subadult ranges from 4.0–8.8km2, (mean 6.3km², n=4)
(Ferguson et al. 1983). In Zimbabwe, home ranges were
largest in the cold, dry season (ca 1.0km² and 1.3km², n=3
and 6 respectively) and smaller in the hot dry season (ca
0.3km² and 0.6km², n=4) (Loveridge and Macdonald
2001), while in the Rift Valley in Kenya, home ranges
varied between 0.7–3.5km², with a mean of 1.8km² (Fuller
et al. 1989). Interestingly, at Cape Cross Seal Reserve on
the Namibian coast, average home range size varied from
7.1–24.9km² (n=4). Here jackals did not defend their
ranges and were not territorial (Hiscocks and Perrin 1988),
whereas in all other cases ranges were defended and
mutually exclusive for pairs.
The black-backed jackal is a very vocal species. A highpitched,
whining howl is used to communicate with group

members and is often used to call the group together in the
early evening; this may also function in territorial
advertisement (Moehlman 1983; Estes 1991). Howling
often stimulates the same behaviour in adjacent territories
or in nearby individuals. A three- to five-syllable alarm
call, consisting of an explosive yelp followed by a series of
shorter high-pitched yelps, is used when disturbed and may
be frantic and prolonged when mobbing leopard (Panthera
pardus). A low-pitched, gruff bark is used to warn pups of
intruders near the den, and whines are used to call to pups.
Kingdon (1997) notes the use of a ‘clattering distress call’
and a loud yelp when alarmed. Interestingly, black-backed
jackals are much less vocal where they occur alongside the
golden jackal, which is the only jackal species heard to howl
in East Africa (Kingdon 1977, 1997).

검은등 재칼의 먹이군은
사체,새,새알,물개같은 해양동물들, 홍합, 식물,벌레등 다양하며

사회성은 암수한쌍을 구조로 이루어지며 새끼의 숫자나 무리규모는
먹이에 따라 달라진다는군요. 영역너비는 남아프리카의 Giants Castle Game Reserve
에선 평균 영역너비가 14개 평균 18.2제곱킬로미터이며

칼라하리에선 2.6~5.2제곱키로로 보다 작으며
나미비아에선 7.1~24.9제곱키로등 지역에 따라 다양합니다.

그리고 역시 낑낑거리나 짖는등으로 의사소통을 하는데 어떤상황이냐에 따라서
소리가 달라진다 합니다. 황금재칼과 더불어 검은등 재칼은 하울링을 할수있는 재칼종이라 합니다.

Competition
Black-backed jackals compete to a small degree with
many small carnivores, but this species’ generalist habits

ensure that such competition is rarely intense and food
resources are partitioned (Bothma et al. 1984). They also
compete for carrion with other scavengers, particularly
hyaenas, lion and vultures. Wyman (1967) found that this
species was much more common than golden jackals at
large carnivore kills in the Ngorongoro crater, Tanzania,
despite being less numerous in the area, while Estes (1991)
notes that black-backed jackals are more likely to attempt
to feed on lion and hyaena kills than other jackal species.
Competition for resources with side-striped jackals has

been recorded in western Zimbabwe. In this case blackbacked
jackals aggressively displaced side-striped jackals
from prime grassland habitat, despite being around 3kg
smaller. Indeed, black-backed jackals are reputed to be
more aggressive than other species of jackal (Kingdon
1977; Skinner and Smithers 1990; Estes 1991) and Estes
(1991) mentions that pups of this species become
‘quarrelsome and unsociable’ and are more likely to
emigrate than golden jackal pups.

Natural sources of mortality

 Natural predators include leopard (Turnbull-Kemp 1967; A. Loveridge pers. obs)
and spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) which may prey on
unprotected pups (Van Lawick and van Lawick-Goodall
1970). Estes (1967) observed 11 jackals taken by a leopard
over the course of three weeks, and they may be a favourite
prey item of leopard in some areas (Kingdon 1977).
Interestingly, a golden jackal was seen killing a litter of
four black-backed jackal pups (about 5–6 weeks old)
while the adults were away hunting (O. Newman and A.
Barrett pers. comm.). Other predators include birds of
prey; Van Lawick and van Lawick-Goodall (1970)
observed a martial eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus) fly away
carrying a subadult black-backed jackal.'

검은등 재칼이 야생에서 차지하는 위치는 낮으며 스캐빈져역활을 하며
위에 말했던 것처럼 분화구에서 3키로나 가벼워도 보다 큰 줄무늬 재칼을 쫒아내며..

재칼의 천적은 표범과 하이에나인데 보호받지 않는 새끼를 노리고
3~4주간 11마리의 재칼이 표범에게 당하는것이 목격되었으며 어쩌면 표범이
가장 좋아하는 먹이중 하나라 볼수 있다는군요.

그리고 황금자칼이 검은등자칼이 사냥나간도중 그들의 새끼를 죽이는것이 목격되었으며
마샬이글에 의해 아성체 재칼이 당하는일도 목격되었다 합니다.

에티오피아 늑대의 신체측정표및 분포도,개체수입니다.
18마리 수컷 평균 16.2킬로군요. 개체수는 500마리 이하정도로 상당히 적습니다.

Food

 Ethiopian wolves feed almost exclusively upon
diurnal rodents of the high-altitude Afroalpine grassland
community. In the Bale Mountains, diurnal rodents
accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in faeces, with
87% belonging to three Bale endemic species, the giant
molerat (300–930g), Blick’s grass rat (Arvicanthis blicki),
and the black-clawed brush-furred rat (Lophuromys
melanonyx) (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995b). Other
prey species include typical vlei rat (Otomys typus), yellowspotted
brush-furred rat (Lophuromys flavopunctatus),
Starck’s hare (Lepus starcki), and goslings and eggs.
Occasionally, wolves were observed feeding on rock hyrax
(Procavia capensis), and young of common duiker
(Sylvicapra grimmia), reedbuck (Redunca redunca) and
mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) (Sillero-Zubiri and
Gottelli 1995b; Malcolm 1997; C. Sillero-Zubiri pers.
obs.). Leaves of sedge (Carex monostachya) are
occasionally ingested, probably to assist digestion or control parasites.

Where the giant molerat is absent, it is replaced in the
wolf diet by the smaller East African molerat, Tachyoryctes
splendens (i.e., Gaysay montane grassland in Bale –
Malcolm 1997, and Menz – Ashenfi 2001). Similarly, in
northern Ethiopia Arvicanthis abyssinicus and Lophurmys
flavopunctatus replace their respective endemic relatives
from Bale A. blicki and L. melanonyx. Elsewhere,
O. typus, a rare prey item in Bale and Menz, was identified
as the commonest prey in droppings collected in other five
populations (Marino 2004). This study confirmed that

wolves are specialised hunters of diurnal rodents all
throughout their distribution, with some degree of dietary
variation along climatic-induced gradients.

Social behaviour
Ethiopian wolves live in packs, discrete and cohesive
social units that share and defend an exclusive territory.
Packs of 3–13 adults (mean=6) congregate for social
greetings and border patrols at dawn, noon and evenings,
and rest together at night, but break up to forage
individually in the morning and early afternoon (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995a).

Annual home ranges of eight packs monitored for four
years averaged 6.0km², with some overlap in home ranges.
Home ranges in an area of lower prey biomass averaged
13.4km² (n=4) (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995a). Overlap
and aggressive encounters between packs were highest
during the mating season. Dispersal movements are tightly
constrained by the scarcity of suitable habitat. Males do
not disperse and are recruited into multi-male philopatric
packs; some females disperse at two years of age and
become ‘floaters’, occupying narrow ranges between pack
territories until a breeding vacancy becomes available
(Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996a). Breeding females are typically
replaced after death by a resident daughter. Pack adult sex
ratio is biased toward males 1.8:1 (n=59), with small
family groups closer to 1:1 (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995a).

Scent marking of territory boundaries, via urine posts,
scratching, and faeces (deposited on conspicuous sites like
mounds, rocks and bushes), and vocalisations, are common
and function in advertising and maintaining territories
(Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald 1998). All pack members,
independent of social rank, regularly scent-mark objects
along territory boundaries with raised-leg urinations and
scratches. Aggressive interactions with neighbouring packs
are common, highly vocal and always end with the smaller
group fleeing from the larger (Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald 1998).
 
Calls can be grouped into two categories: alarm calls,
given at the scent or sight of man, dogs, or unfamiliar
wolves; and greeting calls, given at the reunion of pack
members and to advertise pack size, composition and
position (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1994). Alarm calls
start with a ‘huff’ (rapid expulsion of air through mouth
and nose), followed by a quick succession of high-pitched
‘yelps’ (a series of 4–5 ‘yeahp-yeahp-yeahp-yeahp’) and
‘barks’. ‘Yelps’ and ‘barks’ can also be given as contact
calls, and often attract nearby pack mates. Greeting calls
include a ‘growl’ of threat, a high-frequency ‘whine’ of
submission, and intense ‘group yip-howls’. A lone howl
and a group howl are long-distance calls used to contact
separate pack members and can be heard up to 5km away.
Howling by one pack of wolves may stimulate howling in
adjacent packs. Communal calls muster pack members
before a border patrol.

에티오피아 늑대는 Afroalpine같은 주행성 설치류를 주로 먹으며
먹이군중 96%를 주행성 설치류가 차지하는적도 있다 하며 그외 토끼,알,거위새끼등을
먹으며 가끔 하이렉스,어린 다이커영양,리드벅등을 사냥할때도 있다는군요.

사회성은 에티오피아 늑대는 무리를 이루어살며 다른 늑대들로부터 배타적으로 영역을 지키며
그 규모는 3~13마리 평균은 6마리라 합니다. 6개의 무리의 평균 영역너비는 6제곱키로미터이며
먹이가 부족해질경우 4마리 무리평균 영역너비는 13.4제봅키로미터였다는군요.

그리고 59개 무리평균 1마리 수컷당 1.8마리의암컷이며 무리규모가 작아지면
이비율은 1대1에 가까워진다는군요. 그리고 4-5개의 찍찍거리는 소리나 짖는소리,으르렁거림,
낑낑거림 등으로 대화를 하는데 어떤소리느냐에 따라 그 상황이 틀립니다.

Competition
The high densities and diversity of raptors (12 recorded
species in Bale), many of which have been observed to feed
on small mammals, are likely to pose the greatest
competitive threat to the wolves (although they tend to
clepto-parasitise eagles’s kills – Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli
1995a). In addition, free-ranging domestic dogs, golden
jackals and servals (Leptailurus serval) may also feed
upon the same prey species. There is interference
competition with domestic dogs and spotted hyaenas
(Crocuta crocuta) that will actively chase away wolves
from large carcasses. Honey badgers (Mellivora capensis)
are also possible competitors for food and burrows (Sillero-Zubiri 1996).


Natural sources of mortality

There are no known predators, but unattended young might be taken by spotted
hyaenas or the Verreaux eagle (Aquilla verreauxi). Attacks
of the tawny eagle (Aquilla rapax) directed at small pups
result in swift defence by guarding adults. Other causes
of mortality include starvation of juveniles between
weaning and one year of age. The sex ratio (see above)
indicates that female mortality is higher than that of
males. This is most likely associated with their dispersal as
subadults.

황금자칼,서벌등과 경쟁하며 집개나 하이에나에게
큰 먹이를 두고 쫒겨난다 하는듯 하며 천적은 알려져 있지 않으나
새끼는 하이에나나 Verreaux eagle  tawny eagle ,에게 죽임을 당할듯하다 여겨지며
기아는 큰 사망요인 이라 합니다.

리카온의 신체측정표및 분포도,전체개체수,평균무리규모및 영역너비,
사냥감비율입니다.

체중은 크루거의 12마리 수컷 평균 28.0키로로써
개과동물중 가장큰 늑대 다음으로 큰 크기 입니다.

평균 무리규모는 지역마다 틀립니다만 성체를 기준으로 잡자면
7~8마리정도 되겠군요. 새끼와 아성체를 합하면 15마리정도.

영역너비도 지역마다 틀립니다만 평균값으론 659~1318제곱키로 사이군요.

Food

Wild dogs mostly hunt medium-sized antelope.
Whereas they weigh 20–30kg, their prey average around
50kg, and may be as large as 200kg. In most areas their

principal prey are impala (Aepyceros melampus), kudu
(Tragelaphus strepsiceros), Thomson’s gazelle (Gazella
thomsonii) and wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) (Table
6.5.4). They will give chase of larger species, such as eland
(Tragelaphus oryx) and buffalo (Syncerus caffer), but
rarely kill such prey. Small antelope, such as dik-dik
(Madoqua spp.), steenbok (Raphicerus campestris) and
duiker (tribe Cephalophini) are important in some areas,
and warthogs (Phacochoerus spp.) are also taken in some
populations. Wild dogs also take very small prey such as
hares, lizards and even eggs, but these make a very small
contribution to their diet.

잡히는 사냥감의 평균크기는 50킬로정도라 하며
큰것은 200킬로에 달한다 합니다. 주요먹이는 위에 표에 보시는것처럼 임팔라이며
톰슨가젤,쿠두,누우등도 포함이 됩니다. 그리고 드물지만 일런드나 버팔로를 사냥하는
장면도 있다는군요. 그외 조그만먹이인 토끼,도마뱀,알등도 매우적은 비율이라지만 먹이에 포함됩니다

Competition
Competition with larger predators has a major impact on
wild dogs’ behaviour and population biology (Creel and
Creel 1996; Mills and Gorman 1997). Lions, in particular,
are a major cause of natural mortality (Table 6.5.7, 6.5.8),
and wild dogs tend to move away if they detect the
presence of lions (Creel and Creel 1996). Spotted hyaenas
also occasionally kill dogs of all ages (J.W. McNutt pers.obs.).

 They also steal kills from wild dogs, particularly in
open areas where such kills are easily located (Fanshawe

and FitzGibbon 1993). While the loss of kills to hyaenas is
much less common in more closed bush, wild dogs’ high
metabolic rate means that prey loss to competitors has the
potential to seriously impact their energy balance (Gorman
et al. 1998). Leopards (Panthera pardus) have also been
recorded to kill pups (M.G.L. Mills unpubl.).

Competition with larger carnivores might help to
explain wild dogs’ wide-ranging behaviour. While larger
predators tend to occur at higher densities where prey are
more abundant, wild dogs (like cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus)
tend to avoid these areas. Because they range in areas of
comparatively low prey densities requiring greater travel
times during hunting, they are effectively forced to occupy
larger home ranges. This wide-ranging behaviour, coupled
perhaps with their preference for areas of reduced predator
density, explains why wild dogs inhabiting isolated reserves
are so exposed to human activity on and around reserve
borders.

Mortality and pathogens
Wild dogs experience high mortality in comparison with
other large carnivore species. Annual adult mortality
varies between populations, with averages ranging from
20–57% (summarised in Creel and Creel 2002). Similarly,
pup mortality during the first year of life is relatively high,
and averages around 50% in most populations. There is
some evidence to suggest that pup survival is higher in
large packs where there are more helpers to assist with their care.

The principal cause of natural mortality is predation by lions (Tables 6.5.7,6.5.8),
 although hyaenas, crocodiles and leopards also kill wild dogs in some areas.

표가 3개 있는데 3개중 가장 위에 있는건 국가별로 리카온 보호여부이며

2개의 표는 리카온의 사망률인데 지문과 연관해 말하자면

큰 포식자와 경쟁하는건 리카온의 개체수에 큰영향을 미치며

리카온은 큰 포식자가 많을경우 마치 치타처럼 그지역을 꺼린다 혀며

리카온의 성체 사망률중 대부분은 인간에 의한것으로 73%를 차지하나
새끼의 사망률중 대부분은 자연에서 다른 포식자에 의한것으로 78%를 차지합니다.
사자는 표에 나와있는것처럼 성체 리카온의 자연적 사망요인에선

가장 큰 주요 사망요인입니다.

그리고 하이에나는 가끔 모든 연령대의 리카온을 죽이며 리카온의 먹이도 훔치는데
먹이를 쉽게 약탈할수있는 넓은평원 지역에서 주로 이루어진다 합니다. 수풀지역에선
덜 뺏긴다는군요.
그리고 표범도 표에는 나오지 않지만 새끼를 죽인다 하며,
제가 본 다큐에선 성체도 죽이더군요. 그외 악어도 리카온을 죽인다 합니다

큰귀여우의 신체측정표및 분포도 입니다.
체중은 보츠와나의 22마리 수컷평균 4.0키로고
특이한것이 암컷 29마리 평균 4.1키로군요.

Food

In the Seregenti’s woodland boundary, and the
open grasslands of southern and East Africa, insects are
the primary food sources, with harvester termite and
beetles predominating, and supplemented by smaller
numbers of orthopterans, beetle larvae and ants
(Shortridge 1934; Berry 1978; Nel 1978; Lamprecht 1979;
Waser 1980; Stuart 1981; Malcolm 1986; Mackie 1988;

savannah in Botswana other taxa such as arachnids can be
more common, while fruit is taken seasonally (Nel 1978;
Skinner and Smithers 1990) but can be important in open
shrub vegetation with scattered trees (Skinner and Smithers
1990; Kuntzsch and Nel 1992). Small mammals, birds,
eggs and reptiles are eaten sporadically in southern Africa
(Nel 1978; Skinner and Smithers 1990) but rarely in eastern
Africa (Lamprecht 1979; Maas 1993a).

Seasonal changes in the proportion of particular taxa
occur (Nel 1978; Nel and Mackie 1990; Maas 1993a). In
the Serengeti dung beetles are the main source of food
during the rainy season when termite activity is reduced
(Waser 1980; Maas 1993a). When both are scarce, beetle
larvae are often dug up from the ground (Maas 1993a).
Hodotermes mossambicus is patchily distributed
throughout the Serengeti and may constitute a limiting
resource in this part of the species’ range (Maas 1993a).

Harvester termites and dung beetles are more abundant in
areas inhabited by clusters of bat-eared fox families, and
local differences in H. mossambicus density are inversely
related to territory size (Maas 1993a). Hodotermes
foraging-hole density is positively related to a variety of
demographic and reproductive variables, such as litter
size and female recruitment rate (Maas 1993a). Although
the animals’ water requirements may be met by the high
water content of their insect prey or, in southern Africa,
berries during the summer (Nel 1978; Kuntzsch and Nel
1992), water constitutes a critical resource during lactation (Maas 1993a).

Social behaviour
Bat-eared foxes in southern Africa live in monogamous
pairs with cubs (Nel et al. 1984), while those in eastern
Africa live in stable family groups consisting of a male and
up to three closely related females with cubs (Maas 1993a).
Group size varies with time of year, with a mean of 2.72
(range=1–10; n=623) for O. m. megalotis (Nel et al. 1984);
in the Serengeti, average adult group size is 2.44 (±0.1;
n=18), and group size prior to dispersal of pups is 6.0
(±0.4; n=18) (Maas 1993a). Additional females in extended
family groups are philopatric daughters, sometimes from
several generations, which form a hierarchy based on age.
All females in such ‘super families’ breed (Maas 1993a, see
also Reproductive and denning behaviour).

Groups forage as a unit, and have home ranges from
less than 1km² to more than 3km². In southern Africa
home ranges overlap widely (Nel 1978; Mackie and Nel
1989). However, in East Africa they can either overlap
(Malcolm 1986) or, as in the Serengeti, where they cluster
around harvester termite colonies, be defended as
territories that are patrolled and urine-marked during
part of the year (Lamprecht 1979; Maas 1993a). Group
size determines the outcome during territorial conflict
(Maas 1993a, 1993b). Territory inheritance is not
uncommon in the Serengeti and neighbouring groups can
be closely related, with animals visiting each other from
time to time (Maas 1993a).

Bat-eared foxes engage in frequent and extended allogrooming
sessions, which serve to strengthen group
cohesion (Maas 1993a). In the south-western Kalahari, it
increases markedly (as does urine-marking) during
courtship, when huddling, playing and mutual chasing.
Vigorous and extended social play is very common in this
species, not only in cubs but also adults even after the
young have left (B. Maas unpubl.).

Communication is primarily visual, with a variety of
ear and tail positions, emphasised by dark markings, used
for displays (Nel and Bester 1983; B. Maas pers. obs.). The
unique inverted U position of the tail is indicative of a
range of states of arousal including fear, play and alarm
(Nel and Bester 1983). Vocalisations are mostly soft and
sparingly used (Lamprecht 1979; Nel and Bester 1983),
except when the animals are highly alarmed or excited
during play (Maas 1993a).

Competition
In southern Africa bat-eared foxes are sympatric with
other carnivores (e.g., suricates Suricata suricatta, yellow
mongoose Cynictis penicillata, black-backed jackal Canis
mesomelas and Cape fox Vulpes chama) that also feed on
insects and therefore scramble (and even interference)
competition cannot be ruled out. However, in most cases,

although there is dietary overlap, rank order of particular
prey in the diet of these sympatric carnivores differs
(Bothma et al. 1984; MacDonald and Nel 1986; Kok and
Nel 1992; Kok 1996; Nel and Kok 1999). Bat-eared foxes
attack and mob and can displace Cape foxes, aardvarks,
aardwolves, and black-backed jackals and even hyenas,
especially if the latter approach a den with cubs.

Natural sources of mortality

 During droughts, or in the absence of suitable breeding territories (Maas 1993a),
lack of food can cause starvation, or decrease ability to
avoid predators. Predators include spotted hyaena
(Crocuta crocuta), martial eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus),
spotted eagle owl (Bubo africanus), Verreaux’s eagle owl
(Bubo lacteus), rock pythons (Python sebae) (Maas 1993a),
cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), wild dog (Lycaon pictus)
(Rasmussen 1996), and leopard (Panthera pardus) (Bothma
and Le Riche 1982; J.A.J. Nel pers. obs.). Pups also fall
prey to black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) (Pauw
2000; J.A.J. Nel and B. Maas pers. obs.).

큰귀여우는 대개 곤충을 먹으며
계절별로 과일을 먹고 남아프리카에선 나무에 떨어진 과일이
중요한음식이 되며 조그만 포유류,파충류,새,알등도 가끔씩먹지만
동아프리카에선그러진 않는다는군요.

사회성은 남아프리카녀석들은 부부한쌍과 새끼로 이루어져있다 하며
동아프리카에선 수컷 한마리와 가까운 암컷 3마리정도까지와 새끼로 이루어졌다하며
623개의 무리 규모범위는 1~10마리 이며 평균은 2.72마리라 합니다.

세렝게티에선 2.44마리구요. 꼬리를 u자로 말은건 두려움을 포함한 흥분상태를
나타내는것이라하며 놀거나 경보를 나타낼때 나온다는군요.

의사소통하는 소리는 대부분 부드럽다 합니다.

경쟁자로는 검은등자칼이나 케이프 여우가 있다는군요.

천적은 하이에나,마샬이글,올빼미,락파이톤,리카온,치타,표범이라 하며
새끼들은 검은등 재칼에게 당하기도 한다는군요.

케이프 여우의 신체측정표및 분포도입니다.
체중은 케이프주의 17마리 수컷평균 2.8키로군요.

Food

The Cape fox takes a wide range of food items,
including small rodents (murids), hares, reptiles, birds,
invertebrates and some wild fruits (Bothma 1966a, 1971d;
Smithers 1971; Lynch 1975; Stuart 1981; Bester 1982; Kok
1996). A sample of the contents of 57 stomachs collected
across much of western and central South Africa (former
Cape Province) showed that rodents were by far the most
important mammal prey items; beetles (larvae and adults)
and grasshoppers comprised the majority of invertebrate
intake (Stuart 1981). Other dietary studies, involving
stomach analysis of specimens obtained from Botswana
(n=23, Smithers 1971), Free State (n=58, Lynch 1975;
n=192, Bester 1982), the former Transvaal province (n=66,
Bothma 1971d) and South Africa in general (n=37, Bothma1966a)

 have revealed similar trends. Birds and reptiles are
occasionally included in the diet but these do not appear to
be important. The largest wild prey species recorded include
hares (Lepus spp.) and springhares (Pedetes capensis) (Lynch
1975). Prey utilisation seems to reflect prey availability and
seasonal variation in prey use occurs (Bester 1982). They
will also scavenge and occasionally include young lambs
and goats in their diet (Stuart 1981; Bester 1982).

Social behaviour
The ecology of the Cape fox is poorly known and much of
what is known comes from the study undertaken by Bester
(1982) in the Free State. Cape foxes live in monogamous
pairs. They appear to have overlapping home ranges,

especially in areas where food is abundant, although the
defended territory is believed to be a limited area around
the den in which the female has her litter (Skinner and
Smithers 1990). Home ranges ranged in size from 1.0–
4.6km² (Bester 1982) and are likely to vary according to rainfall and food abundance.

The main vocal communication consists of a highpitched
howl, ending with a sharp bark. The vixen may
bark when a potential predator approaches a den occupied
by pups (Smithers 1983). Facial expressions and tail
positions play an important role in visual communication (Le Clus 1971; Bester 1982).

Competition
Although poorly known, it is likely that the black-backed
jackal (Canis mesomelas) is a competitor, and an occasional
predator. It is likely that other predators, such as the
caracal (Caracal caracal), are also competitors. Where
Cape foxes coexist with possible competitors, such as
black-backed jackal, some separation in prey use is evident
(Bothma et al. 1984; Kok 1996). Over much of its range,
large predators have been eradicated or greatly reduced in numbers.


Natural sources of mortality

C. Stuart and T. Stuart (pers. obs.) 
recorded two instances of predation by black-backed jackal,

and Mills (1984) observed a single case of predation

by a leopard (Panthera pardus) in the Kalahari.

케이프 여우의 먹이는 설치류,토끼,파충류,새,과일등으로 다양하며
남중앙 아프리카에서57마리의 위장을 검사해본결과 설치류가 가장 중요한 먹이감이라
합니다. 먹이로 삼는 무척추동물중에선 딱정벌레와 메뚜기가 주를 이룬다 합니다.

그외 58마리를 조사한 보츠와나 66마리를 조사한 트란스발,37마리를 조사한 남아프리카
모두 비슷한경향을 나타냈다 합니다.

사회성은 한쌍을 이루어 산다 하지만 알려져있는것이 적다 합니다.
영역너비는 건기냐 우기에 따라서 1.0~4.6제곱키로 수준이라는군요.
주요 의사소통수단은 고성의 하울링과 날카로운 짖기라는군요.

경쟁자에 대한 정보역시 빈약하지만 검은등재칼로 간주되고 있으며
가끔 재칼에게 잡아먹히기도 하며 다른 포식자이면서 경쟁자는 카라칼이 있다 합니다.

사망률은 재칼에게 잡아먹힌 기록이 2건이 있으며 1건의 표범에게 당한사건이
칼라하리에서 있었다 합니다.

[Frederic Caudron]

매번 자료 잘보고 있습니다~~~!!

[대 박]

감사합니다.^^

[황희정승]

리카온 왠지 멋진동물 ㅎㅎ 수컷은 약30kg이니.. 꽤 크군요.. 늑대도 큰 종을 빼면 리카온이랑 비슷하지않나싶네요 ㅎㅎ

[대 박]

예 늑대도 작은녀석들은 30키로에 미치질 못하니..리카온은 실제로 본적이 없는데 실제로 보면 꽤나 클거 같습니다.