원장님 경하드립니다. 역쉬 원장님이십니다.

[모카]

배상덕 박사, 업계 최초 국제 학술지에 논문 수록

Diamond & Related Materials지에 'Natually formed epitaxial diamond crystals in rubies' 논문 수록

◈	배상덕 박사(한국보석학원 원장)

배상덕 박사(한국보석학원 원장)가 국제적인 학술지 “Diamond & Related Materials” 에 보석 및 귀금속 업계인으로서는 최초로 ”Natually formed epitaxial diamond crystals in rubies“ 이라는 연구논문을 투고하여 수록되는 기록을 남겼다.

“Diamond & Related Materials”는 ISI(Institute for Scientific Information)에서 정한 Impact Factor가 ‘1.988’인 정도로 상당히 높은 등급의 학술지이며, 다이아몬드 분야에서는 유일하게 ISI에 등재되어 있는 학술지이기도 하다.

참고로 국제적으로 널리 알려진 모든 학술지들은 ISI에 등재되어 있고, ISI에 등재된 학술지(14,000여편)에 수록된 모든 논문들은 그 논문들이 얼마만큼 다른 연구자들에게 인용이 되었느냐에 따라 그 학술지의 “Impact Factor”라는 것을 정하게 된다. 좋은 논문일수록 많은 연구자들이 그 논문내용을 많이 인용/참고해서 자신의 논문에 활용할 것이므로, Impact Factor가 높은 학술지일수록 좋은 논문을 많이 실었다는 의미가 된다.

현재 ISI에 등재된 14,000여편의 학술지중 2005년을 기준으로 ‘0’ 이상의 Impact Factor를 가진 학술지는 6035편이며, 이번에 배상덕 박사가 기고한 “Diamond & Related Materials”는 science분야의 연구자들에게는 국제적으로 널리 알려져 있는 학술지로서, Impact Factor가 1.988로 1575위에 랭크되어 있다.

한편 우리에게 친숙한 GIA의 ‘Gem & Gemology’는 Impact Factor가 1.762로 1849위에 랭크되어 있어, “Diamond & Related Materials”가 ‘Gem & Gemology’보다도 훨씬 등급이 높은 저널이라는 것을 알 수 있으며, 기타 우리 주얼리업계와 관련해서 전세계에서 발행되는 모든 저널들은 ISI에 등재도 되어 있지 못한 것으로 알고 있다.
ISI(Institute for Scientific Information)에 등재되는 것만도 상당한 수준의 학술지라는 것을 알 수 있다.

다만 이 Impact Factor가 학술지의 모든 수준을 대변해 줄 수 없다. 일례로 전세계적으로 널리 알려져 있고 우리에게는 황우석 박사건으로도 너무도 친숙한 저널인 미국의 Science지가 8위이고, 영국의 Nature지가 13위이며, 전혀 듣지도 못한 “CA-CANCER J CLIN” 이라는 학술지가 1위에 랭크되어 있으니 말이다. 당연히 전체순위가 아니라 전공분야별로 세분되어 평가되어야 하는 것은 당연한 것이다.

이번에 배상덕 박사가 쓴 논문의 핵심포인트는 다음과 같다.

1. 논문제목 : Natually formed epitaxial diamond crystals in rubies
2. 게재지 : Diamond & Related Materials Vol. 16, Issue 2, 397-400
3. 논문 발표일 : Feb. 2007
4. 게재기관 : Elsevier

5. Astract (내용 요약) :
자연의 영혼이 물들어진 재료는 현대 사이언스에서 주요 연구 테마이다. 이러한 자연에 의해 만들어진 결정들중에서는 아마도 다이아몬드가 가장 상징적일 것이다.

상식적으로 천연 다이아몬드는 고온, 고압에서만 합성되는 것으로 알려져 있다. 본 논문에서는 Ruby 위에 Epitaxy하게 자란 고품질의, 새로운 천연 다이아몬드에 대해 소개한다.

Ruby 내부에서의 다이아몬드 성장은 찾아보기 힘들다. 더구나, 그 안에서 Heteroepitaxial 다이아몬드 성장은 더욱 희귀하다. 결론적으로 Ruby 안에서 천연 다이아몬드의 Epitaxy 성장은 Ruby가 결정화한 후에 열역학적으로 다이아몬드 성장이 안정한 조건에서 자랐음을 나타낸다. 이러한 다이아몬드 epitaxy 성장에 대한 자연의 놀라운 통제 능력은 자연의 영혼이 숨쉬는 보석수준의 고품질 결정들을 합성할 수 있는 용이한 방법을 깨우쳐 준다.

6. Conclusion (결론)
본 논문은 Epitaxial 다이아몬드에 대한 보석용 결정의 천연적 성장과 관련하여 다음과 같은 결론을 내릴 수 있었다. ① Heteroepitaxial 형태의 이 다이아몬드 결정은 루비 모암 속에 완전하게 편입되어 있다는 것이다. 다이아몬드 결정의 핵은 루비의 평편한 결정면 위에서 성장되었고, 또한 이 다이아몬드 내포물의 결합구조는 다이아몬드의 결정격자와 그 대칭성이 일치하는 루비의 (0001)면을 결정면으로 공유하고 있다. ② 자연은 결정의 성장에 필요한 화학성분을 찾아낸다는 것이다. 이 논문에서 연구한 침상 내포물은 Fe, Ni 및 Cr 불순물과 탄소 및 산소가 풍부한 여건 속에서 성장하였는데, Cr과 함께 Fe와 Ni은 모두 열역학적으로 다이아몬드의 안정 역역에서 다이아몬드의 성장을 촉진시키는 용매와 촉매로 알려져 있다. ③ 이러한 두 가지의 조건 속에서 루비가 성장하는 온도와 압력 속에서 다이아몬드 결정이 적절하게 성장할 수 있었던 것이다. 또한 Hetero-epitaxial 기법으로 성장된 합성 다이아몬드 필름에 비하여, 이 루비 결정 속에 나타난 천연적인 다이아몬드 내포물은 그 크기와 품질 면에서 예외적인 것이라고 할 수 있다.

이번 논문은 배상덕 원장이 박사학위 논문(제목-보석의 침상내포물 본질과 미세구조에 관한 연구) 실험을 하던 중 루비내부의 침상내포물내에 다이아몬드 결정이 함유된 것(배상덕 원장의 박사학위 논문 111쪽)이 FE-TEM 실험결과 확인되어, 루비내부에 다이아몬드 결정의 성장이 어떻게 가능한 것인지에 대한 연구를 다시 시작해 보자는 의지가 있어서, 배상덕 박사가 자신과 함께 연구할 수 있는 각 분야의 분석전문가들과 함께 약 1년6개월여동안 같이 연구를 한 결과, 국제적인 학술지에 논문을 쓰게 되는 이런 뛰어난 성과를 거두었다고 한다.


Naturally formed epitaxial diamond crystals in rubies

Gyeong-Su Parka, Sang-Duk Baeb, Steve Granickc, Jang-Ho Leea, Sung Chul Baec, Taekyung Kimc, J. M. Zuoc

a Analytical Engineering Center, Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, San 14-1, Nong-Seo Ri, Ki-Hung Ueb, Yong-In Gun, Kyung-Ki Do, 449-900, Korea
b Gemological Institute of Korea, GemNuri Bd. 211, NakWon-Dong, JongNo-Gu, Seoul, Korea
c F Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1304 West Green Street, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA

Abstract

Materials inspired by nature comprise a running theme of modern science. Among the crystals that can be formed, diamond is perhaps most emblematic. In the conventional thinking, natural diamonds form only under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions. Here we show a new, natural form of diamond crystals of high quality that are epitaxial with their ruby substrate. Diamonds in rubies are rare; heteroepitaxial diamonds are twice as unexpected. Epitaxy suggests that the natural diamonds in the rubies were formed after ruby crystallization in a thermodynamically diamond stable region. This striking natural control over diamond epitaxy suggests a general strategy by which to form naturally-inspired, gem-quality crystals.

1. Introduction

Diamond-based electronics, optics and biosensors [1-3] require the high-quality of diamond crystals, such as epitaxially grown thin films. Heteroepitaxial diamond filmson non-diamond substrates grown under low pressure and low temperature (diamond-metastable) conditions have attracted significant interest [4,5]. However, compared with natural diamonds, the synthetic diamond films by heteroepitaxy often show small crystals in sizes less than 0.5 μm [6-8] and the crystals suffer from many crystalline defects.
Ruby inclusions formed in diamonds were uncommonly reported [9]. As the singular case, diamonds were discovered in Vietnam ruby gems [10,11] as needle inclusions. The needle inclusions are large enough to be directly observed under an optical microscope (see the inset of Fig. 1a), and their dimension is about 0.6-1.4 mm long and 3-10 m wide. Natural diamonds are commonly known to crystallize from volatile (C-H-O) rich fluids [12], or alkali-rich mantle fluids [13,14] at pressures of 5-6 GPa and temperatures in the range of 900-1400 ℃ [15]. This is well beyond ruby formation conditions (~0.2-1.05 GPa and 500-750 ℃ depending on geological locations) [16,17]. However, it is not reasonable to suppose that these diamonds were pre-formed in the needle inclusions and trapped before the crystallization of the ruby host, as natural diamond gem deposits are not known in the geologic area of Vietnam.

2. Experimental

To clarify the nature of the diamonds in the Vietnam ruby, we carefully characterized the diamond structure/morphology and the inclusion chemistry using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), confocal Raman microscopy, and optical microscopy. For TEM analysis, athin cross-section of the needle inclusions was prepared using the focused ion beam (FIB) method. During the sample preparation, the positions of the inclusions in the ruby were accurately determined by laser marking with an optical microscope.

3. Results and discussion

Figure 1a shows a microscopy picture of the internal structure of the needle inclusion obtained at the enclosed rectangular region indicated in the inset. The width of the inclusion is about 3.00.5 m. Four different minerals were found in the inclusion labeled M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4. We note that mineral M-1 has a trapezoidal cross-section of 1.0 m sitting on the ruby host with a flat interface (as indicated by a black dotted line), which is unlike other interfaces in the inclusion.

Fig.1. Needle inclusions in a Vietnam ruby. The optical microscopy image in the inset shows the pinkish red Vietnam ruby and the needle inclusions (indicated by arrows). (a)A cross-sectional TEM image, which shows the internal structure of a needle inclusion in the Vietnam ruby. The inclusion consists of four minerals (M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4). The black dotted line indicates the flat interface between the ruby host and the mineral particle M-1. (b)The carbon K-edge electron energy-loss spectra taken from the carbon mineral M-1. Compared to graphite, the carbon mineral M-1 shows only the * peak (290 eV) indicating sp3 bonding and diamond structure.

The crystal structures and chemical compositions of the four minerals were determined by high-resolution TEM (HRTEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectr-ometry (EDS), and electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) these data are summarized in Table 1 (See Supplementary Data, Figs. S1, S2 and S3). The presence of Fe, Ni and Cr in the fluid inclusion is significant because both Fe and Ni are well known catalysts [18,19] for diamond growth and Cr is a good carbon solvent [19]. EELS analysis was performed to identify the bonding structure of the carbon mineral M-1 with the energy resolution of 0.8 eV. Figure 1b compares one of the carbon K-edge electron energy-loss spectra obtained from mineral M-1 with that of a graphite particle. Unlike the alternative possibility of graphite, which has both * peak (285 eV) and * peak, the observed pure * peak without * states in the spectra obtained from mineral M-1 confirm‎s carbon sp3bonding. This is characteristic of diamonds, as diamonds have only the * peak (290 eV) [20].
The epitaxial relation of this diamond to the ruby substrate was another notable observation.

Fig.2. TEM characterization of the diamond crystal M-1 formed on the ruby surface. (a) An enlarged TEM image of the flat interface between the ruby host and the diamond crystal M-1. The lines indicate the lattice planes of the ruby and diamond. The origin of the gap at the interface is most likely an artifact induced during the TEM sample preparation. (b) and (c) SAED patterns taken from the ruby host and the diamond particle shown in (a). The ruby is oriented with the (0001) plane parallel to the interface. (d) An HRTEM image of the diamond crystal. Both the SAED patterns and the HRTEM image show that the single crystal structure of the cubic diamond particle grows in the (11) orientation on the ruby (0001) basal plane.

Figure 2a shows a TEM image of the flat interface between the ruby host and the diamond crystal. Rubycrystals have a hexagonal corundum structure. A selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern, taken from the ruby host, indicates that the ruby in the picture is oriented with the (0001) plane of the hexagonal structure parallel to the interface (Fig. 2b). Figures 2c and 2d show an SAED pattern and an HRTEM image, respectively, taken from the diamond particle. Both show a single crystal with the cubic diamond structure. Atomic distances, precisely measured by the SAED and nano-area electron diffraction (NED) pattern [21], also verify that the diamond has an Fd3mcubic structure. The crystallographic relation between the diamond crystal and the ruby matrix indicates that natural diamond grew in the {111} orientation (or (11) according to the index of the diffraction pattern) on the ruby (0001) basal plane with an in-plane relationship of diamond [011]//ruby [1010]. It must be pointed out that this orientation relationship is exactly the same as for epitaxially grown synthetic diamondson a sapphiresubstrate [22], which has the same crystal structure as the ruby. The (0001) plane of the ruby is hexagonal, which matches the symmetry of the diamond {111} lattice planes. The mismatch between the (0001) plane of the ruby and the {111} diamond planes is also small, 6% at ambient pressure and temperature. Low mismatch is a condition for heteroepitaxial growth.

Fig.3. ConfocalRaman spectroscopy of the needle inclusion in a ruby. The optical microscope image showing the positions of Ar+ laser beams focused on the needle inclusion is indicated in the inset. (a) Raman spectra obtained at three positions of the needle inclusion and the ruby host, using an excitation wavelength of 488 nm. The Raman spectra show sharp first-order diamond peaks at 1,3321 cm-1and the five ruby characteristic peaks at 3791 cm-1, 4171 cm-1, 5771 cm-1, 6461 cm-1, and 7511 cm-1. (b) Raman contour map in the x-y plane of the intensity of the diamond (1,3321 cm-1) obtained from the needle inclusion area 2 in the inset with a 0.3 m spot. The diamond crystal has a hexagonal faceted shape. (c) Schematic view of natural diamond crystals epitaxially growninside the needle inclusion in the Vietnam ruby. Hexagonal-shaped diamond crystals nucleated from the flat (0001) plane of the ruby and grew in the (11) orientation with an in-plane arrangement. The diamond crystals were widely distributed along the needle inclusion corresponding to the diamond-[011] dire

In order to identify the three-dimensional (3-D) morphology of these diamonds, we used confocal Raman microscopy. First, an Ar+ laser beam of 0.3 m spot size was focused onto three positions along the needle inclusion and the ruby host for Raman spectroscopy (see the inset of Fig.3a). The Raman spectra (Fig. 3a) unambiguously exhibit a sharp first-order diamond peak [23] at 1,3321 cm-1, widely distributed in space, thus showing that the diamond crystals are distributed along the needle inclusion. The same Raman diamond peaks were also reproducibly detected in other needle inclusions. A Raman contour map (Fig. 3b) of the intensity of this diamond peak reveals a hexagonal faceted shape (~3.2m in a longitudinal size). Combining the cross-sectional TEM and the Raman mapping images, we show a schematic view of these epitaxially-grown natural diamond crystals (Fig. 3c).
Not only the diamond morphology but also the epitaxial relationship between the diamond and the ruby matrix strongly suggest that these diamond crystals were grown after ruby crystallization as a part of the needle inclusions. The nucleation mechanism of these diamonds at the flat ruby interface is unknown. However, some of conditions for the diamond formation can be provided. First, the composite needle inclusions with a variety of oxide and carbon minerals suggest that they are crystallized from trapped fluids, such as the needle inclusions in garnets [24], due to the fact that the chemistry of these minerals is impossible to be explained by a simple exsolution (unmixing of a solid solution) origin [25, 26]. Secondly, it was recently reported the Vietnam ruby grew from a CO2-rich and water-deficient fluid [11] at amphibolite metamorphic conditions. Thus, the carbon source for the diamonds growthin the Vietnam ruby may be related to such a carbon-rich fluid because the carbon composition in the inclusion is only found in the diamond crystal M-1 (Table 1).

4. Conclusion

Looking to the future, this striking control over epitaxial diamond growth in nature suggests a more general strategy by which to form naturally-inspired, gem-quality crystals. Specifically, i) the heteroepitaxial crystal growth is perfectly orchestrated; crystal nucleation is promoted by smooth oxide surfaces and moreover the inclusion geometry provides alternative ruby surfaces, among which nature selected the (0001) surface, presumably owing to its symmetry and its match with diamond lattice. ii) Nature finds the needed chemistry; note that the needle inclusion studied here was rich in carbon and oxygen with impurities of Fe, Ni and Cr. Both Fe and Ni together Cr are known solvent-catalysts for diamond growth in a thermodynamically diamond stable region. iii) On this basis, crystal growth proceeds optimally at this combination of temperature and pressure. Compared to synthetic diamondfilms grown by heteroepitaxy, the natural diamonds revealed here are exceptional in both sizeand crystal quality.

Acknowledgements

We thank Jung-Hyun Lim and E. Carol for their comments on the manuscript. We also appreciate the use of the facilities in the Center for Microanalysis of Materials, University of Illinois, which is partially supported by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). SCB, SG and JMZ acknowledge support by the DOE, Division of Materials Science.
Figure legends


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[모카]

사진으로 뵈니 외이렇게 반갑죠? ㅎㅎ 원장님 조만간 또 뵙겠습니다. 원장님 만세!

[모카]

출처는 귀금속 경제신문입니다.

[멀더]

존경합니다. 원장님 ^_^

[gikgem]

쑥쓰럽네요~~ 다 여러분들과 함께 생활하다가 보니 뭔가의 오기심이 발동한 것입니다. 전부 여러분들 덕이라는 것이지요. 감사합니다~~~ ^^

[gikgem]

귀금속경제신문은 사진을 좀 멋있는 것을 사용하지 국제적인 수준의 공학박사님 사진이 저것이 뭔가?? ㅎㅎ

[FunkyBs_꽃님]

원장님의 빛나는 외모때문에 자칫 논문의 내용이 빛을 바랠까 염려되어 이 사진을 사용했습니다^^;; 조만간 제가 찾아뵙고 멋진 외모를 고스란히 담은 사진하나 찍어도 될런지요..?!^^

[gikgem]

하하하~~ 이 괴물 기자님의 120점짜리 답변~~~ 역시 꽃님이구나! ^^

[MOTH。]

와와~ 원장님

[밤송이]

와우~~ 축하드립니다~!!

[홍정연]

진심으로 축하드려요... 전 언제 원장님 처럼 되죠.~~~

[아침 바다]

축하드립니다~!!

[☆금리★]

차근차근읽어보았는데...조금은 어렵지만 루비결정 속의 다이아몬드라...ㅋ 아무튼 너무너무 멋있으십니다.. 축하드려요..

[다이아몬드 전문가]

와 ^^ 드립니다

[지후니]

으헤헤 원장쌤 추카해요~ 울 원장쌤 조크는 날이 갈수록 업그레이드 되는것 같아요 ㅋㅋ

[우지JD]

ㅎ축하드려요.. 늦게 코멘트를 달았네요... ㅎㅎ 멋지세요 ^^

[행복한고구마]

대단하세요~~축하드려요~~

[달빛소나타]

지속적으로 노력하시는 역쒸 원장님이시네요 드려요

[다비드^0^]

역쉬 ^0^ 우리 배상덕원장님 멋쨍이 ~* 늦었지만 진심으로 축하드려요 (__)

[plmn]

축하 축하 !!! 멋지시네요 ......

[zero]

축하드립니다~근데 왜이렇게 영어가~@.@

[디르사]

원장님 축하드립니다. 앞으로도 지속적으로 연구하셔서 더욱 놀라운 논문들이 발표되시기를......

[온나]

원장님!!! 축하드립니다!!! 저 기억 히실런지... 25회합격생 충청도 최원정이예요!!

[♡마가렛트♡]

축하드려요!!! ㅋㅋㅋ

[스팅-]

ㅎ축하드려요~

[plmn]

멋지시군요.... 전 언제 저런 굉장한 저널에 실리려나....

[★맹수맹★]

정말 대단하십니다!!! 저에게도 저런 날이 올수 있기를!!!

[백곰]

축하드립니다. 언젠가 저도....

[Sugar Violet]

와...정말 대단하세요!! 저도 꼭.. 언젠가는..^^**

[맨슨1020]

추카드립니다 ㅎㅎ ㅎㅎ

[Lee.J]

축하드려요^^ 원장님.

[깜찍걸]

축하드립니다 교수님...^^*

[행복한고구마]

정말 축하드려요~ 대단하세요~

[하늘엔비]

축하드립니다~~~~~짝짝

[하이에나]

축하드립니다^^원장님을 뵈면 시간이 멈춘것 같아요.언제나 젊게 사시는 원장님.....대단하세요.

[luxurious]

원장님!! 진심으로 축하 드립니다~^^

[*^^*]

원장님 정말 짱이에여 ㅋㅋㅋㅋㅋ 축하드립니다 ^^

[은댱]

어머어머 원장님 축하드립니다 역쉬 멋지세요 !! >_<

[스왈로브스키]

일을 사랑하시고 멋지십니다~~ 축하드립니다^^